Chapter 4

Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear Chemistry is a branch of chemistry studying changes inside the nucleus of atoms.
Chemical reactions occur between electrons in the outermost shells of atoms without
affecting the nucleus of elements unlike nuclear reactions.
Atoms are combined by: 1- transferring of electrons (ionic bond). 2- sharing of electrons
(covalent bond).
Nuclear reactions take place inside the nucleus and produce high amounts of energy,
isotopes of the same elements give different results as well.
Isotopes can be discovered by the use of a mass

Spectrometer.
It is used in determination of isotopes and its atomic
masses
Isotopes are different forms of the atoms of an

element that have the same atomic number but
different in their mass number.
Atomic mass = mass of 1st isotope x ratio% + mass of 2nd isotope x ratio % / sum of ratio %
Isotopes are either: 1 - Radioactive: produce alpha beta and gamma rays, nuclei aren’t
stable OR 2) Non-radioactive: nuclei are stable and no radiation is produced but can be
converted to radioactive through nuclear reactions.
Particles and symbols:
Important isotopes: U 238/92 , Al 27/13
Nucleus stability: (refer to last page for all the formulas)
- As the average binding energy increases, the stability of the nucleus increases.
- Elements with mass no 28 to 138 are the most stable when their average B.E is between 8
and 9 m.e.v.
- Element with mass no exceeding 138 (eg. Uranium) are unstable due to heavy nuclei and
lower average B.E. Heavy nuclei tend toward a fission reaction.
– Elements with mass no lower than 28 are called light elements, their average B.E is less
and have a tendency toward a fusion reaction.
Relationship between ration of n/p and the stability of the nucleus:
- Nuclei with atomic no <20 are more stable if n/p=1

- Nuclei with atomic between 20 and 83 are more stable if n/p=1.4 (n>p)
- Nuclei with atomic no more than 83 aren’t stable
- Nuclei that lie high on the stability belt have a ratio of n/p that is greater than of the stable
state, therefore tending to release a beta particle.
- Nuclei under the stability belt tend to release a positron particle.
Nuclei with proton numbers [2,8,20,28,50 and 82] are stable and called the magic
numbers.
Properties of radiation released from unstable nuclei: having an effect of sensitive

plates, not affected by pressure or temp, high ability to ionise gases and have a dangerous
effect on living bodies.
Name Symbol Charge Ionisation Speed Penetration
Alpha He4/2 or α +ve High Slow (1/10) weak

of speed of
light
Beta β 0/-1 or e 0/-1 -ve Low Fast (9/10) High

of speed of
light
Gamma rays γ No charge Very week Speed of Very high

light
Emission of a beta particle is the result of one of the neutrons transforming into a proton.
Emission of a positron particle is the result of one of the protons transforming into an
electron.
Nuclear reactions are either:
1- Self direction nuclear transformations (natural process occurring without external

factors) loss and gain of beta, loss of positron, loss of alpha and gamma rays.
Applications: From half-life time age of the earth was determined through the relative activity
of uranium and time passed since death of live organisms through the half life of C14/6.
Half-life time is the time required to decay half the number of nuclei of the element
Half-life time = Total time of radiation / No.of half life
2- Artificial nuclear transformation ( artificial process for radioactive elements by

bombarding the nucleus of an element to transform to another element).
Bombardments used are Alpha, Beta, Proton (P), Neutron (n1/0) and Deuterium (H2/1)
Neutrons are the best bombardments since they are neutral and aren’t affected by the
nucleus and electrons in tun not losing their energy.
Factors affecting products of nuclear reactions
- Type of bombardment used

- Speed of bombardment used
- Type of target
Nuclear fission is the reaction where a heavy

nucleus splits into small lighter elements that are
mole stable by the use of bombardments.
Produced neutrons split new nuclei and reaction
continues (chain reaction)
Applications: Nuclear reactors used to produce

electrical energy, desalination of sea and
producing radioactive isotope used in many fields.
Uses of Radioactive isotope:
- Ra (radium) used in treating cancer disease.

- Phosphorus isotopes used in treating blood cancer
- Iodine used in treating disease of thyroid gland
- Cobalt used in treatment of cancer by radiation
- Technetium (T99) used for diagnosis of bone cancer.
Nuclear reactor consist of:
1- Protective shield: thick metal or hard concrete that surrounds the reactor to prevent
radiation leakage
2- Cooler: water of molten sodium to absorb heat produced from the reactor
3- Control bars: made of cadmium function involved in absorption of neutrons controlling
speed of reaction and stopping the reactor
4- Moderator: made of graphite or heavy water function used to slow the speed of neutrons
5- Nuclear fuel: pure uranium bar containing (3-4%) uranium 235 and rest is uranium 238
Nuclear fusion is the nuclear reaction where two small nuclei join to form a bigger nucleus.
Eg Deu (H2/1) + Tri (H3/1) → He 4/2 + n1/0 + great energy
Applications: production of the hydrogen bomb
The hydrogen bomb is two bombs, one of them is a nuclear fission type inside a strong
cover. Second bomb consists of heavy hydrogen nuclei surrounding the fission bomb. The
fission bomb explodes first creating high temperature to make the hydrogen nuclei fuse to
create an explosion equivalent to 1000 atomic bombs or 20 million tons of T.N.T.
Nuclear bomb Hydrogen bomb
Less power More than atomic
Fission reaction Fusion reaction
Heavy nucleus Light nucleus
Protection from radioactive pollution:
- Radioactive materials must be kept safe and only accessed by professionals

- Information must be labelled on the containers holding these substances
- Wearing special protective clothes including plastic gloves, coats and head covers
All formulas regarding nuclear binding energy:

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Nuclear Chemistry

Isotopes can be discovered by the use of a mass

Isotopes are different forms of the atoms of an

Particles and symbols:

Important isotopes: U 238/92 , Al 27/13

Nucleus stability: (refer to last page for all the formulas)

Relationship between ration of n/p and the stability of the nucleus:

- Nuclei with atomic no <20 are more stable if n/p=1

Properties of radiation released from unstable nuclei: having an effect of sensitive

Name Symbol Charge Ionisation Speed Penetration

Alpha He4/2 or α +ve High Slow (1/10) weak

Beta β 0/-1 or e 0/-1 -ve Low Fast (9/10) High

Gamma rays γ No charge Very week Speed of Very high

Nuclear reactions are either:

1- Self direction nuclear transformations (natural process occurring without external

2- Artificial nuclear transformation ( artificial process for radioactive elements by

Factors affecting products of nuclear reactions

- Type of bombardment used

Nuclear fission is the reaction where a heavy

Applications: Nuclear reactors used to produce

Uses of Radioactive isotope:

- Ra (radium) used in treating cancer disease.

Nuclear reactor consist of:

Applications: production of the hydrogen bomb

Less power More than atomic

Fission reaction Fusion reaction

Heavy nucleus Light nucleus

Protection from radioactive pollution:

- Radioactive materials must be kept safe and only accessed by professionals

All formulas regarding nuclear binding energy:

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