1 Indian History

Brahmanic Literature
Ancient History Brahmanic literature is very
important for the knowledge of
History is the study of past events.
ancient Indian history.
The word history comes from
the ancient Greek word Veda (or Vedas)
‘historia’, meaning 'inquiry', The oldest scriptures are the Vedas.
'knowledge acquired by The Vedas highlight the religious,
investigation. Herodotus first
social, cultural, economic and
used the word history in his
book ‘Historica’, Herodotus is, political life during the Aryan
therefore, considered ‘Father of period.
History’. Maharshi Krishna Dvaipayana
The study of history can be divided Veda Vyasa is said to be the
into three periods in chronological compiler of Vedas.
order: The number of Vedas is four.

Sources for Study of Ancient Indian History

Literary Sources Archaeological

Sources

Scriptures Non-Religious Literature Records, Coins,

Memorials, Sculpture,
Paintings, etc.
Historical texts,
biography etc.

Brahmanic Scriptures Non-Brahmanic/

Brahmantra Scriptures

Vedas, Puranas, Aranyakas,

Upnishads, Mahabharata, Jain, Buddhist, etc
Smriti Literature Religious texts

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Brahmanic Text Vedanga
The Brahmanic texts have been There are six sutras of Vedanga:
composed in simple prose. Shiksha (Phonetics), Kalpa
Brahma means ‘Yagya’, therefore, (Ritual), Vyakarana (Grammar),
the texts that have their themes Nirukta (Etymology), Jyotisha
as Yagya are called Brahmins. (Astronomy) and Chandas
There are different Brahmin texts (Meter).
for each Veda. Sutra
Aranyaka Sutra literature was introduced to
Aranyaka is the last part of the keep Vedic literature intact.
Brahmin scriptures, in which The sutras are derived from a
philosophical and mystical Vedanga called ‘Kalpa’.
subjects are described. Kalpa is classified into three parts-
They are called ‘Aranyaka’ 1. Shrauta Sutra – Related to
because they were read in the sacrificial rituals
forest. 2. Grihya Sutra- Dealing with
A total of 7 Aranyakas are domestic rituals
available. 3. Dharma Sutra- Dealing with
Upanishad religious, social and
The name ‘Upanishad’ is a political duties.
combination of the terms ‘Upa’ Smritis developed from the
(meaning 'near') and ‘Nishad’ Dharma Sutra itself.
(meaning 'sit'). The secret The main smritis are – Manu Smriti,
knowledge that is acquired by Yajnavalkya Smriti, Parashara
sitting near the teacher is called Smriti, Narada Smriti, Brihaspati
‘Upanishad’. Smriti, etc.
Being the last part of Vedic Manu Smriti is considered to be
literature, they are also called the most ancient and authentic.
‘Vedanta’. The commentators of Manu Smriti
were : Medhatithi, Govindraja,
In the Upanishads, we get
Bharuchi and Kulluk Bhatt.
knowledge about the oldest
The commentators of Yajnavalkya
philosophical ideas.
were: Vishwaroop, Vijnaneshwara
The National Motto of India,
and Apararka.
‘Satyameva Jayate’ is brought The most important Sanskrit
from Mundaka Upanishad. Vyakaran Sutra of Panini is
The number of Upanishads is 108. ‘Astadhyayi’.
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Purana The ancient Buddhist texts are in
The number of Puranas is 18. the Pali language.
The author of Puranas was The Deep Vamsa and the Maha
Maharishi Lomharsha or his son Vamsa provide information about
Ugrashrava. Mauryan history.
In the Puranas, there is a description Mahavastu and Lalitavistara
of the rule of kings of Kalyuga. written in Sanskrit, give the life
Matsya Purana is the most ancient story of Mahatma Buddha.
and authentic. Jain Literature
Epic Jain Literature is called ‘Agama’.
Tw o e p i c s , R a m a y a n a a n d Bhagwati Sutra portrays
Mahabharata, are important Mahavira’s life.
scripture along with Vedas. Kalpasutra provides the early
Ramayana was composed by history of Jainism. Kalpasutra was
Maharshi Valmiki. composed by Bhadrabahu.
Mahabharata was composed by Jain texts were composed in
Maharshi Ved Vyas. Prakrit language.
The most important Jain
Mahabharata has one lakh verses
s c r i p t u r e i s H e m c h a n d r a ’s
that is why it is called ‘Satasahastri
‘Parishishtaparvan’.
Samhita’.
The final compilation of Jain texts
Epics provide information about
took place in Vallabhi city, Gujarat
the social, religious and political
in the sixth century.
condition of ancient India during
Non-religious Literature
that period.
Brahmantra Literature Historical and semi-historical
Buddhist Literature texts, foreign descriptions and
The most ancient Buddhist biographies belong to secular or
literature is ‘Tripitaka’. The three non-religious literature, containing
pitakas are: Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya the history of ancient India.
Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Kautilya’s Arthashastra has an
Sutta Pitaka is also called the important place in historical
‘Encyclopedia of Buddhism’. works.
There are stories of Buddha’s Arthashastra is considered to be
former births in the Jatakas. India’s first political text.
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 Arthashastra is an important Natural history provides
source for Mauryan history and information about Indian animals,
theory of political knowledge. trees, minerals, etc.
Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta, There is no information about the
Kathasaritsagara by Somadeva, author of the book ‘Periplus of
the Erythraean Sea’. The author
Brihatkathamanjari by
is said to have visited the Indian
Kshemendra are also important
Ocean in the first century BC and
sources of Indian history.
gave information about the Indian
The history of 11th century Kashmir
ports and merchandise of that
is known by ‘Rajatarangini’ period.
written by Kalhana. B. Chinese Author
Details of Foreign Travellers Fa-Hien came to India in the fifth
A. Greek and Roman Authors century AD during the reign of
Herodotus’s book 'Histories' Chandragupta II.
mentions the relationship between Hiuen Tsang came to India during
India and Persia in fifth century the reign of Harsha in the seventh
BC. century AD.
Among Alexander’s later writers, The accounts of Hiuen Tsang’s
three ambassadors Megasthenes, visit to India are known as ‘Si-Yu-
Ki’.
Deimachus and Dionysios are
Hiuen Tsang is called ‘Prince of
notable.
Pilgrims’ or ‘Prince of Passengers’.
Megasthenes, the ambassador of
I-tsing came to India at the end of
Seleucus Nicator, came to the
the seventh century AD. He has
court of Chandragupta Maurya.
given a description of Vikramshila
Megasthenes, in his book ‘Indica’,
and Nalanda universities, the
has described the contemporary
Mauryan society and culture. costumes of Indians wore besides
Ptolemy wrote a book called telling what they ate and drank.
‘Geography’ in the second century Ma-Tuan-Lin has highlighted the
BC. history of the eastern campaigns
Pliny wrote a book called 'Naturalis of Harsha and Chau-Ju-Kua has
Historia' (Natural History) in the highlighted the history of the
first century BC. Chola Dynasty.
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 The Chinese traveller Sung Yun Archaeological Sources
came to India in 518 AD.
C. Arab Author Archaeological sources are the
Al-Beruni came to India with most authentic for the study
of ancient India. It mainly
Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th
consists of inscriptions, coins,
century. He wrote a book titled monuments, buildings, sculptures
‘Tehqiq ma li-al-Hind’ or ‘Kitab- and paintings.
al-Hind’ which gives a detailed Inscriptions
The most ancient inscriptions
description of the Rajput's Period
belonging to 1400 BC were found
society, religion, customs, etc. at Boghazkoi in Central Asia
Arab traveller Sulaiman, who Minor.
visited India in the 9th century AD, Vedic deities Indra, Mitra,
Varuna and Nastya (Ashwin)
described the economic, political
are mentioned in the Boghazkoi
and social conditions of the Pal inscriptions.
and Pratihara rulers' period. The oldest inscriptions in India
Al-Masudi, who came to India from belong to Ashoka, dating back to
Baghdad, has given information the 3rd century BC.
about the history of the period of Ashoka’s name is found on the
Rashtrakuta and Pratihara rulers. inscriptions traced from Maski,
D. Other Foreign Authors Gurjara, Nittur and Udegolam.
The travelogue of Ibn Battuta Ashoka’s inscriptions are found
written in Arabic is ‘Rihla’. mostly in Brahmi, Kharoshthi,
Greek and Aramaic scripts.
It is an important source of
An article, written by Indo-Greek
information about the social
ambassador, Heliodorus on Garuda
and cultural life of the Indian
Pillar found at Besnagar (Vidisha,
subcontinent during the 14 th Madhya Pradesh) provides
century. evidence of the development of
Taranath was a Tibetan writer. He the Bhagvat religion.
authored a book titled 'Kangyur' Mandsaur inscriptions refer to
and 'Tengyur'. the categories of silk weavers.
Marco Polo came to India during
James Prinsep first read the
the rule of the Pandya Dynasty at inscriptions of Ashoka written in
the end of the 13th century AD. Brahmi script in 1837 AD.
9
 The study of inscriptions is called paintings of Ajanta and Ellora.
Period of History
‘Epigraphy’.
The 510 BC inscription at Eran Division of History
mentions Sati Tradition firtsly..
To understand the vast material of
Coins
ancient Indian History, historians
The study of coins is called
have divided into three parts -
‘Numismatics’.
In ancient times, coins were made (A) Pre-historic (B) Proto-
of copper, silver, gold and lead. historic (C) Historic
The oldest coins of India are A. Pre-historic
‘Marked’ coins which belong to No written records available,
fifth century BC. Information only from Archaelogical
Satavahana and Gupta rulers sources.
issued most coins, in lead and gold Historians have divided this early
respectively. period of human civilization into
The Indo-Greeks were the first to
three periods-
issue gold coins in India.
(i) Paleolithic Period
Sculptures, Memorials, Buildings
(ii) Mesolithic Period
and Paintings
(ii) Neolithic Period
In the sculpture of Bharhut, Bodh
The cave paintings of Bhimbetka
Gaya and Amravati, there is a
belong to the Early Palaeolithic
lively tableau depicting the life of
the people of that time. period.
The building style of palaces The wheel was used in the
and temples reveals the level of Neolithic period.
development of architecture of the Agriculture began in the Neolithic
time.
period.
The spread of Indian culture is
The Fire was first used by humans
highlighted by temples and stupas
in the Neolithic period.
built in South-East and Central Asian
The earliest evidence of agriculture
countries.
Beautiful expressions of human was found in Mehrgarh.

imaginations are found in the Animal Husbandry began in the

paintings of Ajanta and Ellora. Middle Mesolithic Age.
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 Important Inscriptions
Inscriptions Rulers
Hathigumpha Inscription King of Kharavela
Junagarh (Girnar) Inscription Rudradaman
Nashik Prashasti Inscription Gautami Balashri
Prayag Pillar Inscription Samudragupta
Mandsaur Stone Inscription Malwa Ruler, Yashodharman
Aihole Inscription Pulakeshin II
Gwalior Inscription Pratihara King Bhoja
Bhitari or Junagarh Pillar Inscription Skandagupta
Deopara Prashasti Inscription Bengal King Vijayasena

Evidence of animal husbandry was Historic Period

found at Adamgarh (Hoshangabad, Literary, archaeological and
Madhya Pradesh) and Bagore accounts of foreign writer's
descriptions are the main sources
(Bhilwara, Rajasthan), India.
of information about this period.
Bone and horn-made equipment
belonging to the Mesolithic Chalcolithic Age
age were found at Mahadaha
The period in which humans used
(Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh).
tools made of stone and copper
Dog skeleton alongside a human
is called the ‘Copper-Stone Age’
skeleton was excavated at
or ‘Chalcolithic Age’.
Burzahom (Jammu and Kashmir).
Copper metal was first used in this
Pit-houses were used in Burzahom.
period for making tools.
Proto-historic Period
The main regions where the traces
Written sources are available, but
of copper-stone age are found in
could'nt be deciphered.
India are located in south-eastern
The Harappan Civilization is
known to have existed in this Rajasthan (Ahar and Gilund), west

period. Madhya Pradesh (Malwa, Kayatha

The Krishna-Lohit Pottery and Eran), Western Maharashtra
Culture belongs to this period. and South-Eastern India.
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 The best pottery of this period is Daimabad (District Ahmednagar,
found in Malwa. Maharashtra) (Southern most site)
Daimabad was known as the is situated on the banks of the
largest settlement of Jorwe culture. Godavari.
The ancient name of Ahar is The Indus civilization was an
‘Tambavati’ meaning ‘Place of urban civilization.
Copper’.
The extension of Indus civilization
The largest copper reserves have
is triangular.
been found at Gungeria in Madhya
The major cities that flourished
Pradesh.
during the Indus civilization
Indus Valley (Harappan) were Mohenjodaro, Harappa,
Civilization
Rakhigarhi, Dholavira,
Indus (Harappan) Civilization Kalibangan.
Indus civilization is a proto- Note : In July, 2021 Dholavira
historical civilization.
was named the 40th Indian site on
The age of the Indus civilization is
believed to have existed between UNESCO's World Heritage list.
2300 and 1700 BC based on After India gained independence,
radiocarbon dating. the maximum number of sites
The Red Pottery painted in black is of Harappan civilization were
the characteristic of the Harappan excavated in Gujarat.
Civilization.
Inhabitants of Indus knew about
Note - The easternmost site of the
copper, bronze, gold and silver.
Indus civilization is Alamgirpur
Godiwada is situated in Gujarat.
(district Meerut, Uttar Pradesh)
It was found during the excavation
on the banks of the Hindon river,
Sutkagendor (Baluchistan) of Lothal.

(Westernmost site) situated on A replica of plough was found at

the banks of the Dashak (Dasht), Banawali, Haryana.

Manda (Northermost site) Evidence of the great bath of the
(Jammu- Kashmir) near Akhnoor Indus civilization was found at
on the banks of the Chenab, and Mohenjodaro.
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Evidence of ploughed field was Archaeological Survey of India,
found at Kalibangan in Rajasthan. Sir John Marshall, Daya Ram
The Indus civilization was a Sahni excavated the Harappan
Bronze Age civilization and its mound on the left bank of Ravi in

people were unknown to iron. the then Montgomery district of

Punjab (Pakistan).
Rakhigarhi is situated on the banks
In 1922, Rakhaldas Banerjee
of Ghaggar in Hisar, Haryana.
unearthed the mounds of
Evidence of paddy husk was
Mohenjodaro located on the right
found at Rangpur (Gujarat).
bank of the Indus River in Larkana
Evidence of pre-Harappan,
(Sindh province).
Harappan and post- Harappan
Mohenjodaro literally means
civilization have been found at
“mound of the dead”.
Rangpur.
Cotton textiles were first produced
The people of the Indus valley
in India during this civilization.
also worshipped Pashupati Shiva.
Seals in the shape of a humped
The proof of this is a seal found at
bull were excavated from
Mohenjodaro which shows a yogi
Mohenjodaro.
in a meditation posture. The one-horned unicorn is the
A tiger and an elephant on most common motif on Indus seals
the right, and a rhinoceros behind the humped bull..
and a buffalo on the left to the The sculpture of a bronze
meditating yogi are depicted. dancing girl was excavated at
The yogi, with three faces in three Mohenjodaro. Its size is 10.5 ×
directions, has an ornament, in the 5 × 2.5 cm.
shape of a trident, worn over his Evidence of the use of decorative
head. bricks was found at Kalibangan.
Sir John Marshall related the yogi Evidence of the use of baked bricks
to ‘Rudra Shiva’. was also found at Chanhudaro.
Note: In 1921, on the instructions Fire altars were found at Lothal
of the Director-General of and Kalibangan.
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A great bath was excavated at Note - Piggot has called Harappa
Mohenjodaro, at the centre of and Mohenjodaro, the twin
which a bath with a length of 11.88 capitals of a vast empire.
m. and a width of 7.01 m and depth The people of Indus civilization
of 2.43 m. was found. worshipped the mother Goddess
Bead making factories were found as the ‘Goddess of fertility’.
at Lothal and Chanhudaro. Evidence of mother Goddess
The script of the Indus Valley worship, snake worship, tree
civilization was known to be worship and water worship are
Pictographic. also found during the Indus Valley
The people of the Indus civilization civilization.
adopted the grid pattern for city Swastika symbol was prevalent in
planning.
Harappan civilization indicating
The doors and windows of the
that the Indus people worshipped
houses opened towards the streets
sun.
rather than on the main road.
The remains of any temple have
Lothal was the only city where
not been found in any city of the
doors of houses opened towards
civilization.
the main road.
The main crops of the Indus Worship of Mother Goddess was

Civilization were wheat and most prevalent.

barley. It is estimated that the Indus Valley
Evidence of rice husks found at civilization was matriarchal, based
Rangpur and Lothal prove that on the presence of a large number
paddy cultivation was prevalent. of female idols.
On Mesopotamia inscriptions, Kalibangan was the only Harappan
the word ‘Meluhha’ is inscribed site, surrounded by a rampart with
refers to the Indus Civilization. bastons and salients.
The rule of Harappan Culture The burial of a dead body in
was probably in the hands of the Harappa and burning in
merchant class. Mohenjodaro were in practice.
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 T h e R i g v e d a , Ya j u r v e d a
Vedic Civilization and Samaveda are called
‘Vedatrayi’.
The Vedic Civilization developed
The first description of the word
after the Indus Civilization.
‘Varna’ is found in Rigveda.
The Vedic Period is divided into
In Rigveda, the word 'Varna' is
two parts
used for 'colour' but sometimes
i. Rigvedic Period or Early also for 'choosing a business'.
Vedic Period - 1500-
I n i t i a l l y, t h r e e v a r n a s a r e
BC to 1000 BC. mentioned as Brahmin, Kshatriya
ii. Post-Vedic Period - 1000 BC and Vaishya.
to - 600 BC. The word ‘Shudra’ is first found
1. Rigvedic Period (1500-1000 BC) mentioned in Purusha Sukta of the
The Vedic civilization was brought tenth mandala of the Rigveda.
to India by Aryans. Here, the origin of the four varnas
'Arya' is a Sanskrit word that is said to be from the various
literally means ‘superior’ or organs of a ‘Virata Purusha’.
‘noble’. Rigveda is composed in the praise
The Vedic culture was rural. of God, Yajurveda for sacrificial
The language of the Aryans was prayer and Samaveda for chanting
Sanskrit. songs (music).
The number of Vedas are four - There are a total of 10 mandalas
Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda in the Rigveda.
and Atharvaveda. There are a total of 1028 hymns
The four Vedas are collectively and 10552 verses in the Rigveda.
called ‘Samhita’. The first and tenth Mandalas are
the latest.
The most important and ancient
Vishvamitra is the author of the
of the Vedas is the Rigveda.
third mandala of Rigveda.
The Rigveda was composed
The famous Gayatri Mantra is
during the Rigvedic Period.
found in the third mandala.
Yajurveda, Samaveda and
Several matters of the Rigveda
Atharvaveda were composed in
are found in 'Avesta'. Avesta is the
the later Vedic Period.
oldest text in the Iranian language.
15
In Rigveda, a maximum of 250 The head of the village was called
hymns are dedicated to Indra ‘Gramani’, Vis was headed by
and 200 hymns to Agni. ‘Vispati’ and people’s ruler was
The ninth mandala of the Rigveda called Rajan.
is dedicated to ‘Soma’. The Purohit (priest) and the Senani
Laws related to ‘Yagya’ are (fighters) were the principal
mentioned in the Yajurveda. authorities during the Rigvedic
The Yajurveda has two parts - period.
Shukla (bright) Yajurveda and The number of Ratnis (officials)
Krishna (dark) Yajurveda. was 12 - Senani, Purohita, Yuvraj,
Shukla Yajurveda is also known Madhyamasi, Suta, Gramini,
as Vajasaneyi Samhita. Kshatri, Sangrihitri, Bhagadugha,
The last part of the Yajurveda is Akshavapa, Palagala and
the ‘Isha Upanishad’, which is Govinkartana.
concerned with spiritual thought Vrajapati was an officer in charge
rather than Yajna rituals. of the pasture land.
The Samaveda contains a total Vidatha formed the oldest
of 1875 verses, of which all the assembly of Aryans.
rest except 99 are mentioned in In the Atharvaveda, the Sabhas
Rigveda. and the Samitis have been called
Indian music has its origin in the two daughters of Prajapati.
Samaveda. The Sabha was the 'Body of the
There are 3 main parts of Samaveda Elders' and the Elites.
- 1. Kauthuma, 2. Ranayaniya and The committee was the central
3. Jaiminiya. political institution (House of
Atharvaveda has a total of 20
Representatives of the general
chapters, 730 hymns and 5,987
public). The committee used to
mantras. It has 1200 mantras taken
appoint, depose and control the
from Rigveda. There is evidence
King.
of practices of tantra - mantra and
The head of the Samiti was known
mesmerism.
as 'Ishan'.
The administrative units of the
Aryans were divided into several In the Rigvedic period, women
constituents. These were Kula or used to participate in the Sabha
family, Grama and Jana. and the Samiti.
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The Dasharajana war (The battle Ajatashatru and King of Kashi
of ten kings) is described in the 7th are prominent.
mandala of Rigveda. This war was The correct sequence of Vedic
fought between Puru King Sudas Literatures is Vedic literature,

and the ten kings on the banks of Brahmanas, Aranyakas,

Upanishads in that order.
the Parushni (Ravi).
Indus river is mentioned most
The upanishads are philosophical
frequently in Rigveda.
books.
The Upanishads are also called Saraswati was the most sacred
‘Vedanta’. river of the Rigvedic Aryans.
For the first time, salvation is Saraswati was called Matetama,
mentioned in Upanishads.
Devitama and Naditama.
The dialogue between Nachiketa
The Ashrams (stages of life)
and Yama is mentioned in
Kathopanishad. (Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
K i n g J a n a k a o f Vi d e h a , Vanaprastha and Sanyasa) came
Pravahanjabali, King of Panchala, into vogue in the post-Vedic
Ashwapati, king of Kekaya period.

Terms used in Rigvedic Age and Their Meanings

S.No. Terms Meaning
1. Aghanya Cow
2. Duhitri Milker of cow or a Daughter
3. Urvara Fertile Land
4. Langal Plough
5. Vrikk Bull
6. Yava Barley
7. Godhuma Wheat
8. Suvarna Gold
9. Karesh Manure
10. Bekanaat Group receiving interest by lending money
11. Tandul Grain
12. Vrihi Rice

17
Only three ashrams are mentioned The woman who remained
in Chandogya Upanishad, while unmarried for a lifetime were
in Jabalopanishad, the first four called ‘Amaju’.
ashrams are mentioned. Aryan's favorite beverage was
The ‘Varuna’ deity was considered Somaras.
as the head of the ‘Rita’ (moral Aryan’s favourite animal was
order) in the Vedic Civilization. horse.
Being the head of moral The most loved deity of the Aryans
order, Varuna was also called was Indra.
‘Ritasyagopa’. The people of the Rig Vedic Period
Brihaspati was considered a priest were not known to iron.
of Vedic Gods. There is a discussion of Shyam
In Vedic Literature, many women Ayas or Krishna Ayas, a metal
are mentioned who composed used in the later Vedic Period.
Vedic mantras such as Apala, The barter system was prevalent
Ghosha, Vishwara, Lopamudra, in the transaction.
etc. The person giving loans on interest
Lopamudra was the wife of sage was called Vecnat (usurer).
Agastya. People of the ‘Pani’ class were
The Aryan society was patriarchal.
engaged in commerce.
The smallest unit of the society
Agni was worshipped as an
was the family or clan, headed by
intermediary between humans and
the father, known as ‘Kulap’.
deity.
Women had freedom to participate
The Rigveda mentions the Ganges
in the yajna with their husbands.
once and the Yamuna three times.
Child marriage and the purdah
In Mundakopanishad, the yajna
system were not prevalent. has been compared to a broken
A widow could remarry her boat.
deceased husband’s younger The famous Satyameva Jayate is
brother (Dewar) or some other derived from Mundakopanishad.
near relative. This was called In Vedic Period, gold ornament or
‘Niyoga System’. coin was called ‘Nishka’.
18
 Purushamedha is mentioned in the The original script of the Rigveda
Shatapatha Brahmana. was Brahmi.
The word ‘Gotra’ was first Aitareya and Kaushitaki are the
mentioned in Rigveda. two Brahmin texts of the Rigveda.
The word ‘Yava’ mentioned The goddess of the forest was
in Rigveda is established by
‘Barley’. called ‘Aranyani’.

Vedic Period Texts

Vedas Brahmanas Aranyakas Upanishads

1. Rigveda Aitareya, Aitareya, Kaushitaki Aitareya, Kaushitaki
Kaushitaki
2. Samaveda Tanday, Jaiminaya Chandogya (most
Jaiminaya Chhandogyaranyak ancient), Jaiminaya
3. Yajurveda Taittiriya, Taittiriya, Birhadaranyaka,
Shatapatha Shatapatha Kathopanishad
(biggest)
4. Atharvaveda Gopath — Mundakopanishad,
(youngest) Mandukyupanishad
(smallest)

Old Name New/Modern Name

Krumu Kurram
Kubha Kabul
Vatista Jhelum
Askini Chenab
Parushni Ravi
Shutudri Sutlej
Vipasa Beas
Sadaneera Gandak
Drishadwati Ghaggar
Gomti Gomal
Suvastu Swat

19
 Gods of Rigvedic Period
Deity Relations
Indra Warlord and God of Rain
Agni The God of Fire, Mediator between God and humans
Varuna The God of personified water, Creator of the Heavens,
Earth and Sun, God of the sea, the Controller of the
World,the Patron of the Gods, the Ruler of the season,
the Symbol of Truth, the Changer of Seasons, the Doer
of day and night.
Dyaus/Dyu God of Sky
Soma God of Plants
Usha Goddess of Dawn
Ashwin The twin god of war and healers of diseases
Pushan The God of jungle paths, herdsmen, and cattle
Vishnu World’s Mentor, the preserver and protector of the
people.
Maruta The God of Storm
Rudra Amoral an Archer God whose arrows brought diseases
Later-Vedic Period (1000-600 BC) during this period, the people of
The history of the later-Vedic the later-Vedic period now took to
period covers periods of Yajurveda, settled agriculture and residence.
Samaveda, Atharvaveda and In this era, the plough was called
Brahmana texts, Aranyaka and Sira and the furrow was 'Sita'.
Upanishads. In the later-Vedic period, the
Rajsuya Yajna was performed unit of currency was Nishka and
during the coronation of the king. Satanama.
In this period, 'Varna' came to Sabha and Samiti continued to
be based on birth rather than exist, but 'Vidhata' was completely
occupation. disappeared.
The people of this period used iron The entry of women in Sabha was
weapons. prohibited.
Due to the improvement in The later-Vedic society was
agriculture and various crafts divided into four classes -
20
 Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas Shuddhodana was the head of the
and Shudras. Sakya clan.
The status of women declined in Buddha's was brought up by his
the later-Vedic period. aunt Prajapati Gautami.
In the Shatapatha Brahmana, the He was married to Shakya clan's
names of many females of this
daughter Yashodhara (other
period like Gargi, Maitreyi, etc.
names - Gopa, Bimba).
are mentioned.
The son of Gautama Buddha was
The Gotra system found its origin
Rahula.
in this period.
Distressed by worldly sorrows,
To understand the Vedas, 6
Vedangas were composed- Siddhartha left his house forever
Sl. No. Vedangas Parts of Vedas at the age of 29. This act is known
1. Shiksha Nose as Mahabhinishkramana.
2. Kalpa Arms After renunciation, Siddhartha
3. Nirukta Ears studied Sankhya philosophy
4. Vyakarana Mouth by Alara Kalama in Vaishali.
5. Jyotisha Eyes
He got education from Uddaka
6. Chandas Foot
Ramaputta of Rajgir.

Religions Movement in He attained Nirvana on the full

Sixth Century BC moon day at the age of 35 under
a peepal tree. The most sacred
A. Buddhism
festival of Buddhism is Vaisakh
Gautama Buddha was the
founder of Buddhism. Purnima.
He was born in Lumbini Vana After attaining enlightenment,
(Rumindei) in Kapilavastu in 563 Siddhartha was known as 'Buddha'
BCE. and the place where he attained
His childhood name was
enlightenment became famous as
Siddhartha.
'Bodh Gaya'.
His father's name was Shudhodana
and mother's name was Mayadevi This first sermon he preached
or Mahamaya (the daughter of was called 'Dhammachakra
Kollia Republic). Pravartana' in Buddhist texts.
21
 Mahatma Buddha preached A. Bhikkhus - For the propagation
his first sermon at Sarnath of Buddhism, one who embraced
(Rishipatnam) in Pali, the language Mahabhinishkramana was called
Bhikshuka.
of the ordinary people.
B. Upasaka - Those who adopted
He died at the age of 80 at
Buddhism while living a household
'Kushinara' in Kushinagar (now life were called Upasaka.
Padrauna) district in 483 BCE. Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha are
Buddha's departure from this world 'Triratnas' in Buddhism.
is called 'Mahaparinirvana'. After the fourth Buddhist council,
Symbols of Buddhism related to Buddhism was divided into two
Buddha's Life schools of thought-Hinayana and
Events Symbols Mahayana.
Birth Elephant Buddha preached four noble truths
Birth Lotus and Bull related to worldly sorrows which
Great Departure Horse are as follows.
Enlightenment Bodhi Tree (1) truth of suffering, (2) truth of
Nirvana Footprints the cause of suffering, (3) truth of
Mahaparinirvana Stupas the end of suffering and (4) path
According to one version, after that leads to the end of suffering.
the death, the remains of Buddha's Pratitya-Samutpada- a fundamental
body were dispersed over eight concept of Buddhism, which
describes the causes of suffering.
places and eight stupas were built
Buddha spoke about the eightfold
over them.
paths (Astangika-marga) for
Detailed knowledge about
liberation from worldly sorrows,
Buddhism is learnt from Tripitaka
which are as follows:
(Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and
(1) Right Views
Abhidhamma Pitaka).
(2) Right Resolve
Buddhism is basically atheistic. It (3) Right Speech
does not believe in the existence (4) Right Conduct
of the soul. Buddishm believe in (5) Right Livelihood
rebirth. (6) Right Effort
Buddhists were divided into two (7) Right Mindfulness
groups – (8) Right Concentration
22
 The source of the eightfold path is Nagarjuna was the propounder of
'Taittiriya Upanishad'. Nihilism.
The ultimate goal of Buddhism is A branch of the Buddhist sect
Nirvana which means 'blowing developed in the seventh century
out a lamp or fire', that is, to be called 'Vajrayana'.
free from the cycle of life and The Vajrayan as worshipped
woman as a source of power.
death.
Buddha attained his final birth
Mahatma Buddha preached
as Shakya Muni after a series of
the middle path (Madhyama
reincarnations as Bodhisattvas, but
Pratipada).
Maitreya, the future Bodhisattvas
The Jataka stories narrate the are yet to incarnate.
previous births of Lord Buddha. Most of the Buddha sculptures
Initially, the entry of women was were built in Gandhara style,
prohibited in the Sangha, but at the but the first Buddha statue was
request of 'Ananda', women were probably constructed in the
allowed for admission. Mathura art form.
The first woman to enter the Vasumitra was the first follower
Sangha was Prajapati Gautami, of Hinayana, later he followed
the maternal aunt of Mahatma Mahayana.
Buddha. Evidence of Panchsheel sermon
given by Buddha is described in
Later, Mahayana was also divided
Chandogya Upanishad.
into two schools of thought -
In 6 th century B.C. whole of
Nihilism (Madhyamika) and India was divided into these 16
Vijnanavada (Yogachara). Mahajanapadas.
Buddhist Councils
Councils Time Place Presidents Rulers

First 483 BC Rajgriha Mahakassapa Ajatashatru

Second 383 BC Vaishali Sabakami Kalashoka

Third 247 BC Pataliputra Mogaliputta- Tissa Ashoka

Fourth 1st Century AD Kundalvana Vasumitra, Vice-President Kanishka

(Kashmir) Ashwaghosh

23
 The Rise of Mahajanapadas
Sl. Mahajanapadas Capitals Current Status
no.
1. Anga Champa Bhagalpur, Munger (Bihar)
2. Avanti Ujjain/Mahismati Malwa (Madhya Pradesh)
3. Shurasena Mathura Mathura (Uttar Pradesh)

4. Kashi Varanasi Near Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)

5. Koshala Shravasti / Saket Ayodhya Mandal
(Uttar Pradesh)
6. Kuru Indraprastha Modern Delhi, Meerut and
some parts of Haryana
7. Kamboja Hataka / Rajapur Rajouri and Hazara region
(south-west Kashmir)

8. Ashmaka Potali / Potana Godavari river area (only

districts in south India)
9. Chedi Shaktimati Bundelkhand (UP)
10. Panchal Ahichhatra, Bareilly, Badaun, Farrukhabad
Kampilya (UP)

11. Vajji Videha/ Vaishali Muzzafarnagar and places near

Mithila of Darbhanga (Bihar)

12. Vatsa Kaushambi Prayagraj (Allahabad)

13. Magadha Girivraj/Rajgriha/ Patna, Gaya (Bihar)

Patliputra
14. Matsya Viratnagar Areas near Jaipur (Rajasthan)
15. Malla Pawa and Kushinagar Deoria (Uttar Pradesh)
(Kushavati)
16. Gandhara Taxila Rawalpindi and Peshawar
(Pakistan)

24
Jainism Jamali, the son-in-law of
The first Tirthankara and founder Mahavira became his first
of Jainism was Rishabhdeva. follower.
The 23rd Tirthankara of Jainism Six Philosophical Schools and
was Parshwanath. Their Promoters
The teachings given by him are Philosophy Promoter
(1) Satya, (2) Ahimsa, (3) Asteya Samkhya Kapila
(non-stealing), (4) Aparigraha Yoga Patanjali
(non-possession property). Nyaya Gautama
Mahavira Swami was the 24th and Vaishesika Konada or Uluka
the last Tirthankara of Jainism. Purva- Mimamsa Jaimini
He was born at Kundagram Uttara-Mimamsa Badarayana
(Vaishali) in 599 BC.
Chandana, the daughter of
Mahavir's father Siddhartha was
Champa Naresh Dadhivahana
a kshatriya king from Jnathrika
became Mahavira's first disciple.
clan and mother Trishala was
the sister of the Lichchavi king Mahavira had 11 prominent
Chetaka. disciples, who were called
Mahavira Swami's childhood Ganadhars.
name was 'Vardhamana'. The Mahavira died (Nirvana) in 527
wife of Mahavira was named BC in Pavapuri, Bihar, at the age
Yashoda and his daughter's name of 72.
was Anonja or Priyadarsana. Later, Jainism was divided into
Mahavira led an ascetif life at the two sects named Shvetambaras
age of 30. and Digambaras.
After 12 years of rigorous penance,
The disciples of Bhadrabahu are
Mahavira attained enlightenment
called Digambaras (living naked)
under a Sal tree on the banks of the
and the disciples of Sthulabhadras
Rijupalika near Jambhikagrama.
are called Shvetambara (wearing
After attaining enlightenment,
white clothes).
Mahavira was called Jina
Sudharman became the president
(conqueror), Arhant (blessed
of the Sangha.
one) and Nirgrantha (free from
bondage). Triratnas of Jainism are-

Mahavir Swami preached his 1. Samyak Darshana (right faith)

sermons in Prakrit (Ardha - 2. Samyak Gyana (right knowledge)
Magadhi) language. 3. Samyak Charitra (right conduct)
25
Mahavira added the fifth Jainism believes in rebirth and
Mahavrata Brahmacharya to the karmavada.
Other names for 'Saptabhanginaya'
four Mahavratas. knowledge of Jainism are
In Jainism, following five 'Syadvada' and 'Anekantavada'.
Anusvratas is mandatory for the King's who were ardent followers
householders to attain Triratnas. of Jainism were Udayan,
Chandragupta Maurya, Kalinga
Jainism believes in the existence King Kharavela, Rashtrakuta king
of soul. Amoghavarsha and Chandela
Jainism is atheistic. rulers.

List of Jain Tirthankaras

Sl. No. Name of Tirthankaras Symbols
1. Rishabhdeva Bull
2. Ajitnath Elephant
3. Sambharnath Horse
4. Abhiaandam Monkey
5. Sumatinath Curlew
6. Padmaprabhu Red Lotus
7. Suparswanath Swastik
8. Chandraji Prabhu Moon
9. Pushpadanta Crocodile
10. Sheetalanath Kalpa Vriksha
11. Shreyanasnath Rhinoceros
12. Vaspujya Buffalo
13. Vimalnath Boar
14. Anantnath Falcon
15. Dharmanath Vajra
16. Shantinath Deer
17. Kuntunath Goat
18. Arnath Fish
19. Mallinath Waterpot
20. Muniswasth Tortoise
21. Naminath Blue Lotus
22. Neminath Conch
23. Parshwanath Snake
24. Mahavira Swami Lion

26
 Jain's Councils
Council Year Place President Ruler Work
First 310 BC Pataliputra Sthulabhadra Chandragupta Shvetambara Jain
Maurya Compilation of
Literature
Second 512 BC Vallabhi Devaradhi --- Determination and
Kshamasramana editing of extinct
Jain texts

The place of Nirvana of the 23rd Lakulisha is also considered as an

Tirthankara, Parswanath is located incarnation of Lord Shiva.
at Sammed Shikhar (Parasnath The followers of the Kalamukh
Hill) mountain. sect are called Mahavratadhars
Prabhasgiri is a Jain pilgrimage in Shiva Purana.
site located in Kaushambi, Uttar People of the Kalamukh sect
Pradesh. used to eat food, drink water
Jain Literature is called Agama and alcohol in the male-cranium
(doctrine). itself and rubbed ashes over their
Mahamastakabhisheka, an bodies.
important ritual of Jainism, is held Lingayat sect was prevalent
at Sravanabelagola in Karnataka in South India. They were also
every 12 years. known as Jangams. The people
C Shaivism of this sect worshipped the Shiva
The worshippers of Lord Shiva are Linga.
called 'Shaiva'.
The promoter of the Lingayat
Shiva is called 'Rudra' in Rigveda.
sect was Allama Prabhu and his
The first explicit mention of Linga
worship is described in Matsya disciple Basava.
Purana. Lingayat sect was also called
Number of Shaiva sect in Vamana Veerashaiva Sect.
Purana is four - Pashupat, Kapalik, In the 1 0 th c e n t u r y,
Kalamukh and Shaiva. Matsyendranatha founded the
The oldest sect of Shaivism is Nath Sect.
Pashupata sect. The extensive propagation of the
The Pashupata sect was founded Nath sect took place during Guru
by Lakulisha. Gorakhnath.
27
 Shaivism was very popular in to tradition, its founder was
south India during the time of descendants of Vrishni (Satvat)
Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, Pallava Vanshi Krishna.
and Chola Kings. Krishna is first mentioned in
The first combined idols of Shiva Chandogya Upanishad. Here, he
and Parvati were built during the is described as Devaki's son and a
Gupta Period. disciple of Ghor Angiras.
During the Pahlava period, He is also known as Vasudeva
the Nayanar saints contributed Krishna, being the son of
significantly to the development Vasudeva.
of Shaivism. 63 Nayanars Followers of Krishna called him
were prominent among the 'Bhagavata' (Sacred). For this
saints - Appar, Sambandar and reason, the religion promoted by
him became 'Bhagavata'.
Sundaramurthy.
The first stone monument related
The famous 'Kailasha Temple' at
to the Bhagavata is the Garuda
Ellora was built by the Rashtrakuta
pillar at Vidisha (Besanagar)
kings.
which was built by Heliodorus,
The famous Rajarajeshwar
the Greek ambassador.
Shaiva temple at Tanjore, also
known as the Brihadeshwara The Greek ambassador
Temple, was built by the Chola Megasthenes referred to the
ruler Raja Raja I. people of Shursena (Mathura)
Shiva Linga was established at as worshipers of 'Heracles',
Karamdanda and Khoh during the indicating Vasudeva Krishna.
reign of Kumaragupta I.
Vaishnavism was at its climax
During the Gupta Period, temples
during the Gupta rulers.
of Shiva and Nachna Kuthaar
Most Gupta rulers assumed the
were built in Bhumra.
The figures of Shiva and Nandi are title of 'Param Bhagwat'. The
inscribed on the coins of Kushana vehicle of Vishnu Garuda was the
rulers. emblem of the Guptas.
Vaishnavism Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga
The Vaishnava sect developed had built the famous Dashavatara
from the Bhagavata. According Temple at Ellora.
28
 The propagation of Vaishnavism in Bimbisara, who made Girivraja
the Tamil region was carried out (Rajagriha) his capital.
by the Alvar saints. Bimbisara sent his royal physician
Jivaka, for the treatment of Avanti
The Rise of Magadha
Naresh Chanda Pradyota.
Kingdom
Ajatshatru (Kunik) succeeded his
Magadha, situated between Patna father Bimbisara.
and Gaya districts of modern The last ruler of the Haryanka
Bihar, was a kingdom of Ancient dynasty was Nagadasaka.
India. Nagadasaka was overthrown
The first dynasty to rule Magadha by his official Shishunaga who
was the Haryanka dynasty. established the Shishunaga
The founder of this dynasty was Dynasty.

Some Other Sects, Beliefs and Their Founders

Sects Beliefs Founders
Dashanami Advaita Adi Shankaracharya
Vaishnava Visishtadvaita Ramanuja
Brahman Dvaita Anandtirtha (Madhava)
Rudra Shuddhadvaita Vallabhacharya/ Vishnuswami
Sanak Dvaitadvaita Nimbarka

Major Sects and Their Founders

Sects Founders
Varkari Namdev
Dharkari Ramdas
Srivaishnava Ramanuja
Parmarth Ramdas
Ramavat Ramananda
Ajivaka Makkhali Gosala
Ucchedavada Ajita Kesakambali
Materalism Pakudha Kaccayana
Atomist Puran Kashyap
Materialism-Cynicism Sanjay Vethaliputta
29
The last king of the Shishunaga 'Megasthenes', the ambassador
dynasty was Nandivardhana or of Seleucus came to the court of
Mahanandin. Chandragupta.
The founder of the Nanda dynasty Megasthenes wrote a book named
was Mahapadmananda. 'Indica'.
The last ruler of the Nanda dynasty Chandragupta was the disciple of
was Dhanananda. a Jaina Monk Bhadrabahu.
Dhanananda was a contemporary Chandragupta Maurya died in
of Alexander. Shravanabelagola, Karnataka in
Chandragupta Maurya estab- 297 BCE.
lished the 'Mauryan Dynasty' after Note - Justin calls Chandragupta
defeating Dhanananda. Maurya's army a 'gang of robbers'.
The Mauryan Empire Bindusara
Bindusara succeeded his father
Chanakya (Kautilya/Vishnugupta)
Chandragupta in 297 B.C.
helped Chandragupta to defeat
According to historian Strabo,
Dhananand and occupied the King Antiochus of Syria sent
throne. He became Chandragupta's his ambassador, Deimachus, to
prime minister. Bindusara's court.
The book written by Chanakya is Ashoka
known as 'Arthashastra'. It is based After Bindusara, his son Ashoka
on polity. ascended the throne of Magadha.
Chandragupta became king in 321 Ashoka was coronated in 269 BC.
BCE. Before coronation, Ashoka was the
In 305 BC, he defeated viceroy of Avanti (Ujjaini).
Seleucus Nicator (the ruler of A Subhadrangi, was Ashoka's
Babylon), who later married his mother.
daughter Cornelia (Helena) to In the Puranas, Ashoka is called
Chandragupta, giving him four Ashoka Vardhana.
provinces Aria (Herat), Arachosia His name 'Ashoka' is mentioned
(Kandhar), Paropanisade (Kabul) in Maski, Gujri, Nettur and
and Gedrosia (Makran) as dowry. Udagolam inscriptions.
The battle between Chandragupta On records, Ashoka is addressed
and Seleucus is described by the with the titles of 'Devanampiyya'
historian Appian. and 'Devanampiyadasi'.
30
 In the eighth year of his and Aramaic languages.
coronation (261 BC) Ashoka In Maski’s minor inscription
attacked Kalinga. related to the coronation, Ashoka
Ashoka was initiated into
calls himself ‘Buddha Shakya’.
Buddhism by Upagupta..
Sohgaura (copper inscription) and
Ashoka had built four caves in
Mahasthan inscriptions mention
the Barabara hills, named Lomus
the distribution of foodgrains by
Rishi, Sudama, Karan Chaupar and the State at the time of famine.
Visva Zopri. Ashoka's inscriptions Provinces Capitals
have been found in all cares except Prachi Pataliputra
Lomus Rishi cave. Kalinga Tosali
Missionaries sent by Ashoka to Avanti Ujjain
other Countries Udichya Taxila
Name of Country (Uttarapatha)
Missionaries Dakshinapatha Suvarnagiri
Sona and Uttara Suvarnabhumi
The administrators of the
(Burma)
provinces were called ‘Kumara’
Mahendra and Sri Lanka or ‘Aryaputra’.
Sanghmatra
The provinces were divided into
Mahyantika Kashmir and Vishayas (Districts), each headed
Gandhar
by the Vishayapati.
Maharakkhita Yona (Greece) The smallest unit of administration
Padre Tieffenthaler traced a pillar was ‘Gram’, headed by
on Delhi-Meerut Highway. It ‘Gramika’ .
bore the first Ashokan inscriptions According to Megasthenes, the city
was divided into 6 committees
inscribed in 1750 AD.
to administer conveniently.
Rummindei pillar edict is the
Each committee consisted of 5
shortest. members. Provinces were known
During Dhamma Yatra, Ashoka as 'Chakra'.
mentioned the reduction in the rate Sales Tax was charged at the
rate of 4 per cent of the value of
of land revenue in Lumbini in the
domestic goods and 1/10 of the
Rummindei pillar inscription.
value of imported goods. There
The Shar-i-Kuna (Kandahar) was a provision of death penalty
inscription was found in the Greek for tax evasion.
31
Inscription Theme
The first inscription The condemnation of animal sacrifice
First separate inscription All human beings are my children
Second Inscription Provides care for man and animals,describes
Chola, Pandyas, Satyapura and Keralputra
kingdoms of South India
Third Inscription Yuktas along with Rajukas shall go to all
areas of kingdom every five years
Fourth Inscription Dhammaghosa over Berighosa
Fifth Inscription Appointment of Dhammamahamatras
(in the 13th year of the coronation)
Sixth Inscription King's desire to be informed about
conditions of people r e g u l a r l y.
Talks about welfare measures
Seventh Inscription Requests, tolerance towards all religions
Eighth Inscription Ashoka's first Dhamma Yatra to Bodhgaya
and Bodhi Tree
Ninth Inscription Condemns popular ceremonies and rituals
Tenth Inscription Preaching of Dhamma
Eleventh Inscription Explanation of Dhamma Policy
Twelfth Inscription Tolerance among all religions and sects
Thirteenth Inscription Ashoka's victory over kings. Victory of
Ashoka's Dhamma and Greek Kings

Agronomoi was the revenue society into 7 categories - soldiers,

officer who measured the land, magistrates, philosophers,
levied and collected tax. herdsmen, farmers, artisans and
In Arthashastra, secret agents councillors.

were named Guddha Purushas. The last ruler of the Mauryan

dynasty was Brihadratha.
Stationary detectives were
Brihadratha was killed by his
called ‘Samasthan’ and moving
commander Pushyamitra Sunga
detectives were called ‘Sanchari’. in 184 BC who founded the
Megasthenes divided Indian Sunga dynasty.
32
 Departments and Their Heads (Mentioned in Arthashastra)
Departments Heads
1. Purohita Chief Priest
2. Yuvraj Crown Prince
3. Senapati Commander-in-Chief
4. Samaharta Revenue Collector
5. Sannidhata Treasury Head
6. Lakshanadhyaksha Coin minting
7. Akaradhyaksha Mining Officer
8. Pradeshika Chief Justice of Criminal Court
9. Panyadhyaksha Officer of Commerce Department
10. Sitaadhyaksha Supervisor of Agriculture
11. Vyabharika Chief Justice of Civil Court
12. Karmantika Head of Industries and Factories
13. Dandapala Head of Police
14. Vivitadhyaksha Head of Pastures
15. Antapala Guard of Borders
16. Sunadhyaksha Slaughterhouse Officer
17. Ganikadhyaksha Head of Prostitutes
Sunga Dynasty 75 BC who established the Kanva
Pushyamitra Sunga performed dynasty.
two Ashwamedha Yajnas and was Satavahana Dynasty
conducted by the priest, Patanjali. Simuka killed Susharman, the
Pushyamitra got Bharhut Stupa
last ruler of the Kanva dynasty,
renovated.
around 60 BC and founded the
After the death of Pushyamitra, his
Satavahana dynasty.
son Agnimitra became the ruler
of the Sunga dynasty. The capital of the Satavahanas was
Kanva Dynasty Pratishthan (Maharashtra).
The last ruler of the Sunga Among the important rulers of this
dynasty was Devabhuti, who dynasty were Simuka, Krishna,
was assassinated by Vasudeva in Satakarni I, Gautamiputra
33
S a t a k a r n i , Va s i s h t h i p u t r a The Indo-Greek rulers issued
Pulumavi and Yajna Sri Satakarni. scriptured and gold coins in
Gautamiputra Satakarni was India for the first time.
called the lord of the west, had Hellenistic art belongs to the period
performed two Ashwamedha of Indo-Greek rule. Gandhara art
yajnas and one Rajasuya yajna. represents its best example.
Satavahana rulers introduced Sakas

currencies in silver, copper, lead Sakas came to India after the

and potion metals. Greeks.

Satavahana rulers were the first They originally came from

who introduced lead coins. Central Asia.

The author of Gathasaptashati They were divided into five

was ‘Hala’ and Brihatkatha's branches.

author was Gunadhya who A ruler of Ujjain defeated the

belonged to the Satavahana period. Sakas and assumed the title of

‘Vikramaditya’ and started
Foreign Invaders Vikram Samvat in 57 BC.
in India Rudradaman was the most

Indo-Greek, Shakas, Pahlavas powerful Saka ruler in India.

and Kushanas invaded India at The Indo-Parthian or Pahlavas

different times. Gondophernes was the most

powerful ruler of this dynasty.
India was invaded first by Indo-
Kushana Dynasty
Greek ruler Demetrius (Dara I)
The Kushanas came to India after
in 183 BC. He made Sakala his
the Pahlavas (Parthians).
capital.
The Kushanas were a clan of the
The most famous of the Indo-
Yuezhi race of China.
Greek rulers was Menander.
Milindpanho (Questions of The Kushanas dynasty was
Menander) describes questions founded by Kujula Kadphises.
raised by Menander and Nagasena Among the Kushana rulers, Vema
in detail. Kadphises first issued gold coins.
34
Vema Kadphises assumed the The Gandhara and Mathura
title of ‘Maheshwar’. On his styles of sculpture were developed
coins, the figure of Shiva, Nandi during the reign of Kanishka.
and Trishul were inscribed.
The Gupta Empire
Kanishka was the most powerful
ruler of this dynasty. Sri Gupta was the founder of the
The capital of Kanishka was Gupta dynasty.
Purushpura (Peshawar) which was Pataliputra was the capital of the
later shifted to Mathura. Gupta Empire.
Kanishka ascended the throne Chandragupta-I ruled this dynasty
in 78 AD and this date is known from 319 AD to 335 AD.
as the beginning of the Saka He first assumed the title of
Samvat. Maharajadhiraja and married
The fourth Buddhist council was Kumaradevi, a princess of the
organized during his reign. Lichchavi dynasty.
They followed the Mahayana sect He started the ‘Gupta Samvat’ in
of Buddhism. 319 AD.
Samudragupta, famously known
Charak was a physician in the
as Napoleon of India, followed
court of Kanishka.
Chandragupta I.
Ashvaghosha was a poet in the
He defeated 9 kings in the north and
court of Kanishka. His works were
12 kings in the south.
Mahayana, Shraddhotpada-
Samudragupta assumed the title of
shastra, Buddhacharita, 'Kaviraj'.
Sundrananda, Sariputra The Sandhivigrahika (Foreign
Prakrana and Sutralankara. Minister) and Rajakavi Harishena
Acharya Nagarjuna, Parshva, of Samudragupta authored
Vasumitra, etc. also adorn the ‘Prayag Prasasti’.
court of Kanishka. S a m u d r a g u p t a ’s s u c c e s s o r
Nagarjuna was the propounder of Chandragupta II occupied the
Middle-way / nihilism. throne in 375 AD.
He wrote ‘Prajnaparamita Sut The Chinese traveller Fa-Hein
ra’. came to India during his reign.
35
After defeating the Sakas, he Gupta rulers were followers of
assumed the title of ‘Vikramaditya’ Vaishnavism.
and issued silver coins. The royal emblem used by the
Chandragupta II also assumed the Gupta rulers was 'Garuda' on
title of ‘Param Bhagawata’. whom Lord Vishnu rode.
Nalanda University was The Dashavatara temple of
established by Kumaragupta I. Deogarh was built during the
During the reign of Skandagupta, Gupta period when actually the
the Hunnas invaded India. art of temple construction began.
He renovated the Sudarshan lake Cave numbers 16, 17 and 19
at Girnar. at Ajanta belong to the Gupta
Vishnugupta was the last ruler of period.
the Gupta dynasty. This cave depicts various scenes
The Gupta Empire was divided (Birth, Mahabhinishkramana,
into several provinces. The Mahaparinirvana, etc.) from the
province was known by different life of Mahatma Buddha.
names. Desh, Avni or Bhukti. The caves of Ajanta belong to the
The ruler of Bhukti was called Mahayana sect of Buddhism.
‘Uprika’. The great poet Kalidasa and
The rulers of the frontier regions famous Ayurveda physician
were called ‘Gopta’. Dhanvantari resided at the court
Bhukti was further divided of Chandragupta II.
into Vishyas whose head were Aryabhata was a renowned
Vishyapatis. mathematician. He wrote the
Dandpashika was the head of the texts ‘Aryabhatiya’ and ‘Surya
police department. Siddhanta’.
'Gram' was the smallest unit of The Gupta period is called the
administration. ‘Golden Period of Indian
Small units of village groups were History’.
called ‘Pethaka’. Note - Aryabhata first proclaimed
Generally, the rate of revenue was that the Earth revolves around the
1/6 during the Gupta period. Sun.
36
 Gupta Period Temples
Temples Related Places
Vishnu Temple Tigawa (Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh)
Shiva Temple Bhumra (Nagod, Madhya Pradesh)
Parvati Temple Nachna Kuthaar (Madhya Pradesh)
Dashavatara Temple Deogarh (Lalitpur, Uttar Pradesh)
Shiva Temple Khoh (Nagod, Madhya Pradesh)
Bhitargaon Temple Bhitargaon (Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh)
Laxman Temple (Built of bricks) Sirpur (Raipur, Chhattisgarh)

After Prabhakarvardhana,
Vakataka Dynasty Rajyavardhana occupied the
throne.
Vakataka Dynasty was founded
Harshvardhana succeeded the
around 250 AD by Vindhyashakti.
throne after Rajyavardhan’s death
Pravarasena-I was the only
in 606 AD.
Emperor of the Vakataka dynasty He was also known by another
who has assumed the title of name Siladitya.
'Samrat'. The accession of Harsha to the
He performed four Ashwamedha throne in 606 AD is considered
yajnas. the beginning of Harsha Samvat.
Vardhana Dynasty He ruled until 647 AD.
He assumed the title of Param
Pushyabhuti laid the foundation Maheshwara, Paramabhattaraka.
of the Vardhana dynasty at He shifted his capital from
Thaneshwar. Thaneshwar to Kannauj.
Prabhakaravardhana is believed Harsh was a worshiper of Surya,
to be the real founder of the
Shiva and Buddhism.
dynasty.
Banabhatta, the author of
He had two sons, Rajyavardhana,
‘Harshacharita’, was at the court
Harshvardhana and a daughter,
of Harshavardhana.
Rajyashri.
Rajyashri married King Nagananda, Priyadarsika
Grahavarman of the Maukhari and Ratnavali are works by
dynasty. Harshavardhana.
37
 He fought against Pulakeshin-II on The only scripture composed at
the banks of Narmada in a quest this Sangam was ‘Tolkappiyam’.
to expand his empire to the south. Chera Dynasty
Emperor Harshavardhana The Sangam literature outlines
organized Mahamoksha the history of the three major
Parishad at Prayag every five kingdoms. These kingdoms
years. belonged to Chera, Chola and
Harshvardhana sent an envoy to Pandya dynasties.
China in 641 AD. The Chera kingdom was located
Harsha organized two huge in modern Kerala.
religious assemblies at Kannauj The first Chera ruler during
and Prayag in 643 AD. Sangam period was Udiyangeral.
The Chinese Envoy arrived at the Chola Dynasty
court of Harshavardhana in 643 Karikala was prominent among
AD. the Chola rulers mentioned in
He wrote a treatise on his journey, Sangam literature.
known as ‘Si-Yu-Ki’. He was called the 'Man with
Hui - Lee has written a biography
charred leg'.
of ‘Hieun Tsang'.
Later, Vijayalaya (850AD–
History of South India 871AD) founded the Chola
dynasty on the remains of the
Sangam Age
Pahlava dynasty.
'Sangam' means Council / Seminar
/ Conference of Tamil Poets, The capital of this dynasty was

Scholars and Teachers etc. The Tanjore.

literature on subjects discussed Vijayalaya assumed the title of
during these assemblies was called ‘Narkesari’ after taking over
Sangam Literature. Tanjore (Thanjavur).
A total of three councils were held. Paratanka-I, Rajaraja-I, Rajendra-I,
The three Sangams were organized Rajendra-II and Kulothunga were
under the patronage of the Pandya the greatest rulers of the Chola
rulers. dynasty.
38
Rajaraja-I created a new province Mangalam’ and the land
‘Mummudi-cholamandalam donated in general was called
after taking over the northern part ‘Brahmadeya’.
of Sri Lanka and Polonnaruwa
Gold coins were called Kasu.
was made its capital.
Kamban composed the ‘Tamil
Rajaraja-I built the Brihadisvara
or Rajarajeshwara Temple Ramayana’.
(Shiva Temple) at Tanjore. Kamban, Kuttana and
Rajendra-III was the last ruler of Pulgalendi were the ‘Triratnas’
this dynasty. of Tamil literature.
The higher officials of the Chola Kaveri Pattinam was the important
administration were called
port during this reign.
‘Peruntaram’ and the lower
officials Siruntaram. The Pandya Dynasty
The entire Chola empire was The earliest known Pandya ruler
divided into 6 provinces- was Palyagasalai Mudukudumi.
Provinces / Mandalam Nedunjeliyan was also the famous
ruler of this dynasty. He was a
Vallanadus
follower of Brahmana religion.
The official symbol of the Pandyas
District / Nadus
was fish.
Kurram / Group of Villages Rashtrakuta Dynasty
King Dantidurga defeated the
Chalukya ruler Kirtivarman
Gram Sabha
and established the Rashtrakuta
“Ur ‘was the assembly of the
dynasty to rule over the former
common people.
Chalukya kingdom.
The Sabha or Mahasabha was He made Manyakheta his capital
basically the Agrahara (assembly (present - Malkhed, near Solapur).
of Brahmin settlements) assembly The Kailash Mandir (Guha
of villages. Its members were Temple) of Ellora was built by
called Perumakkal. Krishna I.
The assembly of merchants was Dhruva Dharavarsha was the
first ruler of the Rashtrakuta
called ‘Nagaram’.
dynasty who took part in the
The tax-free land donated to tripartite conflict to bring Kannauj
Brahmins was called ‘Chaturvedi under his authority.
39
 The last great ruler of the He established the Chalukya
Rashtrakuta dynasty was Krishna- Vikram Samvat at the time of his
III. coronation.
Sri Ponna, the author of “Shanti Varaha was the royal symbol of
Purana” and the leading poet of Chalukyas.
Kannada language was in the court Aihole was called the ‘City of
of Krishna III. Temples’.
The temples in Ellora and Chalukya Dynasty (Vatapi)
Elephanta Caves were built during Pulakeshin-I established the
the reign of the Rashtrakutas. Chalukya Dynasty of Vatapi by
Ellora has 34 rock-cut caves. making Badami or Vatapi (near
Among them, the last five are Bijapur) its capital.
caves belonging to Jainism. The most powerful ruler of this
Rashtrakutas allowed Muslim dynasty was Pulakeshin-II.
traders to settle in their kingdom Aihole inscription shows
and propagate Islam. that Pulakeshin-II defeated
Chalukya Dynasty (Kalyani) Harshavardhana on the bank of
After the fall of Rashtrakutas, Narmada.
Tailapa-II established the Pulakeshin-II defeated hundreds
Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani of kings and assumed the title
(973-997 AD). 'Parameshvara'.
Tailapa-II made Manyakheta his The languages of Aihole
capital. inscriptions are Sanskrit and
Someshwara-I shifted the capital Brahmi. These were written by
to Kalyani Ravi Kirti.
The most powerful ruler of the Deccan was invaded during the
Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani was reign of Vikramaditya-II.
Vikramaditya-VI. Kirtivarman-II was the last ruler
Bilhana the author of Vikra- of this dynasty.
mankadevacharita and Vigya- Chalukya Dynasty (Vengi)
neshwara author of Mitakshara The founder of the Chalukya
Samhita, resided in the court of d y n a s t y o f Ve n g i w a s
Vikramaditya-IV. Vishnuvardhana.
40
 He made Vengi (Andhra Pradesh) Yadava Dynasty
its capital. During the weak reign of the
Vijayaditya-II was the most Chalukya King Someshwara-IV,
powerful ruler of this dynasty. his Yadava Feudal lord Bhillam
Pahlava Dynasty (1187-1191 AD) was the first
Simhavishnu (575-600 AD) ambitious person to establish
established the Pallava dynasty by his independence, and form the
making Kanchi its capital. Yadava dynasty.
The author of Kiratarjuniya and The last king of this dynasty was
Sanskrit poet Bharavi was in the Ramachandra, who surrendered
court of Simhavishnu. to Alauddin’s general Malik Kafur.
Nandivarman-II built the Hoysala Dynasty
Mukteshwar and Vaikuntha The feudatory Vishnuvardhana of
Perumala temples at Kanchi. Chalukya declared independence
The ruler of the Pahlava dynasty at and established the Hoysala
the time of the Arab invasion was dynasty.
Narasimhavarman-II. The capital of the Hoysala dynasty
Narasimhavarman-I built the was located at Dwarasamudra
mandapa and monolithic temples (modern Halebidu).
by cutting the mountains, which Chennakeshava temple at Belur
were called chariot temples. was built by Vishnuvardhana.
Among seven chariot temples The last ruler of the Hoysala
in this style, five depict the five dynasty, Ballala-III, accepted the
Pandavas while the other two suzerainty of Allauddin Khalji
depict Draupadi and Krishna. after defeat by paying him an
Narasimhavarman-II built the annual tax.
Kailashnatha temple at Kanchi. Kadamba Dynasty
The author of 'Dasakumaracharita' Mayurasharma, a feud of the
was Dandin who lived at the court Pallava dynasty declared his
of Narsimhavarman-II. independence and established the
Aparajitavarman (880–903 AD) Kadamba dynasty.
was the last ruler of the Pahlava The capital of the Kadamba rulers
dynasty. was Banavasi (Vyjayanti).
41
 Mayursharma is said to have Chahamana Dynasty
performed the rituals of the 18 The founder of Chahamana
Ashwamedha Yajnas. Dynasty was Vasudeva.
Ajayaraja-I established the city
Early-Medieval Period of Ajmer.
Vigraharaja-IV was the most
Gurjara- Pratihara Dynasty
powerful ruler of the Chauhan
The founder of Gurjara - Pratihara
dynasty.
dynasty was Nagabhata-I.
Vatsraja is said to be the real The play named Harikeli Nataka
founder of Gurjara - Pratihara was composed by Vigraharaja-
empire. IV.
Mihira Bhoja-I was the most Somdeva wrote the book titled
powerful ruler of this dynasty. 'Lalitvigraharaj'.
Mihira Bhoja-I assumed titles of Prithviraj Chauhan is also known
Adivaraha and Prabhas. as Prithviraj-III’.
Famous scholar Rajashekhara The famous poet Chand Bardai
resided at the court of resided at the court of the king of
Mahendrapala-I. Prithviraj Chauhan.
Rajashekhara composed famous The epic called ‘Prithviraj Raso’
texts such as Karpuramanjari, was composed by Chand Bardai.
Kavyamimamsa, Viddhasal- Prithviraj Chauhan defeated
abhanjika, Balaramayana, Bhu- Muhammad Ghori in the First
vankosha and Harvilas. Battle of Tarain (1191 AD).
Gahadavala Dynasty Muhammad Ghori defeated
The Gahadavala dynasty was Prithviraj Chauhan in the
founded by Chandradeva. Second Battle of Tarain (1192
Govindchandra was the most AD).
capable and powerful ruler of this Paramara Dynasty of Malwa
dynasty. Paramara dynasty was founded in
G o v i n d c h a n d r a ’s m i n i s t e r the tenth century AD by Upendra
Lakshmidhar wrote a treatise or Krishnaraja.
called ‘Krtyakalpataru’. Dhara was the capital of the
Muhammad Ghori defeated Paramara dynasty.
Jaichand in the Battle of Siyaka II established an
Chandawar (1194 AD). independent Paramara dynasty.
42
 Bhoja was the most important Among other temples at Khajuraho
ruler of the Paramara dynasty. are Jagadambika temple,
He built the Saraswati temple at Chitragupta temple, Vishwanath
the capital Dhara. temple and Parshwanath temple.
He composed texts like Sarasvati- Kalachuri-Chedi Dynasty of Tripuri
Kanthabharana, Shringara- Kokalla I was the founder of the
Prakasha, Prakrit Vyakarana, Kalachuri dynasty.
Kurma-Sataka, Yukti-Kalptaru The capital of the Kalachuri-
and Samarangana Sutradhara. Chedi dynasty was Tripuri.
Yuktikalpataru and Samarangana The famous ‘Chausath Yogini
Sutradhara contain their subject temple’ of Bhedaghat (Jabalpur)
matter as Vastushastra. was constructed during the rule
Bhojtal, a lake situated in Bhopal, of Yuvarajadeva I.
was built by Bhoja. Among the Rajput kings,
The Tribhuvan Narayan temple Gangeyadeva introduced gold
at Chittor was built by Bhoja. coins.
Chandela Dynasty The Karnameru Shiva temple at
The ancient name of Bundelkhand Banaras was built by Kalachuri
was Jejakabhukti. ruler Karna (Lakshmikarna).
Chandela dynasty was founded by Chalukya or Solanki Dynasty of
Gujarat
Nannuka in 831 AD.
Mularaja-I founded the Chalukya
King Dhanga shifted the capital
dynasty of Gujarat.
of the Chandelas from Kalinjar to
The capital of this dynasty was
Khajuraho.
Anhilwara.
Vidyadhara was the most
Mahmud Ghaznavi attacked
powerful of the Chandela rulers.
Somnath Temple during the reign
Vidyadhara was the only Indian
of Bhima-I.
king who successfully resisted the Vimal Shah, Minister of Bhima-I
ambitions of Mahmud Ghaznavi. built the famous Jain temple at
The temples of Khajuraho were Dilwara on Mount Abu.
built by the Chandela rulers. Jayachandra Suri composed
‘Kandariya Mahadev Temple’ Kumarapala Charita.
is the most famous among the Bhima II was defeated by
temples of Khajuraho. Muhammad Ghori in 1178 AD.
43
 The rulers of the Chalukya dynasty Dharmapala established
of Gujarat were followers of Vikramshila and Somapuri
Jainism and worked for the viharas.
promotion of the religion. Famous Buddhist writer
The Bordering States in India Haribhadra resided at
State of Kashmir Dharmapala’s court.
The rulers of the Pala dynasty were
The history of the Hindu state
followers of Buddhism.
of Kashmir is known from
Vi k r a m a s h i l a v i h a r a w a s
the Rajatarangini, written by
demolished by the Muslim
Kalhana.
invader Bakhtiyar Khalji.
Kashmir was ruled by Karkota,
Sandhyakar Nandi composed a
Utpala and Lohara dynasties. historical book, a collection of
In the seventh century AD, one poems, titled ‘Ramcharitram’.
Durlabhvardana founded the Sena Dynasty
Karkota dynasty in Kashmir. The first important ruler of the
Durlabhvardan's son and Sena dynasty was Vijaya Sena.
successor, Durlabhaka, founded Ballala Sena wrote the texts
a city called Pratappur. titled ‘Dan Sagar’ and ‘Adbhut
Lalitaditya Muktapida was the Sagar’.
most powerful amongst the rulers Jayadeva, the author of Gita
Govinda, Dhoyin, the author of
of the Karkota dynasty. Pavanduta, and Halayudha the
The founder of the Lohara author of Brahmanasarvas, resided
dynasty was Sangramraja. at the court of Lakshmanasena.
The capital of the Sena dynasty
Kalhana was a court poet of
was Nadiya.
Harsha, the ruler of Lohara
Varman Dynasty of Kamarupa
dynasty. Pushyavarman founded the
Pala Dynasty of Bengal Varman dynasty of Kamarupa.
The capital of Varman dynasty was
The founder of Pala dynasty in
Pragjyotishpura.
Bengal was Gopala (750-770 Bhaskaravarman was a
AD). contemporary to Harsha.
Gopala built viharas in Nalanda.
44
 Mahmud invaded India 17 times,
Medieval India
but there is no credible evidence
of all these attacks.
1. Invasions of Arabs Mahmud Ghaznavi attacked the
Hindu Shahi army of Jayapala in
The first successful invasion 1001 AD, in which Jaypala was
on India by Arabs was led by defeated.
‘Muhammad Bin Qasim’ in 712 Mahmud Ghaznavi was known in
AD. India as “robber and idol breaker”.
Then the Hindu king Dahir was His most fierce attack was on
Somnath Temple in Gujarat, during
ruling Sindh. the reign of Bhima I.
Dahir was defeated in this battle. Mahmud Ghaznavi died in 1030
After the victory over Sindh, AD.
Muhammad Bin Qasim was the Scholars like Alberuni, Firdausi,
Utbi and Baihaki resided at the
first who imposed religious tax
court of Mahmud Ghaznavi.
jizya. Alberuni was also known as
Important information about the ‘Abu Rahyan’. He was born at
Arab invasion is gained from Khwarizmi (present Khiva) in 973
Futul-al-Baladan and Chachnama AD.
Alberuni came to India at the time
texts.
of Mahmud Ghaznavi’s invasion.
Looting wealth and propagating His book ‘Kitab - ul Hind’ is an
Islam was the main objective of important source to know the
these invasions. history of that time.
Mahmud Ghaznavi (998 - 1030 Muhammad Ghori (1175 AD -
AD) 1206 AD)
A person named Alaptagin Muhammad Ghori was the ruler of
established an independent the Ghor province under Ghazni.
Ottoman empire in Ghazni in 962 He belonged to the Ghurid
AD. dynasty.
The first invasion of Muhammad
Alaptagin’s slave and son-in-law,
Ghori occurred in 1175. He was
Subuktagin took over the throne born in Multan. The Muslim rulers
in 977 AD. of the Karmathi caste were then
After the death of Subuktagin, his
ruling Multan.
son Mahmud Ghaznavi became
the ruler at the age of 27 in 998 In 1178, Ghori invaded Gujarat,
AD. but Moolraj II defeated Ghori

45
near Mount Abu under the Qutbuddin Aybak was succeeded
able leadership of his worthy by Aram Shah who ruled for only
a brief time of eight months.
and courageous mother Maa
Iltutmish (1210-36 AD)
Naikidevi. Iltutmish sat on the throne of the
On one side of the coins of Sultanate in 1210 after killing
Muhammad Ghori's reign the Aram Shah.
Qutubuddin’s slave and son-in-law
figure of Kalma was inscribed
Iltutmish Ilbari was a Turk.
while on the other side, the figure He established Delhi as the capital
of Lakshmi was inscribed. of the Sultanate.
Muhammad Ghori freed him
2. Sultanate Period (1206 from slavery on account of his
AD-1526 AD) exceptional abilities displayed
during Khokhar Rebellion in
After Ghori’s death, Qutbuddin
1206.
Aybak laid the foundation of the The Khalifa of Baghdad conferred
Ghulam or Mamluk dynasty in 1206 the title of ‘Sultan-e-Azam’ on
AD. Iltutmish and gave statutory
Qutbuddin Aybak was also known approval to his rule in 1229.
to have been the founder of the He kept a troop of his loyal slaves
Turkish State in India. He did not called ‘Turkan - e - Chahalgani’
assume the title of Sultan while or ‘Chalisa’.
seated on the throne. He issued two important coins,
Qutbuddin Aybak was called silver ‘Tanka’ (175 grains) and
‘Lakh Bakhsh’ (one who gives in copper ‘Jital’ during the Sultanate
lakhs) and ‘Kurankhwan’.
period and also started the practice
Nalanda university building was
of inscribing the names on coins.
demolished by Bakhtiyar Khalji,
commander of Qutbuddin Aybak. During the reign of Iltutmish,
Aybak built mosques called Mongol leader Genghis Khan
‘Quwwat-al-Islam' and ‘Adhai reached the northwestern border
Din ka Jhopra’ in Ajmer. of India chasing Mangbarni, the
ruler of Khwarizm.
Q u t b u d d i n Ay b a k l a i d t h e
Iltutmish is credited with the
foundation of Qutb Minar, later
introduction of the ‘Iqta System’
which was completed by Iltutmish.
in India.
He died in 1210 when he fell from He died in 1236.
his horse while playing Chaugan Raziyya Sultan (1236–40 AD)
(a game similar to modern Polo). Raziyya was the first woman ruler
He was buried in Lahore. of medieval India.
46
 After discarding the purdah of Ghiyasuddin Balban. He
system by Raziyya, she wore the succeeded in protecting Delhi
same clothes coat (Kuba) and hat from the Mongols.
(Kulah) as the men and conducted He adopted a policy of ‘blood and
the task of governance effectively. iron’ for the prestige of the Sultan.
According to Minhaj-i-Siraj He thought the king to be the
(author of Tabaqat-e-Nasiri), representative of God on earth,
Raziyya ruled for 3 years 6 months 'Naib-i-Khudai'.
6 days.
He believed that Sultan is Zil-
Raziyya was murdered in 1240 in
i-Allah or Zil-i-Ilahi 'meaning'
Kaithal by bandits while returning
'reflection of God'.
from the forest.
After the death of Raziyya, He introduced the practice of
Bahram Shah sat on the throne ‘Sijda’ and ‘Paibos’ which were
in 1240, but he was also killed in originally picked from Iranian
1242. traditions.
Allauddin Masud Shah became the He started the practice of
Sultan of Delhi (1242–1246 AD) celebrating the Iranian (Persian)
after the assassination of Bahram festival of ‘Navroz’ every year in
Shah. his court.
Alauddin Masud Shah was Note - Amir Khusro was called
overthrown by a conspiracy ‘Parrot of India’ or ‘Tuti-e-Hind
hatched by Balban and Nasiruddin and Amir Hasan-e-Dehalavi, 'Saadi
Mahmud was declared the Sultan of India'.
in 1246 AD.
3. Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320
Balban married his daughter to
AD)
Sultan Nasiruddin in 1249.
Nasiruddin conferred the title After the fall of the Slave dynasty
of ‘Ulugh Khan’ and ‘Naib -e-
in 1290, Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji
Mumlikat’ on Balban.
founded the Khalji dynasty.
On the death of Nasiruddin
Mahmud, Balban declared The Jalaluddin adopted the ideal of
rulers of Delhi Early Sultan liberal autocratism.
himself and succeeded in 1266. He formed a new department,
Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287 Diwan-i-Waqt to look after the
AD)
income and expenditure matters.
Balban destroyed Turkan-i-
Chahalgani. He was assassinated by his nephew
Balban ascended the throne and son-in-law, Alauddin Khalji at
of Delhi in 1266 by the name Manikpur, in 1296.
47
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 AD) He increased the Sultan’s share of
Alauddin had his name inscribed the plundered money (Khums) to
on coins as 'Second Alexander' 4/5 from 1/5.
(Sikandar-e-Sani)’. Ibn Battuta authored Rihla,
He was the first ruler of Delhi Isami wrote Futuh-us- Salatin
Sultanate who allotted posts on and Amir Khusrau completed his
merit. work Khazain - ul- Futuh during
Alauddin conferred the title of Kahaji's reign.
Raya Rayan to Ramachandra
Amir Khusrau was the court poet
Deva.
to Alauddin Khalji.
He captured Malik Kafur during
his Gujarat conquest. Alauddin Khalji built Alai
Darwaza and Hauz-e-Khas.
Malik Kafur was also called
‘Hazar Dinari’. Major Taxes during Sultanate
T h e C h i e f O ff i c e r o f t h e Period
Intelligence Department was Tax Type of Taxes
‘Barid-e-Mumalik’. There were Jizya Tax received from non-
many ‘baraids’ (Sandeshvahak or Muslims
Harkara) under him. Zakat Religious Tax charged
Alauddin established a from Muslims
new department ‘Diwan-e- Khums Loot money from war
Mustakhraj’ to eliminate
Kharaj Tax to be collected from
corruption and clear arrears of
non-Muslim farmers
revenues.
During this time, there were
Alauddin built the Siri Fort,
two types of markets - 1.Mandi
Thousand Pillar Palace, Jamat-
(food market), 2.Sarai-e-Adal
Khana Mosque and Alai Darwaza.
(Manufactured goods, garments,
He kept a large and permanent
herbs, etc.).
army at the centre, who was paid
in cash. Alauddin Khalji died in 1316.
Khalji introduced the practice Mubarak Khalji, the son of
of 'Dagh' (branding of horses) Alauddin Khalji, succeeded him
and 'Huliya' (descriptive roles of on the throne of Delhi in 1316.
soldiers).
He was the first Sultan who 4. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-
paid attention to measurement 1412 AD)
(Paimaish) of the cultivable land,
known as Zabita. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq or Ghazi
Alauddin Khalji took 50% of the Malik (1320-1325 AD) was the
produce as agrarian tax (Kharaj). first ruler of the Tughluq dynasty.
48
 He constructed a new city called After the death of Muhammad
Tughluqabad. Tughluq, his cousin ‘Firuz Shah
He built canals for irrigation. He Tughluq’ became (1351-1388) the
was probably the first ruler to have Sultan in 1351.
built canals. Firuz Shah Tughluq (1351-1388 AD)
Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325– Firuz Shah Tughluq constructed
1351 AD) new towns called Hisar,
Juna Khan or Muhammad Fatehabad, Firuzepur,
bin Tughluq (1325-1351 AD) Firozabad and Jaunpur (in the
became Sultan after the death of Memory of Jauna Khan) and dug
Ghiyasuddin. many canals.
He replaced silver coins with He levied Jizya on Brahmins.
copper token coins. The credit for establishing the
A department called ‘Diwan - i - ‘Public Works Department’ goes
Amir - Kohi’ which looked after to Firuz Shah Tughluq.
agriculture, was established by He was the first sultan of Delhi
Muhammad bin Tughluq. who imposed Hab-e-Sharab i.e.
Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan Irrigation tax.
traveller, came to Delhi in 1333 He shifted two Ashoka's pillars
during the reign of Muhammad from Topara and Meerut to Delhi.
bin Tughluq. He formed a separate department
Ibn Battuta has written his ‘Diwan-i-Bandagan’ for looking
travelogue in Arabic in a book after these slaves.
titled ‘Kitab-ul-Rihla’. Dar-ul-Shifa, established by
Muhammad bin Tughluq often Firuz Shah Tughluq was a charity
participated in the festivals of hospital.
Hindus, particularly Holi. Firuz Shah Tughluq wrote his
Major reforms by Muhammad bin autobiography ‘Futuhat-e-
Tughluq were Doab tax increase, Firuzshahi’.
He patronised Ziauddin Barani
change of capital (Delhi to
and Shams-i -Siraj Afif.
Devgiri), token currency and
He issued coins called ‘Adha’ and
campaigns of Khurasan and ‘Bikh’ made of copper and bronze.
Karachi. Firuz Shah Tughluq destroyed the
Muhammad bin Tughluq died in Jwalamukhi Temple.
1351 AD. Firuz Shah Tughlaq died in 1388
Badauni writes on the demise of AD.
Sultan 'The King was freed from Nasiruddin Mahmud (1394–1412
his people and they from their AD) was the last ruler of the
King'. Tughluq dynasty.
49
 During his reign, Khwaja Jahan A treatise on 'Ayurveda' was
established an independent translated into Persian ordered
kingdom called Jaunpur. by Sikandar Lodi, known as
Timur invaded India in 1398 ‘Farhang-i- Sikandari’.
during the reign of Nasiruddin He wrote poems under the
Mahmud. nickname ‘Gulrukhi’.
Note - Sikandar Lodi constructed
5. Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451
a new city, Agra in 1504 to secure
AD)
his authority over the rulers of
The founder of the Sayyid Dynasty, neighbouring Rajasthan.
Khizr Khan, provided support to Sikander Lodi reimposed the
the Mongol invader Timur. Jizya tax on Hindus.
Khizr Khan was appointed as the Moth Mosque was built during
Governor of Northwestern frontier the reign of Sikandar Lodi.
province by Timur (Lahore, After the death of Sikandar Lodi,
Multan and Deepalpur). his eldest son Ibrahim Lodi
After Khizr Khan, Mubarak ascended the throne.
Shah (1421-1434) ascended the Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by
throne. He patronised ‘Yahya bin Rana Sanga in the Battle of
Sirhindi’, the author of ‘Tarikh- Khatoli in 1518.
In April, 1526, Babur fought in the
i-Mubarak Shahi’.
field of Panipat, where Ibrahim
Alauddin Alam Shah (1443–1451)
was the last ruler of this dynasty. Lodi was defeated. The Delhi
Sultanate also came to an end with
6. Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526
the fall of the Lodis.
AD)
7. Delhi Sultanate -
Bahlul Lodi (1451-1489) founded Governance System)
the Lodi Dynasty in 1451.
Assuming the title of ‘Sultan’ title
He brought Jaunpur under the
was started by the Turkish rulers.
control of the Delhi Sultanate.
The first ruler to hold this title was
He was succeeded by Sikandar Mahmud Ghaznavi.
Lodi. The head of the central governance
He was the best ruler of the Lodi was the Sultan.
dynasty produced. In the Sultanate period, the
He started ‘Gaz-i-Sikandari’, a Council of Ministers was called
scale used for measurement. ‘Majlis-e-Khalwat’.
50
 Delhi Sultanate-Main Administrative Departments and Their Founders
Name Concerned Departments Founder
Diwan - i - Arz Military Department Balban
Diwan - i - Riyasat Market Control Alauddin Khalji
Diwan - i - Waqf Expenditure Department Jalaluddin Khalji

Diwan - i - Mustakhraj Finance Department Alauddin Khalji

Diwan - i - Kohi Department of Agriculture Muhammad bin Tughluq

Dewan - i - Bandagan Care of Slaves Firuz Shah Tughluq

Dar - ul - Shifa Charity Hospital Firuz Shah Tughluq

Diwan - i - Ishtiaq Pension Department Firuz Shah Tughluq
Diwan - i - Insha State Correspondence —
Department

Delhi Sultanate Buildings Constructors

Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, Adhai Din ka Jhopra, Qutbuddin Aybak

Qutb Minar
Nasiruddin Mahmud Tomb or Sultanagarhi Iltutmish
Alai Darwaza, Jamat Khana Mosque Alauddin Khalji

Tughluqabad Ghisuddin Tughluq

Major Books and Its Authors during Sultanate Period

Books Authors
Kitab - ul- Hind or Tahqiq - e - Hind Al Beruni
Tabaqat - e – Nasiri Minhaj - i – Siraj
Tarikh - e - Firuz Shahi Ziauddin Barani
The Rihla Ibn Battuta
Kitab - Ul - Yamini Utbi
Khazin - ul - Futuh, Tughluqnama Amir Khusro
Sri Krishna Vijaya Maladhar Basu
Shahnama Firdausi

51
 his kingdom and gave it the new
8. Vijayanagara Empire
name ‘Ahsanabad’.
The Vijayanagara Empire was He exempted Hindus from Jizya
founded in 1336 by two brothers tax.
Harihara and Bukka.
9. The Independent
The capital of Vijayanagara was
Provincial States
Hampi, situated on the banks of
the Tungabhadra.
Kashmir
Harihara-I ruled from 1336 to
Suhadeva founded the Hindu
1356 AD. Bukka-I ruled from
kingdom in Kashmir in 1301.
1356 to 1377.
Bahmani Kingdom Shamsuddin Shah (Shah mir) was
Zafar Khan (Hassan Gangu 1347- the first muslim ruler of Kashmir.
1358) laid the foundation of the Zain-ul-Abidin was a tolerant
Bahmani kingdom. ruler, and was called ‘Akbar of
He made Gulbarga the capital of Kashmir’.

Foreign Travellers who visited Vijayanagara

Nicolo Conti Italy Devaraya-I
Abdur Razzaq Persia Devaraya-II
Domingo Paes Portugal Krishnadeva Raya
Barbosa Portugal Krishnadeva Raya
Fernao Nuniz Portugal Achyuta Deva Raya

Rulers of Vijayanagara Empire

Harihara-I 1336-1356 AD
Bukka 1356-1377 AD
Harihara-II 1377-1404 AD
Virupaksha-I —
Bukka-II —
Devaraya-I 1404-1422 AD
Devaraya-II 1422–1446 AD
Mallikarjuna 1446–1465 AD
Virupaksha 1465-1485 AD
Praudha Devaraya 1485-1485 AD
52
 Major Dynasties and Its Founders of the Independent States
Sl. Dynasty State Founder Year of
No. Establishment
1. Adilshahi Bijapur Yusuf Adilshah 1489 AD
2. Nizamshahi Ahmadnagar Malik Ahmad 1490 AD
3. Imadshahi Berar Fatahullah Imad Shah 1484 AD
4. Qutbshahi Golconda Quli Qutb Shah 1518 AD
5. Baridshahi Bidar Amir Ali Barid 1526 AD

Jaunpur Sikandar Shah (1357-1389) built

Taking advantage of the weakness the ‘Adina Masjid’ (in 1369) in
of the later-Delhi Sultanate, Malik Pandua.
Sarwar declared independence and Nusrat Shah was the ruler of
Bengal during Babur’s invasion.
laid the foundation of the Sharqi
Mughal Emperor Akbar annexed
dynasty in Jaunpur.
Bengal to the Mughal empire.
Malik Sarwar never assumed the Malwa
title of Sultan. Alauddin Khalji took Malwa
Under Sharqi rule, Jaunpur under his control in 1305.
developed immensely in the field Mahmud Khalji laid the foundation
of literature and architecture, of Khalji dynasty in Malwa in
especially during the period of 1436 AD.
Ibrahim Shah. Hoshang Shah built the Fort of
Due to the advancements in Mandu.
literature and architecture, Jaunpur Ghiyasuddin Khalji built
was called ‘Shiraz of India’. Hindola Palace at Mandu.
Atala Masjid was built by Ibrahim Mewar (Modern Udaipur)
Shah in 1408. Alauddin annexed Mewar to Delhi
Hussain shah sharqi was the last Sultanate by defeating Ratan
ruler of this dynasty. Singh, the ruler of the Gehlot
Bengal dynasty of Mewar in 1303.
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq divided Hammir Deva of ‘Sisodia
Bengal into three parts Lakhnauti dynasty’ (branch of the Gehlot
(North Bengal), Sonargaon (East dynasty) conquered Chittor
Bengal) and Satgaon (South and made the whole of Mewar
Bengal). independent.
53
Rana Kumbha built a Vijay ‘Bijak’ is a compilation of sermons
Stambha (victory tower) at of Saint Kabir.
Chittor in 1448. Kabir Das was a contemporary
The Battle of Khanwa was fought to Sultan Sikandar Lodi.
between Rana Sanga and Babur Guru Nanak was born in 1469,
in 1527, in which Babur defeated at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in
Pakistan) in Punjab of undivided
the Rajput king, Rana Sanga.
The Battle of Haldighati took India.
place on 18th of June, 1576 between Guru Nanak (1469–1539 AD)
founded Sikhism.
Rana Pratap and Akbar.
Mirabai was the only daughter of
The capital of Mewar was Ratan Singh Rathore of Merta.
Chittorgarh. She married Bhoj Raj, the elder
10. Bhakti Movement son of Rana Sanga in 1516.
Mirabai composed four texts and
these were Barsi Ka Mayra, Geet
Bhakti movement originated in
Govind Teeka, Raga Govinda and
south India in the 7th and 10th CE Raag Sorath Ke Pad.
mostly in the strophe of Alvars and Tulsidas was born in 1532 in a
Nayanars. village, Rajapur, in the Banda
Ramananda was the first promoter district of Uttar Pradesh.
of the Bhakti Movement in North He wrote many texts, among
which ‘Ramcharitmanas and
India.
Vinayapatrika’ are famous.
He was born at Prayag (Allahabad) Abul Fazl has mentioned him in
in 1299 A.D. and studied at Prayag his work, ‘Ain-i-Akbari’.
and Varanasi.
Namdev was instrumental in
Padmavati and Surasari popularizing the Bhakti movement
(Women), Kabir (Weaver), in Maharashtra.
Raidas (Cobbler), Sena (Barber) His teacher was Visoba Khechara.
and Pipa (Rajput) were amongst He belonged to the Varkari sect.
twelve prominent disciples of Among the saints of the Bhakti
Ramananda. Movement, Namdev was highly
influenced by Islam.
Kabir was a saint associated with
Ravidas belonged to Kutbandhla
Nirguna Bhakti, who, despite
chamar caste and resided at
being a saint, continued to live a Kashi.
family life. He founded the Raidasi sect.
54
Dadu Dayal was born at
12. The Mughal Empire
Ahmedabad in 1544 and belonged
to the Tanner caste. Babur established the Mughal
He met Akbar in Amer in 1586.
Empire in India in 1526.
He started a movement called
Babur (1526-1530 AD)
‘Nipakh’.
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur
11. Sufi Movement was born on 14th February, 1483,
in the small state of Ferghana.
The word 'Sufi' has its origin from His father’s name was Umar
the Arabic word 'Safa', meaning Sheikh Mirza and his mother’s
'Purity'. name was Qutlugh Nigar
Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadri, Khanum.
Shattari and Naqshbandi were He wrote his autobiography
the most important among the Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Babur Nama)
fourteen orders (Silsilhas) or
in the Turkish language.
mystic organizations.
His autobiography was translated
Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti laid
the foundation of Chisti order in into Persian by Abdul Rahim
India. Khane Khanan. Payanda Khan
Sheikh Fariduddin - Ganj- also assisted in this work.
i-Shakar was a Sufi saint of He was given the title of Kalandar
Chishti Silsilah who was famous due to his generosity.
as ''Baba Farid''. He died on 26th December 1530,
Nizamuddin Auliya’s acclaimed at Agra.
disciples were Sheikh Salim His body was first buried at
Chishti, Amir Khusrau and Arambagh in Agra.
Hassan Dehlavi. Later, he was buried in Kabul, a
Nizamuddin Auliya was followed
place that he chose in his former
by Sheikh Nasiruddin and Sheikh
will.
Salim Chishti, the famous Chishti
saints. Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556
Sheikh Salim Chishti lived at AD)
Fatehpur Sikri. After Babur’s death, the eldest son
Amir Hassan-e-Dehlavi was called Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun
the ‘Saadi of India’ because of his ascended the throne at the age of
high quality ghazals. twenty-three.
55
 Major Battles of Babur
Battle Date Between Conqueror
First Battle of Panipat 21 April,1526 Ibrahim Lodi and Babur Babur
Battle of Khanwa 17 March,1527 Rana Sanga and Babur Babur
Battle of Chanderi 29 January,1528 Medni Rai and Babur Babur
Battle of Ghaghra 5 May, 1529 Afghan and Babur Babur

Major Battles of Humayun

Battle Year Between Conqueror
Battle of Chausa 26 June, 1539 Sher Khan and Humayun Sher Khan
Battle of Bilgram 17 May, 1540 Sher Khan and Humayun Sher Khan

On 27th January, 1556, Humayun Kalanaur on the throne of bricks

died after falling from the stairs of by his patron Bairam Khan.
the library at Dinpanah Palace. Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar
Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545 AD) ascended the throne assuming the
Sher Shah established Sur title of Ghazi.
Dynasty and the second Afghan Bairam Khan remained a patron
Empire in North India in 1540. of Akbar from 1556 to 1560.
He ascended the throne of Delhi On 5 th November, 1556, the
after defeating Humayun in the second battle of Panipat took
Battle of Bilgram in 1540. place between Akbar and Hemu.
Akbar built the Buland Darwaza
The battle at Kalinjar in 1545
at the capital at Fatehpur Sikri
is considered his last campaign.
in commemoration of Gujarat
He died in a gunpowder
victory.
explosion on 22nd May, 1545.
Akbar was the principal patron of
Sher Shah’s tomb was built on
the Din-i-Ilahi religion which he
the high mound in the middle of
started in 1582.
the lake in ‘Sasaram’ in Bihar.
Abul Fazl was the chief priest of
Akbar (1556-1605 AD) the Din-i-Ilahi religion. He also
Akbar was born on 15th October, composed Akbar Nama.
1542, of Humayun’s wife Hamida Birbal was the first and last Hindu
Banu Begum at Amarkot. to accept Din-i-Ilahi religion.
He was crowned at the age of Famous musician Tansen lived in
13 on 14 th February, 1556, at Akbar’s court.
56
 The main feature of Akbar’s of India Taj Mahal in Agra. Ustad
system of governance was the Ahmad Lahori was the chief
Mansabdari System. architect of Taj Mahal.
After the death of Rana Pratap, his In January, 1666 Shahjana was
son Rana Amar Singh concluded died.
a treaty with Jahangir in 1615. Jahangir wrote his autobiography
Akbar’s reign is called the ‘golden ‘Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri’ in Persian.
period of Hindi Literature’. Aurangzeb (1658–1707) AD
Jahangir (1605-1627 A.D.) Muhiuddin Muhammad
Jahangir (salim), the son of Akbar Aurangzeb was born on 3 rd
was born on 30th August 1569 AD. November, 1618, of Mumtaz
Thomas Roe was the first Mahal, the wife of Shah Jahan,
ambassador of British emperor near Ujjain, at a place called
James I. He visited the court of ‘Dohad’.
the Jahangir. Aurangzeb was first coronated on
Jahangir married Mehrunnisa 21st July, 1658, and the second at
(Nur Jahan) in 1611 AD and Delhi on 5th June, 1659.
conferred the title of 'Nur Mahal' Aurangzeb murdered Guru Teg
on her. Bahadur, ninth guru of the Sikkim
Jahangir’s reign is considered the in 1675.
golden period of painting. He was called Zinda Pir.
Ustad Mansoor and Abul Hasan Treaty of Purander was signed on
were the best painters during the 11th June, 1665, between Jai Singh
and Shivaji.
reign of Jahangir.
Note - Bibi Ka Maqbara is also
Shahjahan (1628-1658 AD)
known as the ‘Second Taj Mahal’.
Shahjahan was born in 1592 AD
He died on 3rd of March, 1707 at
in Lahor.
Ahmadnagar.
Shahjahan's childhood name was
He was buried near the tomb of
Khurram.
Sufi saint Zain-ud-din Shirazi,
In 1612 AD Shahjahan was
four miles away from Daulatabad.
married Arjumand Banu Begum.
Arjumand Banu was later known Mughal Government System
as Mumtaz Mahal. Mir Bakhshi was the head of
After the death of Mumtaz, the military department in the
Shahjahan build famous architect Mughal period.
57
 Important Books During Mughal Period
Book Name Author Language
Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Babur Nama) Babur Turkish
Tarikh-e-Rashidi Mirza Haider Dughlat Persian
Humayun Nama Gulbadan Begum Persian
Tarikh - i - Salatin - i - Afghaniyah Ahmad Yadgar Persian
Habib - Us - Siyar & Khondmir Qanun- Sayyid Khundmir Persian
i-Humayuni
Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi Abdas Khan Persian
Tohfa-i-Akbar Shahi Sarwani
Akbar Nama Abul Fazl Persian
Tobaqat-i-Akbari Nizamuddin Ahmad Persian
Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh Abdul Qadir Badauni Persian
Iqbalnama-i- Jahangiri Mutamad Khan Persian
Tazkirat-ul-Waqiat Jauhar Aftabchi Persian
Waqiat-e-Mushtaqi Rizaqulla Mushtaqi Persian

In Mughal administrative parlance Jahangir Lahore (Shahdara)

the word ‘Mal’ was related to land Shah Jahan Agra
revenue.
Aurangzeb Aurangabad
The Mughal military system was (Daulatabad)
based on the decimal system.
13. Advancement of Marathas
The Judicial Department was
headed by Qazi-ul-Quzat. Shivaji is said to have been the
During Akbar’s rule, the land was founder of the Maratha Empire.
divided into four categories on the He was born on 19th February 1630
in the fort of Shivneri.
basis of the yield - Polaj, Parati,
His father’s name was Shahji
Chachar and Banjar. Bhonsle and mother’s name was
Mughal Emperors and Their Jija Bai.
Mausoleums Shivaji entered into a treaty with
Mughal Tomb Raja Jai Singh on 11th June, 1665.
Emperor This treaty became famous as the
‘Treaty of Purandar’.
Babur Kabul
There was a council of ministers
Humayun Delhi
named Ashta Pradhan during the
Akbar Agra (Sikandra)
Maratha rule.
58
 Ashta Pradhan 3. Tarabai After the death of
Peshwa Minister of King Rajaram, his widow
Amatya Revenue and Finance Tarabai's four-year-old
Minister son Shivaji-II ascended
Waqia-Navis King’s day-to-day the the throne and the
or Minister daily proceedings of
struggle continued.
the court 4. Shahuji Maratha power
Sachiv Head of Royal
expanded during the
Correspondence
reign of Shahuji.
S a m a n t o r Foreign Minister
Dabir Peshwas
Senapati or Military recruitment, Balaji Vishwanath Balaji
Sar-i-Naubat organization, (1713-1720) Vishwanath is
logistics, etc. famous as the
Pandit Rao Head of religious affairs second founder of
Nyayadhish Chief Justice Maratha Empire.
Shivaji died in 1680. Peshwa Bajirao-I Bajirao proved
(1720-1740 ) to be the best
Successors of Shivaji
1. Shambha ji Minister of King Maratha general.
Amatya Shambha ji was the Marathadominated
eldest son of Shivaji
the entire Malwa
who ruled between
region and Gujarat
1680 and 1689.
in 1733.
2. Rajaram Maratha freedom
B a l a j i B a j i r a o During the period
struggle against the (1740-1761) of
Mughals continued Balaji Bajirao,
under the leadership the Chauth and
of Rajaram. Shivaji’s Sardeshmukhi
younger son Rajaram were recovered
ruled as the representative
from the south.
of Shahu, the son of Madhav Rao-I ———
Shambhaji. (1761-1772)

59
Narayan Rao ——— Independent States
(1772-1773) (from Mughals)
1. Awadh Saadat Khan
R a g h u n a t h R a o ——— (Burhan-ul-Mulk)

(1773-1774) 2. Hyderabad Chinkilich Khan or

Nizam-ul-Mulk
Madhav Ravnarayan ——— 3. Ruhelkhand Daud Khan and Ali
Muhammad Khan
(1774-1796)
Bangesh
Bajirao-II (1796- ——— 4. Bengal Murshid Quli Khan
1818) 5. Karnataka Saadatullah Khan
5. Karnataka Saadatullah Khan
History of Modern India 6. Bharatpur Chudaman and
Badan Singh

The Later Mughal

The Arrival of European
Emperors (AD Trade Companies
Bahadur Shah-I 1707-1712 A. The Portuguese
Portuguese came to India at the
(Shah-e-Bekhbar)
end of the fifteenth century. They
Jahandar Shah 1712-1713 were the first amongst Europeans.
Vasco da Gama reached Calicut
(Dissolute Fool) Port on the west coast of India on
Farrukh Siyar 1713-1719 20th May 1498, discovering a new
sea route to India from Europe.
(Abominable Coward)
Francisco de Almeida was
Muhammad Shah 1719-1748 appointed the first Portuguese
(Rangeela) Viceroy to India in 1505 AD.
Note - The order of the European
Ahmad Shah 1748-1754
companies to arrive in India were
Alamgir-II (Azizuddin) 1754-1759 Portuguese, Dutch, English and
Alamgir-II (Azizuddin) 1754-1759 French.
Shah Alam-II (Aligauhar) 1759-1806
The Partuguese Opened their first
trading factory at Cochin.
Akbar-II 1806-1837
The Portuguese started printing
Bahadur Shah Zafar 1837-1857 press in India.
60
B. The Dutch Francis Martin founded
They were residents of the Pondicherry in 1674.
Netherlands or Holland. Expansion of British Power
The Dutch East India Company in Bengal
was established in 1602.
They opened their first trading Murshid Quli Khan was the
factory at Masulipattam in 1605 independent ruler of Bengal.
AD. After Murshid Quli Khan, his son-
C. The English in-law Shuja-ud-din ascended the
Queen Elizabeth I of England throne of Bengal.
granted the charter of authority to Alivardi Khan compared the
the East India Company on 31st Europeans to bees and said that
December, 1600 AD. ''if they are not pierced, they will
Captain Hawkins came to the give honey and if teased, they will
court of Jahangir in 1608 as an bite and kill''.
ambassador of the British East
After Alivardi Khan’s death,
India Company.
his grandson (son in law's son)
Jahangir permitted the British to
Sirajud-daulah succeeded him.
establish a permanent factory at
Black Hole tragedy - 20th June
Surat in 1613 AD.
Charles II gave Bombay to the 1756. In this incident 146
East India Company in 1668 AD Britishers were locked in a small
with an annual rent of 10 pounds. room by Siraj-uddaulah, only 23
The first President of Fort Britishers alived the next day.
William was Charles Eyre. The Battle of Plassey was fought
D. The French on 23rd June, 1757, between the
The first factory of the French British commander Robert Clive
was founded at Surat in 1668 by and the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-
Francois Caron. uddaulah.
Carnatic Battles
First Carnatic Battle 1746-48 Treaty of Aix La Chapelle (1748)
Second Carnatic Battle 1749-54 Treaty of Pondicherry (1754

Third Carnatic Battle 1758-63 Treaty of Paris (1763)

61
 In the Battle of Plassey, the Mir Qasim moved his capital from
commander of Siraj-uddaulah’s Murshidabad to Munger.
army was Mir Jafar. On 22nd October 1764, the Battle
The treachery of Mir Jafar of Buxar was fought between
preceding the Battle of Plassey the British on one side and the
resulted in the defeat of Siraj- combined forces of Mir Qasim,
uddaulah. Nawab Shuja-uddaulah of Awadh
The British appointed Mir Jafar and the Mughal Emperor Shah
the Nawab of Bengal, in return for Alam II on the other.
which Mir Jafar gave the land of Under the leadership of Hector
24 Parganas to the British. Munro, the English army defeated
The British despised Mir Jafar and the combined forces of Mir Qasim.
installed his son-in-law Mir Qasim After the Battle of Buxar, the East
as the Nawab of Bengal in 1760. India company's rule was firmly
Mir Qasim was the second most established in India.
qualified Nawab of Bengal after In Bengal, Diarchy lasted from
Alivardi Khan. 1765 and 1772.

Anglo - Mysore Wars

Major War Year Governor-General Important Treaty
First Anglo- Mysore (1767-1769AD) — Treaty of Madras
War (1769
Second Anglo-Mysore (1780-1784 AD) Warren Hastings Treaty of Mangalore
War (1784)
Third Anglo- Mysore (1790-1792 AD) Lord Cornwallis Treaty of (1792)
War
Fourth Anglo- Mysore (1799 AD) Lord Wellesly —
War

Anglo-Maratha War
War Year (AD) Governor-General
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782) Warren Hastings
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805) Wellesley
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818) Lord Hastings

62
Note - Diarchy was introduced by Guru Gobind Singh (1675–1708
Lord Clive in 1765, and abolished AD) was the tenth and the last
by Warren Hastings in 1772. Guru of the Sikhs.
He was born in Patna in 1666 AD.
Relation between Sikh and
His original name was Gobind
British
Rai.
Guru Nanak was the founder of He established Anandpur City
Sikhism. and his throne there.
He died at Kartarpur in 1539 AD. The autobiography of Guru
Guru Angad (1539–52 AD) was Gobind Singh is titled Bichittar
the second Guru of the Sikhs. Natak.
Guru Angad invented the He founded the Khalsa Panth on
Gurmukhi script. Baisakhi day in 1699 AD.
Amardas (1552–74 AD), the third He told Sikh followers to carry
Guru of the Sikhs, established his
five things - Kesh (Hair), Kanga
throne at Goindwal.
(Comb), Kachera, Kirpan and
Mughal emperor Akbar went to Kara.
Guru Amardas Goindwal and He gave the present form to Adi
granted some land to his daughter Grantha (Guruvani), the religious
Bibi Bhani. text of the Sikhs.
Guru Arjan Dev built Harminder Guru Gobind Singh was
Sahib in the middle of Amritsar assassinated in 1708 AD by a
pond. Pathan at Nanded in South India.
Guru Arjan Dev compiled the Adi Banda Bahadur ’s childhood
Granth. name was Lakshmanadeva or
Jahangir awarded the death Laksman Das.
penalty to Guru Arjan Dev in Banda Bahadur established the
assisting Prince Khusrau in 1606. first Sikh kingdom.
The ninth Sikh Guru was Guru He introduced coins with the
Tegh Bahadur (1664-1675 AD). names of Guru Nanak and Guru
Aurangzeb killed Guru Tegh Gobind Singh inscribed on them
Bahadur for not accepting Islam. and made the seal of Sikh State.
63
 Historians’ Opinions Regarding the Nature of the Revolt of 1857
Nature Opinion
This was the first freedom struggle of India. V.D. Savarkar
This was a national rebellion. Disraeli
It was a full-fledged Sepoy Mutiny. Sir John Lawrence and Seale
It was a conspiracy of Hindus and Muslims James Outram, W.Taylor
against the British.
The war between barbarism and civilization. T.R. Holmes
This was a war of Fanatic religionists against L.E.R. Rees
the Christians.

Important Books and Their Authors

Book Author
1. The Indian War of Independence 1857 V.D. Savarkar
2. The Great Rebellion Ashok Mehta
3. The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857 R.C. Majumdar
4. Eighteen Fifty-Seven S.N. Sen

Ranjit Singh became the ruler of On 29 th March, 1857, Mangal

Lahore in 1799. Pandey, a soldier of the 34 th
Ranjit Singh’s kingdom was Regiment Barrackpore, killed his
divided into four states - Peshawar, officers, Lieutenant Baugh and
Kashmir, Multan and Lahore. General Hewson. Consequently,
he was arrested and hanged on 8th
Lahore was the capital of Ranjit
April, 1857.
Singh’s empire.
On 10th May, 1857 occurred the
The Revolt of 1857 revolt of the Third Bengal Light
Cavalry of Meerut marked the
The immediate cause of the revolt
beginning of the Revolt of 1857.
of 1857 was the loading Enfield
Charles Canning was the Governor-
rifle required tearing open the General of India and Palmerston
greased cartridges with one's teeth, was the Prime Minister of England
and many sepoys believed that the during the revolt of 1857.
cartridges were greased with the Madras remained untouched by
fat of cows and pigs. the revolt of 1857.
64
 Major Rebellions Against the British Rule
Sl. Revolt Affected Areas Related Leaders Time
No.
1. Sanyasi Rebellion Bihar, Bengal Kena Sarkar and Dirji 1763-1800
Narayan
2. Fakir Rebellion Bengal Majmun Shah and 1776-77
Chirag Ali
3. Chuar Rebellion Bankura (Bengal) Durjan Singh 1799
4. Poligar Rebellion Tamil Nadu Veer P.Kattabomman 1799-1801
5. Bhil Rebellion Western Ghats Triyambak G. 1818-31
6. Ramosi Rebellion Western Ghats Chittur Singh, Umaji 1822-29
7. Pagalpanthi Rebellion Bengal Karamshah and Tipu 1825-50
8. Ahom Rebellion Assam Gomadhar Kunwar, 1828-33
Roop Chandra Konar
9. Wahabi Movement Bihar, Uttar Pradesh Sayyed Ahmad Barelvi 1826-71
Note - The Wahabi agitators wanted to reestablish Islam of Muhammad's time.
10. Kol Rebellion Chotanagpur Budhu Bhagat 1831-32
(Jharkhand)
11. Khond Rebellion Tamil Nadu to Bengal Chakra Bisoi 1837-56
12. Khasi Rebellion Meghalaya Tiruth Singh 1833
13. Farizi Movement Bengal Shariatullah Dadu Mir 1838-60
14. Santhal Rebellion Bengal and Bihar Siddha - Kanhu 1855-56
15. Munda Rebellion Bihar Birsa Munda 1899-1900
16. Paika Rebellion Odisha Bakhshi Jagabandhu 1817-1825
17. Indigo Rebellion Bengal Digambar Vishwas, 1859-60
Vishnu Vishwas
18. Pabna Rebellion Pabna (Bengal) Ishan Chandra Rai & 1873-76
Shambhupal
19. Deccan Rebellion Maharashtra — 1874-75
20. Mopalah Rebellion Malabar (Kerala) Ali Musliyar 1920-22
21. Kuka Movement Punjab Bhagat Jawahar Mal 1840-72
22. Rampa Rebellion Andhra Pradesh Sitaram Raju 1922-1924
23. Tana Bhagat Bihar Jatra Bhagat 1914
Movement
24. Tebhaga Movement Bengal — 1946
25. Telangana Movement Andhra Pradesh — 1946

65
 Events and Places Affected by the War of Independence in 1857 :
Important Personalities and Important Dates
Centre of Led by Date of British who Date of
Revolt Revolt suppressed the Suppression
Revolt
Delhi Bahadur Shah Zafar, 11 May, 1857 Nicholson and 21st September,
th

Bakht Khan Hudson 1857

th
Kanpur Nana Saheb, Tatya 5 June, 1857 Campbell 6th December,
Tope 1857
th
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal 30 May,1857 Campbell March, 1858
Jhansi Rani Lakshmi Bai June , 1857 Huge Rose 1858

Allahabad Liyaqat Ali June,1857 Colonel Neil 1858

Jagdishpur Kunwar Singh June, 1857 William Taylor 1858

and Vincent Eyre
Bareily Khan Bahadur Khan 1857 Campbell 1858
Faizabad Maulavi Ahmad Ulla 1857 Campbell 1858

The real name of Tatya Tope was Vedanta College was founded by
Ramchandra Pandurang. Rammohun Roy in 1825.
Rani Lakshmi Bai received Raja Rammohun Roy is called
martyrdom on 17th June, 1858. the Pioneer of the Indian
Renaissance, the originator of
Movement related to Religious
the reform movements, the father
and Social Reform
of modern India and the star of the
Brahmo Samaj new morning.
Brahmo Samaj was founded by He is considered the ‘Forerunner
Raja Rammohun Roy on 20th of Indian Journalism’.
August, 1828. He founded the Hindu College at
It opposed idol worship, Calcutta in 1817 with the help of
pilgrimage, rituals, etc. David Heyer.
Raja Rammohun Roy formed the He authored Tuhfat-ul Muwahhidin,
Atmiya Sabha in 1815. A Gift to Monotheism and books
66
 on monotheism and the Precepts ‘Prarthana Samaj’ in Mumbai in
of Jesus books besides publishing 1867.
Sambad Kaumudi, Mirat- Mahadev Govind Ranade is
ul-Akbar and Brahmanical called the ‘Pioneer of Cultural
Magazine in English. Renaissance in Western India'.
Mughal emperor Akbar-II Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was

conferred the title of Raja on founded by Mahadev Govind

Ranade in 1870.
Rammohun Roy.
Veda Samaj
After Raja Rammohun Roy,
K. Shri Dharalu Naidu founded
Devendranath Tagore took the
the Veda Samaj in Madras in 1864
leadership of the Brahmo Samaj.
inspired by Keshav Chandra Sen.
Devendranath Tagore founded
Arya Samaj
the Tattvabodhini Sabha.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati
Prarthana Samaj
established Arya Samaj in Bombay
Atmaram Pandurang established in 1875.
Social Reforms
Year of Abolition Governor-General Subject
Infant Slaughter Prohibition of Infant Slaughter
(1795, 1804 AD)
Sati Practice Lord William Prohibition of Sati Tradition
(1829 AD) Bentinck
The Slavery System Alan Burrows Prohibition of Slavery
(1843 AD)
Widow Remarriage Lord Canning Widow Marriage Permitted
(1856 AD)
Native Marriage Act Northbrook Encouragement to Intercaste Marriage
(1872 AD)
Age of Consent Act Lansdowne Marriage age for girls fixed at 12 years
(1891 AD)
Sarda Act (1929 AD) Irwin Marriage age for girls was fixed at 14
years (and for boys it was 18 years)

67
 He gave the slogan, ‘Back to the He led India at the World Religion
Vedas’. Conference held in Chicago,
The ‘Shuddhi Andolan’ was USA, in 1893.
launched by Swami Dayanand Swami Vevekanand was called the
Saraswati, which reopened 'Spiritual Father of the Modern
Hinduism and opened the doors National Movement' by Subhash
for the return of people from other Chandra Bose.
religions. Theosophical Society
Major Books by Swami Madame Blavatsky and
Dayanand Saraswati
Colonel Alcott established the
1. Satyarth Prakash (1875) Theosophical Society in 1875 in
2. Panch Maha Yajya Vidhi New York.
(1874) International Office of
3. Paakhand Khandan (1866)
Theosophical Society was opened
4. Advaitmat Khandan (1877)
in Adyar (Madras) in 1882.
Young Bengal Movement
Other Religious Movements
This movement was started by
Gopal Hari Deshmukh became
Henry Vivian Derozio in 1826.
famous as Lokhitwadi.
Surendranath Banerjee accepted
Servant of India Society was
Derozio as "the pioneer of the
founded by Gopal Krishna
modern civilization of Bengal.
Gokhale in 1905.
Derozio is also called the first Muslim Reform Movement
national poet of Modern India. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan launched
Ramakrishna Mission and Swami the Aligarh Movement.
Vivekananda Muhammad Qasim Nanautvi
Swami Vivekananda was and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi in
the disciple of Ramakrishna 1866 established Islamic seminary
Paramahamsa called Swami of at Deoband.
Dakshineswar. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded
Swami Vivekananda’s childhood the Ahmadiyya Movement in
name was Narendranath. 1889.
68
 In 1864, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan In 1932, Mahatma Gandhi named
founded the ‘Scientific Society’ the untouchables as ‘Harijan’,
and ‘Aligarh Muslim - Anglo
(Children of God) and also estab-
Oriental College’ in 1875. This
lished the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
college was transformed into
Aligarh Muslim University in Other Movements and Reforms

1920. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Lower Caste Movement worked tirelessly for widow re-
Jyotiba Phule founded the Satya marriage.
Shodhak Samaj in 1873 in Bom-
D.K. Karve established the first
bay.
Women’s University in Mumbai
In 1924, Babasaheb Ambedkar
founded the Bahishkrit Hitakarini in 1916.

Sabha in Bombay and started the Inter-caste marriage was recog-

publication of a magazine Bahish- nized by the enactment of the
krit Samaj in Marathi in 1927. Native Marriage Act in 1872.

Titles Received by and Given by

Title Received by Given by
Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Mahatma Gandhi Rabindranath Tagore
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Adolf Hitler
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Women's of Bardoli
Deshratna / Ajatashatru Dr. Rajendra Prasad Mahatma Gandhi

Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah Mahatma Gandhi

Desh Nayak Subhash Chandra Bose Rabindranath Tagore

Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda Maharaja Khetri

Father of the Nation Mahatma Gandhi Subhash Chandra Bose

Raja Ram Mohun Roy Akbar-II

69
 Important Organizations and Institutions Related to Indian National
Movements
Institution Establishment Founder
Year
Asiatic Society 1784 William Jones
Atmiya Sabha 1815 Raja Ram Mohun Roy
Young Bengal Movement 1826 Henry Louis Vivian Derozio
Brahmo Samaj 1828 Raja Ram Mohun Roy
Tatvabodhini Sabha 1839 Devendranath Thakur
Paramahamsa Mandali 1849 Atmaram Pandurang, Balakrishna
Jayakar, Dadoba Pandurang
Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha 1851 Dadabhai Naoroji
Balika Vidyalaya 1851 Jyotiba Phule
Mohammadan Literary Society 1863 Abdul Latif
Veda Samaj 1864 K. Sridharalu Naidu
Scientific Society 1864 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
East India Association 1866 Dadabhai Naoroji
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha 1870 M.G. Ranade
Prarthana Samaj 1867 Atmaram Pandurang
Satya Shodhak Samaj 1873 Jyotiba Phule
Aligarh Mohammadan Anglo- 1875 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
Oriental College
Indian League 1875 Shishir Kumar Ghosh
Arya Samaj 1875 Swami Dayanand Saraswati
Theosophical Society 1875 Madam Blavatsky and Colonel
Olcott

Indian Association 1876 Anand Mohan Bose, Surendranath

Banerjee
Indian National Congress 1885 A.O. Hume
Bombay Presidency 1885 Ferozshah Mehta, Taillang and
Association Badruddin Tyabji
Belur Math 1897 Swami Vivekananda

70
Indian Social Conference 1887 Mahadev Govind Ranade
Sarda Sadan 1889 Ramabai

Ramakrishna Mission 1897 Swami Vivekananda

Abhinav Bharat Society 1904 Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
Servants of Indian Society 1905 Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Muslim League 1906 Agha Khan and Salimullah
Social Service League 1911 Shri Narayan Malhar Joshi
Visva Bharati University 1921 Rabindranath Tagore
Gadar Party 1913 Lala Hardayal

Hindu Mahasabha 1915 Madan Mohan Malviya

Home Rule League 1916 Tilak and Annie Besant
Women’s India Association 1917 Annie Besant
Khilafat Movement 1919 Ali Bandhu
All India Trade Union 1920 N.M. Joshi
Swaraj Party 1923 Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan
Das

Hindustan Republican 1924 Sachindra Nath Sanyal

Association
Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha 1924 B.R. Ambedkar

Rashtriya Swayamsevak 1925 Dr. Hedgewar Sangh

Naujawan Sabha 1926 Bhagat Singh, Chhabil Das and
Yashpal
Hindustan Socialist Republican 1928 Bhagat Singh
Association
Khudai Khidmatgar 1929 Abdul Ghaffar Khan
Harijan Sevak Sangh (Pune) 1932 Mahatma Gandhi
Swatantrata Shramik Party 1936 B.R. Ambedkar
Forward Block 1939 Subhash Chandra Bose
Azad Hind Fauj 1942 Rash Behari Bose
Azad Hind Sarkar 1943 Subhash Chandra Bose

71
Development of Education History of Indian
during British India Newspapers

Warren Hasting, the Gover- The Portuguese introduced the

nor-General established the ‘Cal- printing press in India in sixteenth
cutta Madrasa’ in 1780 where century.
Persian and Arabic languages The clergy of Goa printed the first
were taught. book in India in 1557.
Lord Wellesley founded Fort James Augustus Hicky published
William College in 1800 to edu- ‘Hicky's Bengal Gazette’ in 1780
cate the Company’s civil officers. which is said to be the first news-
Lord Macaulay presented the paper in India.
Macaulay Minute in 1835 which The first newspaper published
criticized the Indian language and in English by an Indian was the
literature and praised the Anglo ‘Bengal Gazette’, published by
language and literature. Gangadhar Bhattacharya in
The theory of downward filtration 1816.
of education was formulated by To avoid Lytton’s Vernacular Press
Alexander Duff.
Act, this (Amrita Bazar) Patrika
'Charles Wood’s Despatch'
changed into an English daily
(1854) is called the ‘Magna Carta
of Indian Education’. overnight.
The Hunter Commission was ‘Maratha’ in English and ‘Ke-
formed in 1882. sari’ in Marathi were published
The University Commission was by Bal Gangadhar Tilak from
formed in 1902. Bombay.
Calcutta University Commis- Gadar was published from San
sion or Sadler Commission was Francisco (USA), in 1913. Its
formed in 1917. publication started in Urdu, En-
The Sargent Scheme was a 1944 glish and Punjabi.
Memorandum. Lord Wellesley controlled news-
For the first time, a provision was papers by enacting the Press
made by the company to spend Rs Control Act (censorship) in 1799.
1 lakh on education in the Charter Lord Hastings abolished the Act
Act of 1813. in 1818.
Among the supporters of oriental The Mirat-ul-Akhbar, newspa-
learning were - H.T. Prinsep and per of Raja Rammohun Roy was
banned under the License Rule.
H.H. Wilson.
Governor-General, William
The Government of India Bentinck’s approach was liberal
established the University Grants towards Indian Newspapers.
Commission (UGC) in 1953 at the Charles Metcalfe has been
suggestions of Radhakrishnan called the 'Liberator of Indian
Commission (1948). Newspapers'.
72
 Important Newspapers, Magazines and Books
Papers Magazines and Books Authors / Editors
Abhyudaya, Leader, Hindustan Madan Mohan Malviya
Indian Mirror Manmohan Ghosh, Keshav
Chandra Sen
Comrade, Hamdard Muhammad Ali
Kesari (Marathi), Maratha (English), Geeta Rahsya Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Karmayogi, Yugantar, Vande Mataram, Life Divine, Arvind Ghosh
Savitri
Bengali, A Nation in Making Surendranath Banerjee
Young India, Harijan, Navjeevan, Hind Swaraj, My Mahatma Gandhi
Experiment with Truth
Sambad Kaumudi Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Amrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh
Commonweal, New India Annie Besant
The Revolutionary Sachindra Nath Sanyal
Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, Rasta Goftar Dadabhai Naoroji
India Divided Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Unhappy India Lala Lajpat Rai
India Wins Freedom, Ghubar-e-Khatir, Al-Hilal Abul Kalam Azad
Discovery of India, Glimpses of World History, Jawaharlal Nehru
Meri Kahani
Indian Unrest Sir Valentine Chirol
India for Indians Chittaranjan Das
War of Indian Independence Veer Savarkar
Home and the World, Gitanjali Rabindranath Tagore
Nil Darpan Dena Bundhu Mitra
Soje Watan, Karmabhoomi, Shatranj Ke Khiladi Premchand
Bang - e - Dara, Taran - e – Hind Muhammad Iqbal
Bharat Bharti Maithili Sharan Gupt
History of Indian National Congress B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya
Satyarth Prakash Dayanand Saraswati
Indian Struggle Subhash Chandra Bose
Anandmath, Devi Chaudharani Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
Bandi Jeevan Sachindra Nath Sanyal
73
 Congress Sessions and Their Major Facts
Sessions Year Place President Special Point
st
1 1885 Bombay Womesh Chandra Attended by 72
Bonnerjee delegates
nd
2 1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji —
rd
3 1887 Madras Syed Badruddin Tyabji First Muslim President
th
4 1888 Allahabad George Yule First English President

12th 1896 Calcutta Rahimtuallah M. Sayani Sung Vande Mataram

far the the first time

21st 1905 Banaras Gopal Krishna Gokhale

22nd 1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji The word 'Swaraj'

used for the first time

23rd 1907 Surat Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh First division of

Congress

25th 1910 Allahabad William Wedderburn —

26th 1911 Calcutta Bishan Narayan Dar Jana Gana Mana was
sung for the first time

31st 1916 Lucknow Ambica Charan Mazumdar C on g r e s s M u s l i m

League Pact

32nd 1917 Calcutta Annie Besant First woman President

Special 1918 Bombay Hasan Imam Second division of

Session congress

33rd 1918 Delhi Madan Mohan Malviya —

34th 1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru —

35th 1920 Nagpur C. Vijayaraghavachariar Changes in Congress

Constitution

Special 1920 Calcutta Lala Lajpat Rai —

Session

74
36th 1921 Ahmedabad C.R. Das (Acting-President-
Hakim Ajmal Khan)

37th 1922 Gaya Deshbandhu Chittaranjan

Das

38th 1923 Kakinada Maulana Mohhmad Ali —

Special 1923 Delhi Abul Kalam Azad Youngest President
Session

39th 1924 Belgaum Mahatma Gandhi

40th 1925 Kanpur Mrs. Sarojini Naidu First Indian woman

President

41st 1926 Guwahati S. Srinivasa Iyengar Khadi Clothing made

compulsory for the
members

42nd 1927 Madras M.A. Ansari Demand for complete

Independence

43rd 1928 Calcutta Pandit Motilal Nehru —

44th 1929 Lahore Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru Demand for complete
Swaraj

45th 1931 Karachi Sardar Vallabbhai Patel Demand for

Fundamental Rights
st
51 1938 Haripura Subhash Chandra Bose

52nd 1939 Tripuri Subhash Chandra Bose Rajendra Prasad

became the
President after Bose’s
resignation
rd
53 1940 Ramgarh Maulana Abul Kalam Azad —

54th 1946 Meerut J.B. Kriplani President at the time

of Independence

75
 song during the Swadeshi move-
Important Facts related to
ment which became the national
Indian Independence Struggle
song of Bangladesh in 1971.
Tilak started the celebration of All India Muslim League was es-
Ganapati Festival in 1893 and tablished at the Dhaka Conference
Shivaji Festival in 1895. presided over by Salim Ulla Khan.
Valentine Chirol called Bal Gan- The Constitution of the Muslim
gadhar Tilak the 'Father of Indian League was formed in Karachi in
Unrest'. 1907.
Dadabhai Naoroji formulated the According to the Constitution
'drain of wealth' theory. of the Muslim League, its first
He (1892) was the first Indian to session was held in Amritsar in
win the election for the British 1908, in which Agha Khan was
House of Commons representing appointed as the President.
the Liberal Party. The Muslim League supported the
The first revolutionary organization partition of Bengal.
Anushilan Samiti was established Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram
in Bengal in 1902 by Gyanen- Bose attempted to assassinate
dranath Basu at Midnapore and the magistrate, Kingsford of the
Pramathnath Mitra at Calcutta, Bengal Presidency on 30th April,
Jatindranath Banerjee and Barin- 1908.
dranath Ghosh. Bhikaji Rustom Cama (mother
The partition of Bengal was an- of Indian revolution) hoisted for
nounced in July, 1905 by Lord the first time the Indian National
Curzon. Flag at Stuttgart, Germany, in
The call for Swadeshi movement 1907.
was given at the Town Hall in Cal- Viceroy Lord Hardinge organized
cutta on 7th August 1905 to protest a grand court in Delhi in 1911 to
against the partition of Bengal. welcome Emperor George V of
In Surat Session of Congress in England and Queen Mary.
1907, the party split into Moder- In this court, the partition of Ben-
ates and Extremists. gal was annulled.
Rabindranath Tagore wrote It was announced to shift the
Amar Sonar Bangla, a famous capital from Calcutta to Delhi.
76
During the time of Viceroy Lord On 6 th April, 1919, Gandhiji
Hardinge, Delhi became the capi- organized a nationwide strike
tal of India. against the Rowlatt Act.
On 1st November 1913, Sohan On 13 th April, 1919, General
Singh Bhakna and Lala Hardayal Dyer opened fire on a public
founded the Pacific Coast meeting at Jallianwala Bagh,
Hindustan Association. Amritsar opposing the arrest
In 1915, the British Government of Dr. Satyapal and Saifuddin
conferred the title of Kaiser-e- Kitchlew.
Hind on Mahatma Gandhi. A committee was formed under
In the Lucknow Session of the chairmanship of Lord Hunter
the Congress (1916), there was to investigate the causes of the
unity between the two factions Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
of Congress-Moderates and Mahatma Gandhi started the
Non-Cooperation Movement on
Extremists.
1st August 1920. On this day, Bal
Bal Gangadhar Tilak founded
Gangadhar Tilak died.
Home Rule League in April,
Gandhiji started the Non-Cooper-
1916.
ation Movement on 1st August,
Annie Besant founded Home
1920 to oppose the Rowlatt Act,
Rule League in Madras, in
Jallianwala Bagh massacre and in
September, 1916.
support of the Khilafat movement.
Gandhiji established Sabarmati
On 4th February, 1922, at Chau-
Ashram in Ahmedabad, in 1917.
ri-Chaura in Gorakhpur district,
Gandhiji went to Champaran on
agitators set on fire a police station
the insistence of Rajkumar Shukla in which 5 British policemen were
of Bihar. burnt alive.
Gandhiji launched ‘no tax’
The Non-Cooperation Movement
campaign from Kheda district of
was suspended by Gandhiji on 12th
Gujarat in 1918.
February, 1922 on being hurt by
The Rowlatt Act was passed on the Chauri-Chaura incident.
18th March, 1919. It was called Sachindranath Sanyal established
"No Lawyer, No Appeal, No the ‘Hindustan Republican
Arguments". Association’ at Kanpur in 1924.
77
The Kakori incident occurred On 5th March, 1931, the Gandhi-
on 9 th August, 1925, in which Irwin Pact was concluded. After
the government treasury inside this, Gandhiji suspended the Civil
the train was looted by the Disobedience Movement.
revolutionaries. The First Round Table Conference
Lala Lajpat Rai was injured was held in London from 12 th
and later died in a police lathi November, 1930 to 19th January,
charge during the protest against 1931.
the Simon Commission on 30th T h e S e c o n d R o u n d Ta b l e
October, 1928, at Lahore. Conference took place from 7th
Chandrashekhar Azad founded September, 1931 to 1st December,
the ‘Hindustan Socialist Repub-
1931. Mahatma Gandhi
lican Association’ at Feroz Shah
participated in this as a Congress
Kotla, in Delhi, in 1928.
representative.
Revolutionaries, led by Bhagat
T h e S e c o n d R o u n d Ta b l e
Singh shot and killed the then
Conference failed due to
Assistant Superintendent of
Communal Representation.
Police, Saunders, at Lahore, on
Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar partici-
17th December, 1928.
Purna Swaraj was declared its pated as a representative of the un-
goal in the Lahore Session of the touchables in all the three Round
Congress in 1929. The session Table Conferences in London.
was presided over by Jawaharlal On 16th August 1932, the then
Nehru. British Prime Minister Ramsay
The tricolour flag (Tiranga) was MacDonald presented the Com-
hoisted by Jawaharlal Nehru on munal Award. Under this, along
the banks of the river Ravi at 12 with Muslims and Sikhs, the Dalit
st
noon on 31 December, 1929. class was also considered a mi-
The Muslims of the North-Western nority and separated from Hindus.
Frontier Province organized a civil In protest against this decision,
disobedience movement under Gandhiji started a fast unto death
the leadership of Khan Abdul on 20th September, 1932 in Yerwa-
Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi). da Jail in Poona.
78
On 24 th September, 1932, on were arrested in the night on 8th
behalf of Gandhiji, there was August, 1942 under Operation
an agreement between Madan Zero Hour.
Mohan Malaviya and other On 4th July, 1943, Subhash Chan-
leaders and Ambedkar which was dra Bose was appointed the su-
known as ‘Poona Pact’. preme commander of the Azad
On 3 rd May, 1939, Subhash Hind Fauj.
Chandra Bose established the Azad Hind Government was
Forward Block within Congress. formed in Singapore on 21st Oc-
On 13 th March 1940, Udham tober, 1943 by Subhash Chandra
Singh of Punjab shot and killed Bose.
former Lieutenant Governor of On 18th February 1946, the Navy
Punjab, Dyer in London. revolted in Mumbai on a ship
Gandhiji started Individual named INS Talwar.
Satyagraha on 17 th October, On 24th March, 1946, the Cabinet
1940 in Pavnar, Maharashtra. Mission came to Delhi under the
The first Satyagrahi of the leadership of Pethick-Lawrence.
Individual Satyagraha movement, Its other members were - Stafford
was Vinoba Bhave. Cripps (Chairman, Board of
Quit India Movement resolution Trade), and A.V. Alexander
was passed in Congress Working (Minister of the Navy).
Committee (CWC) meeting on O n 2 nd S e p t e m b e r 1 9 4 6 ,
14th July 1942 in Wardha. Jawaharlal Nehru formed the
On 7th August 1942, the Congress Interim Government.
met at the historical Gwalia Pakistan was established on
Tank Ground in Bombay where 14 th August, 1947 and Indian
the ‘Quit India proposal’ was Dominion was established on 15th
accepted on 8th August. August, 1947.
During India’s Independence, the
The Quit India Movement was
Prime Minister of Britain was
started on 9th August, 1942.
Clement Attlee. Attlee belongs
In the Quit India Movement, to the Labour Party.
Gandhiji gave the slogan of ‘Do J.B. Kriplani was the Congress
or Die’. President during India's
All prominent Congress leaders Independence.
79
 Important Movements and Events related to the History of Indian
Independence
Movements and Events Year Related Subjects / Persons
Bang - Bhang Movement 1905 Against the partition of Bengal
Partition of Congress 1907 Split into Moderates and
Extremists
Lucknow Pact December, 1916 Agreement between Congress
and the Muslim League

Montague Declaration 20th August, 1917 Declaration of Minister of

India, Lord Montague
Rowlatt Act March, 1919 Black Act
(No Dalil, No Vakil, No Appeal)

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 13th April, 1919 Massacre by General Dyer

(Amritsar)
Khilafat Movement 1919 Shaukat Ali, Mohammad Ali
Congress Session at Nagpur December, 1920 Proposal of Non-Cooperation
Movement has been passed
Non-Cooperation Movement 1st August, 1920 Mahatma Gandhi (Tilak died
on the same day)

Chauri-Chaura Incident 4th February, 1922 Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh)

Nehru Report August, 1928 Pt. Motilal Nehru, President
th
Central Legislative 8 April, 1929 Bombs thrown by Assembly
Bomb Case Bhagat Singh
and Batukeshwar Dutt in the
Legislative Assembly
Congress Session at Lahore December, 1929 Passed the resolution on Poorn
Swaraj
Independence Day 26th January, 1930 Announcement made to
th
celebrate 26 January as the
Independence Day

80
Gandhi- Irwin Pact 5th March, 1931 Announced to postpone the
Civil Disobedience Movement
concluded between Mahatma
Gandhi and Viceroy Irwin

Communal Award 16th Aug.,1932 Providing separate

representation by McDonold
th
Third Round Table 17 Nov., 1932 Congress did not participate in
Conference the conference

Formation of Forward Block May, 1939 Subhash Chandra Bose

Demand for Pakistan 22 nd -24 th March, Lahore Conference of the

1940 Muslim League

August Offer 8th August, 1940 Viceroy Linlithgow

Cripps Mission March, 1942 Stafford Cripps
Quit India Movement 9th Aug., 1942 Mahatma Gandhi
Shimla Conference 1945 All Political Party Meeting

Announcement of Prime 20th February, 1946 Assurance to Minister Attlee

declare India's Independence
th
Arrival of Cabinet Mission 24 March, 1946 Pathick Lawrence, Sir Stafford
Cripps and A. V. Alexander

Direct Action Day 16th August, 1946 By the Muslim League

Establishment of Interim 2 n d S e p t e m b e r, Nehru became the Vice-

Government 1946 President of the Executive
Council
Mountbatten Plan 3rd June, 1947 Plan of partition of India
th
The Attainment of Freedom 15 Aug., 1947 The Indian Independence Act
th
E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f I n d i a n 26 January, 1950 Dr. Rajendra Prasad (First
Republic President)
Bhoodan Movement 1951 Started by Vinoba Bhave
(Andhra Pradesh)

81
 In addition, being painter and
World History sculptor, Leonarda da Vinci was
also a scientist, mathematician,
Renaissance e n g i n e e r, c o m p o s e r a n d
The Renaissance was the philosopher.
Last Supper, Monalisa, Virgin
intensification of the cosmic
of Rocks are famous paintings
tendencies of Western European
by Leonardo da Vinci.
thought, literature and art during
In the Renaissance period ‘Giotto’
the fourteenth, fifteenth and is considered as the father of
sixteenth centuries. painting.
Renaissance started in Italy. The Science of Renaissance Period
city of Florence was the largest According to Copernicus, the
centre of the Renaissance. Earth is not at the centre of the
The strong reason for the universe, but it is at the centre of
Renaissance was the rise of trade. the Solar System and like other
This led to the rise of cities and planets, the Earth revolves around
their importance began to grow. the Sun.
The credit of inventing paper is J o h n Wy c l i f f e i s c a l l e d
the ‘Morning Star ’ of the
given to China, but Italy was the
Reformation movement.
world’s Fuhrer in making the best
America was named after the name
paper initially.
of Italian Amerigo Vespucci.
Petrarch, a resident of Italy, Magellan I travelled the whole
is considered the founder of world by sea.
‘Humanism’.
Literature of the Renaissance Period American Revolution or
In the field of literature in Italy, Freedom Struggle
residents of Florence Dante, America’s freedom struggle
Petrarch and Boccaccio, are the started with the Boston Tea Party
pioneers. incident.
Dante (1265-1321) has been The slogan of American
called the 'Forerunner of the independence was – No Taxation
Renaissance' and the ‘first person Without Representation.
of the Renaissance’. George Washington was the
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, hero of the American freedom
Raphael, and Titian are famous struggle. Later, he became the first
painters. President of the US.
82
America attained complete He was born in Genoa, Italy.
independence on 4th July, 1776. He said - ‘First you are a man,
The Constitution of America came then a citizen of a country or
into force in 1788. something.
The first written Constitution Garibaldi is called the sword of
in the world came into force in unification of Italy.
America. The unification of Italy began
Slavery was abolished in America with the joining of Lombardy and
on 1st January, 1863 by Abraham Sardinia.
Lincoln. Garibaldi organized a contingent
of armed youth who came to be
French Revolution
known as the Red Shirts.
The French Revolution took place The first war of unification of Italy
in 1789 during the reign of Louis was fought in 1848, in which the
XVI. people of Naples, Sicily and Rome
The immediate cause of the French were participated, which was
Revolution was to call a meeting called the National War.
of the Estates-General. The birth of Italy is considered to
Rousseau’s work is ‘Social be in 1860, but its integration was
Contract’, while Montesquieu’s completed in 1871 by count kavur.
work is ‘The Spirit of Laws’.
Unification of Germany
Napoleon was born on 15 th
August, 1769 in an ordinary Bismarch
family on the island of Corsica. He was born on 1st April, 1815 in
The Bank of France was founded Altmark Prussia.
in 1800 by Napoleon. Bismarck was Prime Minister of
The Battle of Waterloo took the ruler of Prussia William I.
Germany was unified by Bismarck.
place on 18th June, 1815 between
Austria surrendered to Prussia in
the Allied army and Napoleon, 1866.
in which Napoleon was taken The ‘Friedrich List’ is considered
captive. t h e F a t h e r o f G e r m a n y ’s
Economic Nationalism.
Unification of Italy
Under the Prague Treaty of 23rd
Joseph Mazzini is considered the August, 1866, Schleswig and
father of the unification of Italy. Holstein joined the administration.
83
The Battle of the Sedans was Karl Marx’s slogan was- "Workers
fought on 1 st September, 1870 of the world, unite".
between Prussia and France. ‘Czar Nicholas II’ was the last
Czar of Russia who was killed in
Russian Revolution
a bombing.
The leader of the Bolshevik In March 1919, the Bolshevik
faction was Lenin. Party was renamed as Communist
Lenin was a deeply committed Party.
r e v o l u t i o n a r y. H e h a d War Minister, Trotsky is credited
intellectualism, vigour, indomitable with organizing the Red Army.
power and great ability to set the In April 1917, Lenin published
a revolutionary plan in Russia,
summer policy of revolution.
known as the ‘April Theses'.
In 1898, the Russian Marxists
He said ‘One Step Forward, Two
established the Social Democratic
Steps Back’.
Party. He died in the year 1924.
Karl Marx a German is considered Stalin is considered the Creator
the founder of Scientific Socialism. of Modern Russia.
'Das Kapital' and 'Communist He accused Trotsky of treason and
Manifesto' are books of Kark anti-communism and removed
Marx. him from the party.
On 8 th March, 1917, the first
explosion of the revolution Industrial Revolution
took place in Russia. On the
The beginning of the Industrial
same day, poor peasants and
Revolution is believed to be from
labourers marched on the streets
1750 AD to 1850.
of Petrograd.
The Industrial Revolution started
St. Simon is considered the
in England.
Father of French Communism.
1760 is considered as the
The ruler of Russia was called the
beginning year of the Industrial
Czar. This system of monarchy Revolution due to the abundance
ended in March 1917. of natural resources, availability
“If not today, tomorrow or not of capital, improved markets, etc.
tomorrow, day after tomorrow, in England.
the building of European The basic intention of ‘Industrial
imperialism is going to collapse” Revolution’ is- ‘Changes in the
– Lenin Production System.
84
 A man named Brindley built the Italy joined the Allied powers in
canal from Manchester to Worsley. April 1915.
The safety coating was invented Britain joined World War I on
by Humphry Davy. 4th August, 1914, because of the
The term industrial revolution German army's entrance into
was first used by the French Belgium.
socialist leader Blancci in 1837. World War I lasted for more than
In 1829, George Stephenson 4 years.
began the era of rail transport by World War I ended on 11 th
driving a train between Liverpool November, 1918.
to Manchester at a speed of sixteen After World War I, the Treaty
miles per hour with his own of Versailles was signed with
engine. Germany on 28th June, 1919.
World War I Nationalism and Nazism in
Germany
World War-I broke out on 28th July,
1914. Hitler was born in Austria on 20th
The assassination of the Crown April, 1889.
Prince of Austria Archduke Nazi Party rose in Germany under
Franz Ferdinand proved to be Hitler’s leadership.
the immediate cause of the First The Nazi Party was founded
World War. in Munich in 1919 by Anton
In First World War, the world was Drexler. In 1920, Hitler named
divided into two camps - Allied it the National Socialist German
and Central Powers. Workers Party.
Allied nations were England, Italy, In 1924, after a failed attempt
Russia, America, France, Japan. to control the state of Bavaria,
Among the Central Nations - the Nazi Party was temporarily
Germany, Turkey, Hungary and banned and Hitler was jailed.
Austria, etc. were the countries, In July 1933, the government
led by Germany. ordered that only the Nazi Party
Germany attacked France and would remain in Germany.
Russia on 1st August, 1914 and 3rd After the death of President
August, 1914 respectively.
Hindenburg on 2nd August, 1934,
America joined World War I on 6th
Hitler assumed the title of Führer
April, 1917. The then President of
the United States was Woodrow (Supreme Leader) along with
Wilson. Chancellor.
85
‘Mein Kampf’ is an autobiography support war and nationalism (today
of Hitler. we are residents of Italy only).
Nazism rose in Germany under Fascism began with the slogan
the leadership of Adolf Hitler in 'Italy Always' (Viva I’Italial).
the third decade of the twentieth In Italy, the Fasces members are
century and the establishment of called ‘fascists’ and its doctrines
the Third Reich was the logical are called Fascism.
culmination of all German history Mussolini taught his team
and philosophy. members to wear uniforms, tie
Hitler became Chancellor of arms, parade and carry flags.
Germany in January 1933, and The shirt worn by the men at this
contemporary to the President party was black So, these people
became famous as Black Shirts.
Hindenburg.
Mussolini was also known as Il
Austria was the first victim of
Duce (The Leader).
Hitler’s expansionist policy.
The Fascist Grand Council was
Hitler committed suicide on 30th of established by Mussolini in 1923
April, 1945. The symbol of Nazi and he became its permanent
party was Swastika. President.
Ethiopia was invaded by Mussolini
Rise of Fascism in Italy
in 1935.
After World War I, there was Japanese Imperialism
widespread dissatisfaction in
Italy. The Paris Conference did Military service was made
not accept Italy’s claims that Italy mandatory in Japan in 1873.
considered justified. China became the first victim of
Benito Mussolini was born in 1883 imperialism of Japan.
in Italy. Russia was defeated by Japan in
Initially, he was of leftist ideology 1905. The war concluded with the
and an active worker of the Italian Treaty of Portsmouth.
Communist Party. The United Nations sent the ‘Lytton
His party was named National Commission’ to Manchuria.
Fascist Party. It was established Manchuria was invaded by Japan
in Milan in 1919. in 1931.
He launched a newspaper called Japan relinquished the membership
‘La Lotta Di Classe’ (class of the United Nations in March,
struggle). Later, he went on to 1933.
86
Atomic bombs were used by the On 22nd June, 1941, the Germans
US on Hiroshima (Little Boy) on invaded the Soviet Union under
6th August, 1945 and Nagasaki Operation Barbarossa.
(Fat man) on 9th August, 1945.
On 8th December, 1941, America
Forced by this horrific massacre,
(Operation Fritz) in World War II.
Japan had to accept the
unconditional surrender and on Germany invaded Russia on 22nd
2nd September, 1945 signed the June, 1941, alleging breach of the
MoU. agreement reached with Russia on
World War II 23rd August, 1939.
Italy participated in World War II
The possibility of World War II on behalf of Germany on 10th June,
had occurred since the time of
1940.
the peace conference of 1919,
when the victorious nations made The President of the United States
a humiliating treaty of Versailles at the time of World War II was
with Germany. Franklin D. Roosevelt while the
The immediate cause of World Prime Minister of Britain was
War II was the German invasion Winston Churchill.
on Poland on 1st September, 1939.
In 1936, the civil war started in
According to Cyril Pfalz, World
Spain. Spain was the first victim
War II was originally a vengeful
war. of Italy and Germany jointly.
The French commander, Marshal During the Second World War,
French, in 1919 said that “the the British Government assumed
Treaty of Versailles is not a peace Indians to give Dominion State
Status in reform for war aid
treaty, but only a cease-fire treaty
for twenty years”. against the slogan 'Asia for Asians'
The western states promised that of Japan.
if Germany invaded Poland, they World War II was fought for 6
will send their soldiers. Hence, years.
France and Britain declared war It ended on 2nd September, 1945.
against Germany. At San Francisco Conference on
On 3rd September, 1938, Britain 24 th October, 1945, the Allies
declared war against Germany, established the United Nations, a
a few hours later France did the successful attempt to prevent war
same. after World War II.
87
 people and described them as the
Turkey
flunky of British imperialism.
In World War I, Turkey supported Kemal Pasha banned the
Germany. Therefore, post-war previously prevalent face cap and
victorious allies imposed a ‘Treaty burqa and encouraged European
of Sevres’ on Turkey and ended its dress pants, coat and tie.
empire. Mustafa Kemal Pasha founded the
The creator of modern Turkey, ‘Republican People’s Party’.
Mustafa Kemal Pasha was a He died in 1938.
staunch opponent of imperialism He ended the Purdah system and
and a strong supporter of the Polygonal marriage, instead of
nationalism and modernity. arranging education for women.
He proposed six principles-
Miscellaneous Facts
republicanism, nationalism,
j u d i c i a l s y s t e m , e c o n o m y, China was known as the ‘Patient
secularism and revolutionism to of Asia’.
modernize Turkey. Turkey was called the ‘Patient of
He was called Ataturk (Father of Europe’.
the Nation) of Turkey. The hero of the Chinese revolution
The Treaty of Lausanne between in 1911 was Sun Yat-Sen.
Turkey and the Allies was An organization called ‘Tung
concluded in 1923. It was the last Meng Hui’ was founded by Sun
treaty of the First World War. Yat-Sen.
The Khilafat was abolished on 3rd Sun Yat-Sen is called the
March, 1924. Father of China. He proposed
The Republic of Turkey was three principles - nationalism,
declared on 29th October, 1923. On democratism and social justice.
20th April 1924, a new constitution Mao Tse-Tung (Mao Zedong) was
was announced in Turkey. the first President of the Chinese
Mustafa Kemal Pasha abolished Communist Republic.
the religious rights of the Caliphs.
Portuguese started geographical
Muslims of India (Agha Khan discoveries in 15th century. Prince
and Amir Ali) reported against it Henry initiated in this direction
and wrote a letter to Kemal Pasha that he was known as Henry the
but he did not worry about these Navigator.
88
2 Polity
Indian Constitution is the result of Jawaharlal Nehru moved the
Constitutional development. 'Objectives Resolution', which
British government passed various was unanimously adopted by
types of laws to govern the the Constituent Assembly on
country. 22nd January, 1947 and later
constituted as the Preamble to the
Constituent Assembly Constitution.
of India Note- The first reading of the
Constituent Assembly started from
The Constituent Assembly was 4th November to 9th November,
constituted under the scheme of 1948, the second reading from
the Cabinet Mission of 1946. 15th November, 1948 to 17th
According to the Cabinet Mission, October, 1949, and the third
the strength of the Constituent reading from 14th November,
Assembly was to be 389. 1949 to 26th November, 1949.
Out of 296 seats allotted to The Constitution was adopted
British India, 292 members were by the Constituent Assembly on
to be drawn from the 11 provinces 26th November, 1949. November
and 4 from the four Chief 26 is celebrated as Constitution
Commissioners' Provinces. day to mark the day on which the
Generally, one seat was to be Constitution was adopted.
allotted for every 10 lakh of the Presently Indian Constitution
population. consists of a Preamble 465
The Constituent Assembly held its Articles 12 Schedules and 25
first meeting on 9th December, parts. (from the point of view of
1946 in New Delhi. enumeration).
The oldest member, Dr. Sachidanand The Constitution adopted by
Sinha, was elected as the temporary the Constituent Assembly on
November 26, 1949 originally
President of the Constituent
had 22 Parts, 8 Schedules and 395
Assembly.
Articles.
On 11th December 1946, Dr.
On 24th January 1950, Dr.
Rajendra Prasad was elected
Rajendra Prasad was elected the
as the President of the Assembly,
first President of Independent
HC Mukherjee as Vice-President India.
and BN Rau as a constitutional
advisor to the Assembly. Indian Constitution came into
The number of women in the force on 26th January 1950.
Constituent Assembly was 15. The time was taken in constitution
On 13th December, 1946 making - 2 years, 11 months and
89
 Principal Committees of the Constituent Assembly and Their
Presiding Heads
Committees Chairman
Union Powers Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
Union Constitution Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
Provincial Constitution Committee Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Drafting Committee Bhimrao Ambedkar
Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Minorities
(i) Fundamental Rights Sub-Committee J. B. Kriplani
(ii) Minorities Sub-Committee H.C. Mukherjee
Committee on Rules of Procedure Rajendra Prasad
Committee for the States Jawaharlal Nehru
Steering Committee Rajendra Prasad
Ad-hoc National Flag Committee Rajendra Prasad

18 days. Court and High Court.

An Interim government for India Canada: Appointment of the
was formed on 2nd September, Governor by the centre, Federal
1946 based on Cabinet Mission system and residual powers vested
with the same.
Plan. Ireland: Directive Principles of
The design of the National Flag State Policy, Election System of
the President, members nominated
was adopted by the Constituent by President to the Parliament.
Assembly on 22 July 1947. Germany: Suspension of
The National Anthem of India fundamental rights during
was adopted in its Hindi version Emergency, etc.
by the Constituent Assembly as Soviet Union: Fundamental duties
of the citizens.
the National Anthem of India on
South Africa : Process of the
24th January, 1950. Constitutional Amendment, Election
Sources of the Constitution of Rajya Sabha members etc.
Major Parts of the Indian
Britain: Parliamentary system of Constitution
governance, single citizenship
Part Topics Articles
and rule of law, etc.
United States of America: • Part 1 Union and its 1-4
Territories
Fundamental Rights, Independence
of the judiciary, Doctrine of judicial • Part 2 Citizenship 5-11
review, Post of Vice-President, Fundamental 12-35
Impeachment of President, • Part 3
Rights
Removal of Judges of Supreme
90
 • Part 4 Directive 36-51 • Part 9 Panchayats 243–243O
Principles of
State Policty • Part 9 B Co-operative 243 ZH -
Societies 243 ZT
•Part 4A Fundamental 51A
Duties • Part 10 Scheduled and 244-244A
Tribal Areas
• Part 5 Union 52-151
• Part 11 Relations 245–263
• Part 6 States 152 - 237
between the
• Part 8 Union 239–242 Union and the
Territories States

Schedules and Its Subjects

Schedule Subject
First Schedule State and Union Territory.
Second Schedule Salary of President and Other Higher Officials.
Third Schedule Forms of Oaths or Affirmations.
Fourth Schedule Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha.
Fifth Schedule Provision regarding administration and control of Scheduled
Areas and Scheduled Tribes.
Sixth Schedule Provision as to the administration of tribal areas of the
states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
Seventh Schedule The division of powers between the Center and the State in
the Union List, the State List and the Concurrent List.
Eighth Schedule Languages.
Ninth Schedule Law Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.
Tenth Schedule Provisions as to disqualification on the ground of defection.
Eleventh Schedule Provisions relating to Panchayats.
Twelfth Schedule Provisions relating to Municipalities.
dignity of the individual and the
The Preamble unity and integrity of the Nation. In
our Constituent Assembly this 26
We, the people of India having
solemnly resolved to Constitute India November, 1949 (Miti Margashirsha
into a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Shukla Saptami Samvat 2006 Vikrami)
Democratic, Republic and to secure we do hereby adopt, enact and give to
to all its citizens : Justice, social, ourselves this Constitution.
economic and political; Liberty of The Preamble to the Indian
Constitution is called its soul.
thought, expression , belief, faith
In Keshavananda Bharti vs. State
and worship; Equality of status and of Kerala (1973), the SC held
opportunity and to promote among the Preamble to be part of the
them all; Fraternity assuring the Constitution.
91
 Andhra Pradesh was formed on 1st
The Union of India and October 1953 based on language
Its Territories after the death of Sriramulu.
Andhra Pradesh is the first state
to be formed on the basis of
Under Part I of the Indian language.
Constitution, Articles 1 to 4,
refer to the Union of India and The State Reorganization Act was
its territories. India has been passed by the Indian Parliament in
declared a Union of States. 1956. Under this Act, 14 States and
Currently, there are 28 States and 6 Union Territories were created.
8 Union Territories in India. Zonal Councils were established
The name of the Union (India, in the Union of India by the States
that is Bharat) and its territory is Reorganization Act, 1956.
mentioned under Article 1. There are five Zonal Councils in
India. The Union Home Minister
Under Article 2, the right to admit
or establish new States has been is the ex-officio chairperson of the
conferred on the Parliament. Zonal Councils.
Parliament has the power to create Zonal Councils of India
new States and change the area,
extent and name of existing States Zonal Council Headquarter
under Article 3. Eastern Zonal Council Kolkata
The State Reorganization
Commission was established in Western Zonal Council Mumbai
1953 for the reorganization of the Central Zonal Council Prayagraj
States of the Union of India. Its (Allahabad)
president was Fazal Ali.
This Commission submitted its Northern Zonal Council New Delhi
report in the year 1955. Southern Zonal Council Chennai

Formation of New State in India

Andhra Pradesh 1 October, 1953
Gujarat, Maharashtra 1 May , 1960
Nagaland 1 December, 1963
Haryana 1 November, 1966
Himachal Pradesh 25 January, 1971
Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura 21 January, 1972
Sikkim 16 May , 1975
Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh 20 February, 1987
Goa 30 May, 1987
Chhattisgarh 1 November, 2000
Uttarakhand 9 November, 2000
Jharkhand 15 November, 2000
Telangana 2 June, 2014
92
 Note - North-Eastern States race, caste, sex or place of birth
viz. Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, or any of them.
Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Article 16: Equality of
Meghalaya and Nagaland are not opportunity in the matter of public
included in Zonal Councils. Their employment- All citizens will be
problems are dealt with by the provided equal opportunities in
North East Council constituted subjects related to employment or
under the North Eastern Council appointment to a post under the
Act, 1971. State.
Article 17: Abolition of
Citizenship Untouchability -
Articles 5 to 11 give detailed The practice of untouchability in
provisions relating to citizenship. any form is a punishable offence
The Constitution of India grants in accordance with the law.
its citizens single citizenship. Article 18: Abolition of Titles-
It prohibits the State from
Fundamental Rights conferring any title except a
military or academic distinction.
Part - III of the Constitution provides It prohibits a citizen of India from
details of the fundamental rights, accepting any title from a foreign
from Articles 12 to 35. They are state without the consent of the
also known as ‘Magna Carta of President of India.
India’. ii. Right to Freedom (Article 19 to
Originally Indian Constitution had 22)-
seven fundamental rights. Right Article 19: Protection of certain
to property was removed from the rights related to freedom of
list by 44th Amendment Act 1978. speech – At present, Article 19(1)
At present, 6 Fundamental Rights guarantees 6 rights.
have been guaranteed to the Article 19(1) (a) – Right to
citizens under the Constitution, freedom of speech and expression.
which are as follows: Article 19(1) (b) – Right to
i. Right to Equality (Articles 14 to assemble peacefully and without
18) arms.
Article 14: Equality before Law- Article 19(1) (c) – Right to form
The state shall not deny to any associations or unions.
person equality before the law Article 19(1) (d) – Right to move
or the equal protection of laws freely throughout the territory of
within the territory of India. India.
Article 15: The State shall not Article 19(1) (e) – Right to reside
discriminate against any citizen and settle in any part of the
on the grounds only of religion, territory of India.
93
 Article 19(1) (g) – Right to (ii) Right to be produced before
practice any profession, or to a magistrate within 24 hours
carry on any occupation, trade or (excluding the journey time).
business. (iii)Right to be defended by a lawyer
Article 20: Protection in respect of his own choice.
of conviction for offences : (iii)Right against Exploitation
Under these three types of (Article 23 to 24):
protection are given– Article 23 – Prohibition of traffic
(i) A person shall be convicted of in human beings and forced
any offence for violation of a labour.
law in force at that time of the Article 24 – Prohibition of
commission of the act. employment of children below
(2) No person shall be prosecuted the age of 14 years in any factory,
and punished for the same offence mine or other hazardous activities.
more than once. (iv) Right to Freedom of Religion
(3) No person accused of any offence (Article 25 to 28)
shall be compelled to be a witness Article 25 – Freedom of
against himself. conscience and free profession,
Article 21: Protection of Life and practice and propagation of
Personal Liberty religion.
No person shall be deprived of Article 26 – Freedom to manage
his life or personal liberty except religious affairs.
according to the procedure Article 27 – Freedom from
established by law. taxation for promotion of any
Article 21(A) : Right to Education - particular religion.
The State shall provide free and Article 28 – Freedom as to
compulsory education to all attendance at religious instruction
children in the age group of six to or religious worship in certain
fourteen years. educational institutions.
Note : 86th Constitutional Note : Wearing a kirpan and
Amendment Act, 2002 inserted travelling with it, will be
Article 21(A), by which the State considered to be part of the Sikh
shall provide free and compulsory religion.
education to all children in the age (v) Cultural and Educational Rights
group of 6 to 14 years. (Article 29 to 30) :
Article 22 : Protection against Article 29: Protection of language,
arrest and detention: script and culture of minorities.
Following are the rights of an Article 30: Right of minorities
arrested or detained person– to establish and administer
(i) Right to be informed of the educational institutions.
grounds of arrest. (vi) Right to Constitutional Remedies :
94
To enforce fundamental rights, Article 42 – Provision for just and
the Supreme Court has been human conditions of work and
empowered to issue 5 types of maternity relief.
writs (directions or orders) under Article 43 – To secure a living
Article 32 of the Constitution. wage etc. for workers.
These are- Article 43(A) – Participation of
(a) Habeas Corpus (b) Mandamus workers in the management of
(c) Prohibition industries.
(d) Certiorari (e) Quo-Warranto Article 44 –To secure for all
Article 32 (Right to Constitutional citizens a uniform civil code
Remedies) was called 'Soul of throughout the country.
the Constitution' by Dr. Bhimrao Article 45 –To provide early
Ramji Ambedkar. childhood care and education for
During National Emergency,
all children until they complete
the Fundamental Rights (except
the age of 6 years.
Articles 20 and 21) were Article 46 –To promote the
suspended. educational and economic
Directive Principles of interests of SCs, STs and other
weaker sections of the society
State Policy and to protect them from social
injustice and exploitation.
The Directive Principles of State
Policy are Article 47 –To raise the level
enshrined in Part-IV of the of nutrition and the standard of
Constitution (from Article 36 to living, to improve public health,
51). These were borrowed from to prohibit the consumption of
the Irish Constitution. Their intoxicating drinks and drugs
implementation depends on the which are injurious to health.
will of the State. They can neither Article 48 –To organise agriculture
be enforced by the courts nor and animal husbandry on modern
enjoy statutory power. and scientific lines.
Article 38 – State to secure a Article 48(A) –To protect and
social order for promoting welfare improve the environment and to
of the people. safeguard forest and wildlife.
Article 49 –It provides for the
Article 39 – Certain principles of
preservation of monuments,
policy to be followed by the state
places and objects of national
and Article 39A - Equal justice importance.
and free legal aid. Article 50 –It provides for the
Article 40 – For the organization separation of executive and
of village panchayats. judiciary.
Article 41 – Right to work, Article 51 –It makes provisions
education and public assistance in for international peace and
certain cases. security enhancement.
95
 Fundamental Duties F. to value and preserve the rich
heritage of our composite
culture;
The provision of fundamental
duties is mentioned in Article 51A G. to protect and improve the
of Part-IVA of the Constitution. natural environment including
Fundamental duties were forests, lakes, rivers and
incorporated into the Constitution wildlife and to have compassion
by the 42nd Constitution for living creatures;
Amendment, 1976. H. to develop the scientific temper,
The fundamental duties humanism and the spirit of
were incorporated on the inquiry and reform;
recommendations of the Swaran
Singh Committee. I. to safeguard public property
These were inspired by the and to abjure violence;
Constitutional of the Soviet J. to strive for excellence in
Union. all spheres of individual and
collective activity so that
List of Fundamental Duties
the nation constantly rises to
Article 51A, Fundamental Duties higher levels of endeavour and
- It shall be the duty of every achievement;
citizen of India-
J. to strive for excellence in
A. to abide by the Constitution and all spheres of individual and
respect its ideals and collective activity so that
institutions, the National Flag the nation constantly rises to
and the National Anthem; higher levels of endeavour and
B. to cherish and follow the noble achievement;
ideals which inspired our K. who is a parent or guardian
national struggle for freedom; to provide opportunities for
C. to uphold and protect the education to his child or, as the
sovereignty, unity and integrity case may be, ward between the
of India; age of six and fourteen years.
Note- Originally there were
D. to defend the country and 10 fundamental duties in the
render national service when Constitution, but the 11th
called upon to do so;
fundamental duty was inserted by
E. to promote harmony and the the 86th Amendment, 2002.
spirit of common brotherhood
amongst all the people of Union Executive
India transcending religious,
linguistic and regional or The President is the head of
sectional diversities; to the Union executive. The
renounce practices derogatory Union executive consists of the
to the dignity of women; President, Vice President, Prime
96
 Minister and the Cabinet. The States.
President is the nominal head of According to Article 55,
the executive due to the adoption the President is elected by
of the parliamentary governance proportional representation, by
system in India, while the real single transferable vote and secret
power is vested in Prime Minister ballot.
and his Cabinet. Articles 52 to Term of Office
78 describe the Union executive The term of office of the President
under Part V of the Indian under Article 56 is 5 years.
Constitution. However, even after the end of the
term, he remains in office until his
A. President successor assumes charge.
There shall be a President of India According to Article 57, the
(Article 52). President is eligible for re-election.
The President is the first citizen of The President may resign from his
the country. post by writing a letter addressed
According to Article 53 (1), the to the Vice-President.
executive power of the Union rests Oath
with the President and he uses it As per Article 60, the President
by himself or by his subordinate is administered the oath of office
officers. and secrecy by the Chief Justice
Qualifications of the Supreme Court or in his
Article 58 describes the absence by the senior-most Judge
qualifications for occupying the of the apex court.
office of the President of India- Salary
1. He must be a citizen of India The President’s monthly salary
2. He must have completed the age is 5 lakh rupees. His salary is
of 35 years; income tax free.
3. He must be qualified for election Impeachment
as a member of the House of the Under Article 61(1) impeachment
people; of the President can be imposed
4. He does not hold an office of profit only on allegations of violation of
at the time of election. the Constitution.
Election Note - V.V. Giri from 3rd May,
According to Article 54, the 1969 to 20th July, 1969, Justice
President is elected by the Muhammad Hidayatullah from 20
members of an electoral college.
July, 1969 to 24th August, 1969
The electoral college consists
of elected members of the Lok and B.D. Jatti from 11th February
Sabha, the Rajya Sabha and the 1977 to 25th July 1977 were the
legislative assemblies of the acting- President.
97
 Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first from among persons with
President to be elected to the special knowledge and practical
office for the second consecutive experience in the fields of arts,
time.
Rights and Powers of the President science, literature and social
Executive Powers - The following service [Article 80 (3)].
are the executive powers of the Ordinance Power
President: The President has the right to
All functions of the govt. are done issue an Ordinance under Article
in the name of the President. 123.
The President appoints various It has the effect of a law formulated
officials, including the Prime by the Parliament.
Minister of India, other members It is effective only for 6 weeks
of the Council of Ministers on after the commencement of the
the advice of the Prime Minister, Parliament session.
judges of the Supreme Court and This ordinance is required to
High Courts, ambassadors and be approved by the Parliament
other diplomats, Comptroller within 6 weeks of the beginning
and Auditor General, Attorney of the session of Parliament.
General, members of the Inter- Pardoning Power - Under Article
State Council, Lieutenant 72, the President exercises the
Governors of Union Territories, judicial powers to pardon, reduce
members of language commission, the punishment, remission of
members of minority commission, the punishment and remit the
Governors, president and punishment. The same petition
members of Union Public Service cannot be filed again if the
Commission, etc. President rejects it.
Legislative Powers - The President Emergency Powers:
has the following legislative Part-XVIII of the Constitution
powers:
lays down provisions related to an
The right to summon, prorogue
emergency from Articles 352 to
and dissolve the Lok Sabha after
360.
every new election and to address
The President has the right to
the first session of Parliament
declare three types of emergencies
every year, right to call a joint
sitting of both Houses (Article in three following conditions-
108). (1) In the event of war or external
Bill passed by the Parliament aggression or armed rebellion
becomes a law after the assent of (Article 352)
the President. (2) In case of failure of
The President nominates 12 constitutional machinery in the
members to the Rajya Sabha States (Article 356)
98
 (3) In the event of a financial Election
emergency (Article 360) According to Article 66, the Vice-
First National Emergency- 26th President is elected by an electoral
October - 10 January, 1968 (Indo- college consisting of elected and
China War). nominated members of both the
Second National Emergency - Houses of Parliament.
December 1971 (During the Into- Qualifications
Pak War). A person should be a citizen of
Third National Emergency - India and has attained the age of
June 1975 (by Indira Gandhi 35 years. He should be qualified
Government). to be a member of Rajya Sabha
Power of Consultation and should not hold any office of
The President can consult the profit.
Supreme Court on any matter For the nomination of the Vice-
of public importance but is not President’s election, a candidate
must have at least 20 Proposers
bound to accept advice under and 20 Seconders.
Article 143. Term of Office
B. Vice-President According to Article 67, the term
According to Article 63, there will of office of the Vice-President is 5
be a Vice- President of India. years.
S.l. President Tenure
No.
1. Rajendra Prasad 26 January, 1950 to 13 May, 1962
2. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 13 May, 1962 to 13 May, 1967
3. Zakir Hussain 13 May, 1967 to 3 May , 1969
4. V.V. Giri 24 August, 1969 to 24 August, 1974
5. Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed 24 August, 1974 to 11 February, 1977
6. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy 25 July, 1977 to 25 July, 1982
7. Giani Zail Singh 25 July, 1982 to July 25, 1987
8. R. Venkataraman 25 July, 1987 to July 25, 1992
9. Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma 25 July, 1992 to 25 July, 1997
10. K.R. Narayanan 25 July, 1997 to 25 July, 2002
11. Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 25 July, 2002 to 25 July, 2007
12. Pratibha Devi Singh Patil 25 July, 2007 to July 25, 2012
13. Pranab Mukherjee 25 July, 2012 to 25 July, 2017
14. Ram Nath Kovind 25 July, 2017 to till now

99
 Note- He can serve as the acting- Indira Gandhi became the first
President for a maximum period woman Prime Minister of the
of 6 months. The election of a new country.
President is necessary during this Morarji Desai (81) became the
period. oldest and Rajiv Gandhi (40)
C. Prime Minister and Council and became the youngest Prime
of Ministeers Minister.
According to Article 74, the P.V. Narasimha Rao was the
President shall have a Council Prime Minister who was not a
of Ministers for assistance and member of either House when he
advice headed by the Prime assumed office.
Minister. The President shall act So far, there have been six Prime
in accordance with such advice Ministers, who were also Chief
while exercising his functions. Ministers before becoming Prime
The President appoints the leader Ministers. They were - Morarji
of the majority party in the Lok Desai, Charan Singh, V.P. Singh,
Sabha as the Prime Minister. P.V. Narasimha Rao, H.D. Deve
According to Article 75 (1), the Gowda and Narendra Modi.
Prime Minister is appointed by
Parliament
the President and on the advice
of the Prime Minister he appoints Under Part V, Chapter II of the
other ministers. All ministers, Constitution, the Constitution,
including Prime Minister, are structure, procedure and powers
administered the oath of office of Parliament are described in
and secrecy by the President. Articles from 79 to 122.
As per Article 75 (3), the Council According to Article 79, the
of Ministers is collectively Parliament of India consists of the
responsible to the Lok Sabha. President, Rajya Sabha and Lok
If a motion of no confidence is Sabha.
passed against the council of No Bill passed by Parliament
ministers in the Lok Sabha, the becomes law unless the President
entire Cabinet has to resign. approves it.
A. Rajya Sabha
Note- The total number of Ministers
The structure of Rajya Sabha is
can not exeed 15 percent of the
mentioned in Article 80.
total numbers of the Loksabha – The maximum strength of the
91st Constitution Amendment. Rajya Sabha is 250. Of these 238
Other Important Facts members are elected indirectly by
Jawaharlal Nehru was the Prime the States and Union Territories
Minister for the longest time (16 while 12 members are nominated
years, 286 days). by the President [Article 80 (1)].
100
 Vice-Presidents of India Term
1. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 1952-1957, 1957-62
2. Zakir Hussain 1962 to 1967
3. V.V. Giri 1967 to 1969
4. Gopal Swaroop Pathak 1969 to 1974
5. B.D. Jatti 1974 to 1979
6. Justice Hidayatullah 1979 to 1984
7. R. Venkataraman 1984 to 1987
8. Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma 1987 to 1992
9. K.R. Narayanan 1992 to 1997
10. Krishnakant 1997 to 2002
11. Bhairon Singh Shekhawat 2002 to 2007
12. Hamid Ansari 2007 to 2017
Serially, first term 2007-12 and second term 2012-17
13. Venkaiah Naidu 11 August, 2017 to till now

Prime Minister (serially) Tenure

1. Jawaharlal Nehru 15 August 1947 to 27 May 1964
2. Gulzarilal Nanda 27 May, 1964 to 9 June, 1964 (Acting)
3. Lal Bahadur Shastri 9 June, 1964 to 11 January, 1966
4. Gulzarilal Nanda 11 January, 1966 to 24 January, 1966 (Acting)
5. Indira Gandhi 24 January, 1966 to 24 March, 1977
6. Morarji Desai 24 March, 1977 to 28 July, 1979
7. Charan Singh 28 July, 1979 to 14 January, 1980
8. Indira Gandhi 14 January, 1980 to 31 October, 1984
9. Rajiv Gandhi 31 October, 1984 to 2 December, 1989
10. Vishwanath Pratap Singh 2 December, 1989 to 10 November, 1990
11. Chandrashekhar Singh 10 November, 1990 to 21 June, 1991
12. P.V. Narasimha Rao 21 June, 1991 to 16 May, 1996
13. Atal Bihari Vajpayee 16 May, 1996 to 1 June, 1996
14. H.D. Deve Gowda 1 June, 1996 to 21 April, 1997
15. Indra Kumar Gujral 21 April, 1997 to 19 March, 1998
16. Atal Bihari Vajpayee 19 March, 1998 to 22 May, 2004 (twice)
17. Manmohan Singh 22 May, 2004 to 26 May, 2014
18. Narendra Modi 26 May, 2014 to till now

101
 Number of Rajya Sabha Members
States/ Union Territories Number of States/ Union Terri- Number of
Members tories Members
Andhra Pradesh 11 Arunachal Pradesh 1
Assam 7 Bihar 16
Chhattisgarh 5 Goa 1
Gujarat 11 Haryana 5
Himachal Pradesh 3 Jammu & Kashmir 4
Jharkhand 6 Karnataka 12
Kerala 9 Madhya Pradesh 11
Maharashtra 19
Manipur 1 Meghalaya 1
Mizoram 1 Nagaland 1
National Capital Region, 3 Odisha 10
Delhi
Puducherry 1 Punjab 7
Rajasthan 10 Sikkim 1
Tamil Nadu 18 Tripura 1
Uttar Pradesh 31 Uttarakhand 3
West Bengal 16 Telangana 7

The minimum age for membership resolution for the creation of All
to Rajya Sabha is 30 years. India Service under Article 312
Rajya Sabha is a Permanent supported by not less than two-
House, which is never dissolved. thirds of the members present
The term of the members of Rajya and voting. Only the Rajya Sabha
Sabha is 6 years. One-third of has the right to create All India
its members retire every two Service.
years. [Article 83 (1)] B. Lok Sabha
Special Powers of the Rajya Sabha The composition of Lok Sabha is
The Rajya Sabha may make mentioned in Article 81.
laws on any subject of the State Lok Sabha is the Lower House
List declared to be of national of the Parliament. Its maximum
importance by at least two-thirds strength is 530 + 20.
majority of the members present Currently, the number of Lok
and voting in the Rajya Sabha Sabha members is 543. Out of
(Article 249). this, 524 are from States and 19
Rajya Sabha can declare a from Union Territories.
102
 Number of Members of Lok Sabha
State / Union Territories Number of Member
Andhra Pradesh 25 Arunachal Pradesh 2
Assam 14 Bihar 40
Chhattisgarh 11 Gujarat 26
Goa 2 Himachal Pradesh 4
Haryana 10 Jharkhand 14
Jammu & Kashmir 5 Kerala 20
Karnataka 28 Meghalaya 2
Maharashtra 48 Manipur 2
Madhya Pradesh 29 Mizoram 1
Nagaland 1 Odisha 21
Punjab 13 Rajasthan 25
Sikkim 1 Telangana 17
Tamil Nadu 39 Tripura 2
Uttar Pradesh 80 Uttarakhand 5
West Bengal 42 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1
Delhi (National Territory 7 Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman 2
and Diu
Chandigarh 1 Lakshadweep 1
Puducherry 1 Ladakh 1

In Lok Sabha, 84 seats are reserved Quorum in Lok Sabha is 1/10 (55
for Scheduled Castes and 47 seats members) of the total number of
for Scheduled Tribes. (Article members.
330)
C. Speaker and Deputy Speaker of
Members of Lok Sabha are
Lok Sabha
directly elected by secret ballot
on the basis of adult suffrage (18 As per Article 93, Lok Sabha
years). elects a Speaker and a Deputy
Minimum age to be a member of Speaker from among its members.
Loksabha- 25 years. The Speaker may submit his
the council of Ministers is
resignation to the Deputy Speaker
collectively responsible to the
Loksabha. and the Deputy Speaker to the
Lok Sabha is a temporary house. Speaker.
The term of the Lok Sabha is 5 The speaker is the presiding
years. officer of the Lok Sabha.
103
 Question of Wehtert a Financial The Chairman of the Committee
bill is money bill or nots is decided is appointed by the Speaker of the
by speaker. Lok Sabha.
Other Facts No minister can be a member of
A joint session of both the Houses this committee.
is called under Article 108. Important Terms
The Speaker of the Lok Sabha Zero Hour - The time between
presides over the joint session of 12 O’clock and 1 O’clock after
both the Houses. [Article 118 Question Hour in both the Houses
(4)] of Parliament is called Zero Hour.
First Lok Sabha Speaker was Appropriation Bill
G.V. Mavalankar and the deputy Only through this Bill, funds
speaker was M. Ananthasayanam can be withdrawn from the
Ayyangar. Consolidated Fund of India.
D. Financial Committees of The This includes the demand for a
Parliament grant for weighted expenditure on
Public Accounts Committee accumulated funds.
It consists of 22 members, out Finance Bill
of which 15 members are drawn Article 117 mentions Finance
from Lok Sabha and 7 members Bills.
from Rajya Sabha. Bills that are related to revenue
The Chairman of this committee and expenditure are called
is appointed by the Speaker of the Finance Bills.
Lok Sabha. Money Bills
The term of each of its members is Bills related to the subjects
one year. mentioned from sub-division (a)
It is also known as the ‘twin sister’ to subdivision (g) of Article 110
of the Estimates Committee. (1) of the Constitution are called
Committee on Estimates Money Bills.
It consists of 30 members who are These are introduced in the Lok
exclusively from the Lok Sabha. Sabha only.
Each member's tenure is one year.
Its Chairman is appointed by the Amendment of the
Speaker of the Lok Sabha. Constitution
This committee reports on
the reduction of government Under Article 368 of the Indian
expenditure, etc. Constitution, two procedures for
Committee on Public Undertakings an amendment to the Constitution
It consists of 22 members, out are mentioned.
of which 15 members are from A. Special Majority Bill passed by
Lok Sabha and 7 are from Rajya a special majority of each House
Sabha. of Parliament by a majority of
104
 total members and a two-thirds Term of Office
majority of the members present There is no minimum age criterion
and voting. to become eligible for a judge of
B. Amendment by a special the Supreme Court. However, 65
majority of Parliament and years, has been fixed as the age for
approval by State Legislatures retirement.
- Special majority of both Houses After retirement, the judges of
of Parliament and amendment the Supreme Court cannot plead
with the approval of half of the before any court or any officer in
state legislatures. India.
Note: By Ordinary Majority - Bill Appointment
passed by Parliament by a simple The Chief Justice of the Supreme
majority. Such as - the creation Court is appointed by the
of new states, state territory, President.
border and name changes, etc. In the case of other judges, the
But it will not be considered as an President appoints them after
amendment of the Constitution. consulting the Chief Justice.
Qualifications
Supreme Court
(i) He should be a citizen of India.
Part V of the Constitution of (ii) He has been a judge of a High
India mentions the constitution, Court or such two or more
independence, jurisdiction, Courts for at least five years or an
powers of the Supreme Court Advocate for 10 years in any High
enshrined in Articles from 124 Court or two or more such Courts.
to 147. A unified justice system (iii) Or is, in the opinion of the
has been established in India, President a distinguished Jurist.
with the Supreme Court at the top Oath
and several High Courts under it. The President administers the oath
The subordinate courts also exist of office and secrecy to judges of
under High Courts. the Supreme Court.
Formation Removal of Judges
Article 124 provides for the Judges of the Supreme Court may
establishment and constitution of be removed by the President on
charges of proven misbehaviour
the Supreme Court.
or incapacity. A resolution to this
Supreme Court consisted of a effect is passed by a majority of
Chief Justice and 30 Judges. the total members of both Houses
The number of judges including of Parliament and by at least two-
Chief Justice has been increased thirds majority of the members
from 31 to 34 by the Supreme present and voting and sent to the
Court (Number of Judges) President for his approval in the
Amendment Act, 2019. same session.
105
Powers and Jurisdiction of Supreme Court on matters of
Supreme Court public importance. However,
Original Jurisdiction in the this advice is not binding on the
following cases President.
(i) Disputes arising between the Power of Judicial Review
Government of India and one or
more States, or Under Article 137, the Supreme
(ii) In disputes between the Court is empowered to reconsider
Government of India and anyone its own decisions.
State or several States and one or Court of Records
more other States. The Supreme Court has been
(iii) Disputes between two or
considered as the Court of
more States where the question of
statutory rights is involved. Records under Article 129. Its
Appellate Jurisdiction verdicts will be accepted as all-
The Supreme Court is the highest time records and evidence.
Appellate Court in the country. It
hears against decisions of lower High Court
courts.
This jurisdiction can be divided The matters relating to the
into four sections, namely- constitution, jurisdiction and
Constitutional, Civil, Criminal powers of the High Courts have
and Appeal by special permission. been dealt with in articles 214 to
Advisory Jurisdiction 231 of Part VI of the constitution.
Under Article 143, the President As per Article 214, there will be a
has the right to consult the High Court for each State.

High Courts
Name Year of Jurisdiction Principal Bench
Establish- seat
ment
1. Allahabad 1866 Uttar Pradesh Prayagraj (Bench - Luc-
know)
2. Andhra Pradesh 1 January, Andhra Pradesh Amravati
2019
3. Bombay 1862 Maharashtra, Bombay (Bench -Nag-
Goa, Dadra and pur, Panaji and Aurang-
Nagar Haveli and abad)
Daman and Diu
4. Calcutta 1862 West Bengal, Kolkata (Bench - Port
Andman and Blair)
Nicobar
106
5. As per Article 231,
Chhattisgarh 2000Parliament
Chhattisgarh Bilaspur
can by law establish a single High
6. Delhi 1966 Delhi Delhi
Court for two or more States and
7. Union
Guwahati
Territories. 1948 Assam, Mizoram Guwahati (Bench- Ko-
Nagaland hima Aizwal, Itanagar)
Arunachal
Pradesh
8. Gujarat 1960 Gujarat Ahmedabad
9. Himachal 1971 Himachal Pradesh Shimla
Pradesh
10. Jammu and 1928 Jammu-Kashmir Srinagar and Jammu
Kashmir * and Ladakh
11. Jharkhand 2000 Jharkhand Ranchi
12. Karnataka 1884 Karnataka Bangalore (Dharwad
Gulbarga)
13. Kerala 1956 Kerala and Lak- Ernakulam
shadweep
14. Madhya Pradesh 1956 Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur (Bench-
Gwalior and Indore)
15. Madras 1862 Tamil Nadu and Chennai (Bench-Mad-
Puducherry urai
16. Odisha 1948 Odisha Cuttack
17. Patna 1916 Bihar Patna
18. Punjab and 1966 Punjab, Chandigarh
Haryana
19. Rajasthan 1949 Rajasthan Jodhpur (Bench-Jaipur)
20. Sikkim 1975 Sikkim Gangtok
21. Uttarakhand 2000 Uttarakhand Nainital
22. Meghalaya March, Meghalaya Shillong
2013
23. Manipur March, Manipur Imphal
2013
24. Tripura March, Tripura Agartala
2013
25. Telangana 1 January, Telangana Hyderabad
2019

107
 The Chief Justice and other He is the highest law officer of
Judges of each High Court are the Government of India and
appointed by the President. his duties include advising the
Age limit for the retirement of government on law-related
High Court Judges is 62 years. matters and performing such other
Even before that, he can address functions of the legal nature as the
the President by writing under his
President from time to time may
hand and giving his resignation.
send to him.
High Court Judges can also be
removed by the same process as Under Article 76(1) a person,
Judges of the Supreme Court. possessing the qualifications
According to Article 215, each necessary for appointment of a
High Court is a Court of Record. Supreme Court judge, is eligible
Delhi and Jammu & Kashmir for appointment as Attorney-
have its their own High Court in General of India by the President.
the Union Territories. The Attorney General holds
India currently has a total of 25 office during the pleasure of
High Courts. the President and receives such
High Courts were first established remuneration as the President
in the then Calcutta, Bombay and may prescribe.
Madras in 1862.
Attorney General has the right
Powers of High Court
to be heard in all the courts in
The High Court is an appellate
court under the appellate the territory of India. There is a
jurisdiction. Here, an appeal can Solicitor General and Additional
be made against the orders of Solicitor General to assist the
the subordinate courts. Civil and Attorney General.
criminal cases can also be filed The Attorney General of India is
here.
not a member of Parliament, but
Under Article 226, the High Court
he can speak in either House or
has the right to issue a writ to
take part in the proceedings of any
protect the fundamental rights of
citizens. committee but does not have the
High Court maintains control over right to vote (Article-88).
its subordinate courts. He enjoys all the privileges and
immunities that are available to
Attorney General and
a member of Parliament under
Advocate General Article 105.
Article 76 of the Constitution The post of Advocate-General of
deals with the office of Attorney a State is provided under Article
General of India. 165.
108
 Contingency Fund
Comptroller and Auditor Article 267 of the Constitution
General empowers Parliament and the
State Legislature to create a
As per Article 148, there will Contingency Fund of India or a
be a Comptroller and Auditor State.
General of India, to be appointed This fund is constituted by the
by the President. Contingency Fund of India Act,
He is the protector of public 1950.
money. He is an impartial head
of Govt. of India’s audit and State Executive
accounting systems.
Under Part VI of the Indian
He retires after being in office for
Constitution, Articles 153 to
six years or on attaining the age
167 refer to the State Executive.
of sixty-five years, whichever is
The State executive consists of
earlier.
Governor, Chief Minister, Council
Although he is appointed by the
of Ministers, Advocate General.
President, he can be removed from Governor is the constitutional
office following the procedure head of state.
adopted in the case of removal of A. Governor
Supreme Court judge on similar According to Article 153, each
charges of proved misbehaviour State has a Governor as its
and incapacity. constitutional head.
He reports on account of the Under article 153, a person can
central government to the be appointed as constitutional
President which is then laid on the head of more than one state
floor of the Parliament. simultaneously.
He also reports on the accounts Note - This provision was inserted
of the State Government to the by the Seventh Constitutional
Governor who to send it to be laid Amendment Act, 1956.
on the floor of the legislature. Qualifications
Consolidated Fund of India A. He should be a citizen of India
and have completed 35 years of
Under Article 266, a provision has
age.
been made for the accumulated
Appointment and Term of Office
funds and public accounts of India As per Article 155, the Governor
and the States. of a State shall be appointed by
Money is spent after withdrawing the President by warrant under his
from the Consolidated Fund of hand and seal.
India only after the Appropriation The Governor is appointed by the
Bill is passed by Parliament. President for a term of five years.
109
 The Governor holds office during According to Article 200,
the pleasure of the President the Governor gives assent or
(Article 156 (1). withholds assent on a Bill or may
Powers and Functions of the reserve it for the consideration of
Governor the President.
Executive Powers Judicial Powers
The Governor appoints the Chief As per Article 161, the Governor
Minster and other ministers on the shall have the power to pardon,
advice of the Chief Minister. reprieve, respite besides
The Governor appoints the remissions of the punishment of
Chairman and members of the a person convicted of an offence
State Public Service Commission.
against any law on subjects on
Note: The Governor appoints the
which the executive power of the
Chairman and members of the
State Public Service Commission State is extended, or shall have
but cannot remove them. They the power to suspend, remit or
can be removed only by the commute the sentence.
President on the advice of the Emergency Powers
Supreme Court. Governor can report to President,
The Governor appoints Vice- on behalf on that President's Rule
Chancellors of State Universities. can be imposed.
He may get information from the B. Chief Minister
Chief Minister from time to time The Chief Minister is the head of
regarding the administration of the Council of Ministers who is
the State. appointed by the Governor.
The Governor nominates 1/6 of Other ministers are appointed by
the total members of the State’s the Governor on the advice of the
Upper House i.e. Legislative Chief Minister.
Council, who have achieved Oath of office and secrecy to the
excellence in various fields like Chief Minister and other ministers
education, literature, arts, science, is administered by the Governor.
social service, cooperatives. As per Article 164 (2), the Council
Legislative Powers of Ministers is collectively
The Governor may summon,
responsible to the Legislature of
address, dissolve and prorogue the
session of the State Legislature. the State.
The Bill passed by the State State Legislative
Legislature becomes an Act only
after the assent of the Governor. State Legislature consists of the
If immediate action is required Governor and the House of the
on any subject, and the State
State Legislature (Legislative
Legislature is not in session at
that time, in such a situation the Assembly) or two Houses
Governor can issue an ordinance (Legislative Assembly and
as per Article 213. Legislative Council). Currently,
110
 six (effective 31 October 2019) The term of the members of the
States have Legislative Councils Legislative Assembly is five
namely in Andhra Pradesh (58), years.
Uttar Pradesh (100), Karnataka In special case, the Governor can
(75), Telangana (40), Bihar (75) dissolve the Legislative Assembly
and Maharashtra (78). even before five years.
The minimum age limit for election
A. Legislative Council
as a member of Legislative
According to Article 169,
Assembly is 25 years.
Parliament may constitute and
Members of the Legislative
dissolve the Legislative Council.
Assembly are directly elected by
If the resolution in this regard
adult suffrage.
is passed by the Legislative
Each state legislative assembly
Assembly of the respective State
may have a maximum 500 and a
by a simple majority and at
minimum 60 members.
least two-thirds majority of the
Note - As an exception, Goa and
members present and voting.
Mizoram have just 40 legislative
The Legislative Council is
the Upper House of the State assembly seats while Sikkim has
Legislature. 32 members.
The total number of members of National Symbols of India
the Legislative Council should
not exceed more than 1/3 of the National Emblem
total number of members of the The top portion of Emperor
Legislative Assembly of the State Ashoka’s Lion Pillar at Sarnath
concerned and not less than 40. was adopted as a national emblem
The minimum age limit to become of India on 26th January, 1950 by
a member of the Legislative the government.
Council is 30 years. ‘Satyameva Jayate’ written in
The Legislative Council is a Devanagari script at its bottom, it
Permanent House, it is never is quoted from Mundakopanishad.
dissolved.
National Anthem
Each member of the Legislative
Council has a term of 6 years, ‘Jana Gana Mana’ was adopted
but every 2 years one-third of the as the National Anthem of India
members retire after completing on 24th January, 1950 by the
their term and new members are Constituent Assembly.
elected in their place. Its author is Rabindranath Tagore.
Members of the Legislative It has a set singing time of 52
Council are elected indirectly. seconds though it can be briefly
B. Legislative Assembly sung within 20 seconds.
The Legislative Assembly is also It was first sung at the Calcutta
called the Lower house. Session of the Indian National
The structure of Legislative Congress on 27th December 1911,
Assemblies is mentioned under presided over by Bishan Narayan
Article 170. Dar.
111
National Song
‘Vande Mataram’ was adopted as Panchayati Raj
the national song on 24th January,
1950. The 73rd Constitutional
It is quoted from Bankim Chandra Amendment Act, 1992 provides
Chatterjee’s novel ‘Ananda math’. constitutional status to the
It was first sung at the 1896 session Panchayati Raj system under
of the Indian National Congress Article 243 (from A to O) and
presided over by Rahamatullah Eleventh Schedule under Part-IX
Sayani. of the Indian Constitution.
National Flag Panchayati Raj was inaugurated
The national flag was adopted on by the then Prime Minister
22nd July, 1947. Jawaharlal Nehru in Nagaur
In the tricolour flag, the saffron district of Rajasthan on 2nd
colour is a symbol of courage and October, 1959.
valour, while the white colour Andhra Pradesh was the second
symbolises peace and truth and state where the Panchayati Raj
the green colour is a sign of system of local governance was
prosperity. started on 11th October 1959.
In the middle of the white band The 73rd Constitutional
is a circle with 24 blue sticks is Amendment Act provides for the
taken from the Sarnath pillar of formation of a three-tier structure
Emperor Ashoka. (Gram Panchayat at the village
The ratio of the width and length level, Panchayat Samiti at the
of the flag is 2:3. block level and Zila Parishad at
National Calendar the district level) of the Panchayati
Gregorian Calendar which is Raj.
called the English calendar and States with a population not
Hindu calendar was adopted on
exceeding 20 lakhs may not
22nd March 1957.
Hindu calendar's month is Chaitra constitute Panchayat at the
which starts on 22nd March and intermediate level (at secondary
21st March in the Leap Year. level).
* Tiger (Panthera tigris) has been Committees Related to the
declared India’s national animal. Panchayati Raj
* Peacock (Pavo Cristatus) is the 1. Balwantrai Mehta 1957
national bird of India. Committee
* Ganges river is named the national 2. Ashok Mehta Committee 1977
river.
* Ganges dolphin (Susu) has been 3. GVK Rao Committee 1985
recognized as a national aquatic 4. L.M. Singhvi Committee 1986
animal. 5. PK Thungon Committee 1988
* Elephant has been accorded There is one-third reservation for
National Heritage Animal status. women at every level.
112
 The tenure of the Panchayats is Its chairperson and four members
fixed for 5 years. It is mandatory are appointed by the President.
to conduct the elections within The first Finance Commission
6 months if the Panchayats is
dissolved before time. was constituted in 1951 with Mr.
Panchayats have been empowered KC Neogy as its chairman.
to make laws on a total of The chairman of the Fourteenth
29 subjects mentioned in the Finance Commission was Y.V.
Eleventh Schedule. Reddy.
Municipalities N.K. Singh is the chairman of the
Fifteenth Finance Commission.
Part IX-A of Articles 243P to Public Service Commission
243ZG and 12th Schedule have
been added to the Constitution Under Article 315 of the
by the 74th Constitutional Constitution of India, a Public
Amendment Act, 1992. Service Commission has been
It contains provisions for envisioned for the Union and each
municipalities. of the States.
Municipalities are of three The chairperson and members
types - Nagar Panchayat, Nagar of the Union Public Service
Palika Parishad and Municipal Commission are appointed by the
President.
Corporation. The President has the power to
National Development Council determine the number of members
of the Union Public Service
Commission.
It was constituted on 6th August, The term of the Chairman and
1952 by a government resolution. members of the Union Public
The National Development Service Commission is 6 years
Council acts as a bridge between or up to the age of 65 years,
the Centre and the States. whichever is earlier.
It is headed by the Prime Minister.
Chief Ministers of all the States of Election Commission
the Indian Union are its members.
Under Part-XV of the Constitution
Finance Commission (Articles 324 to 329), there
are provisions for the Election
Under Article 280 of the Commission which consists of a
Constitution of India, the Chief Election Commissioner and
President constitutes the Finance two other election commissioners
Commission every five years. (now three), appointed by the
Its function is to make President.
recommendation to the President The Chief Election Commissioner
for distribution of the revenue can be removed from his post in
receipts between the Centre and the same manner as the judge of
the States. the Supreme Court.
113
 Other Election Commissioners commissioners is for 6 years and
can be removed by the President they retire at the age of 65 years,
on the recommendation of the whichever is earlier.
Chief Election Commissioner. The Election Commission is a
According to Article 324, Constitutional Body.
the Election Commission is
responsible for election to both Note: The 61st Constitutional
Houses of Parliament, State Amendment Act, 1988 reduced
Legislatures, besides election to the minimum voting age from 21
the post of President and Vice- years to 18 years.
President. The number of currently
The term of the Chief Election recognized national political
Commissioner and other election parties is 8.
National Party
Election Symbols
1. Indian National Congress (INC) Hand Claw
2. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Lotus Flower
3. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) Elephant (excluding As-
sam)
4. Communist Party of India (CPI) Ears of Corn & Sickle
5. Communist Party of India (Marxist) Sickle, Hammer and Star
[CPI (M)]
6. Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) Clock
7. All India Trinamool Congress (AITMC) Jora Ghas Phul
8. National People's Party (NPP)* Book
* (Recognized by Election Commission on 7th June, 2019.)
and 'integrity' were added to the
Important Amendments preamble.
* Part-IVA added as fundamental
1st Amendment Act, 1951 - duties of the citizens.
The Ninth Schedule added to * The President was compelled to
the Constitution. The subjects accept the advice of the Cabinet.
mentioned in this schedule were The 44th Amendment Act,
excluded from the Supreme 1978 empowered the President
Court's power of judicial review. to send the Bill back once for
36th Amendment Act, 1975 - reconsideration.
Sikkim was granted full statehood In the context of the national
with the Indian Union. emergency, the word 'Armed
42nd Amendment Act, 1976 - Rebellion' was replaced by
The words 'socialist', 'secular' 'Internal Disturbance'.
114
 The Right to Property was children till they reach the age of
abolished as a fundamental right six years.
and given the status of a legal 91st Amendment Act, 2003 - It
right. limits the size of the Council of
During the national emergency, Ministers which shall not exceed
the fundamental rights Articles 20 15 per cent of the total members
and 21 cannot be suspended. of the Lok Sabha.
52nd Amendment Act, 1985 - * The State Council of Ministers
Under this act there is a system shall not exceed 15 per cent of the
of disqualifying the members of total strength of the Legislative
Parliament and State Legislatures Assembly and shall not be less
in the case of defection. For this, than 12.
the Tenth Schedule was added. 97th Amendment Act, 2011 -
61st Amendment Act, 1988 - The The right to form a Cooperative
voting age of citizens was reduced Society became a fundamental
from 21 years to 18 years. right under Article 19.
69th Amendment Act, 1991 - * New Part-9B named 'Cooperative
Union Territory of Delhi granted Societies' was added.
National Capital Territory 101st Amendment Act, 2016 -
status. In addition, a 70-member Provisions related to Goods and
legislative assembly was arranged Services Tax (GST) have been
for Delhi. included under it.
73rd Amendment Act, 1992 102nd Amendment Act, 2018 -
- Panchayats were given Constitutional status to National
constitutional status by adding Commission for Backward
Part-IX and Schedule 11 to the Classes.
Constitution. 103rd Amendment Act, 2019
74th Amendment Act, 1992 - Part- - Provision of 10 per cent
IXA and Schedule 12 were added
in the Constitution. reservation on the economic basis
* It gave constitutional status to to the weaker sections of the
urban local bodies. general category.
86th Amendment Act, 2002 104th Amendment Act, 2020 - It
- Elementary education was extended the reservation of seats
accorded the status of a for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha
fundamental right. and State Legislative Assemblies
It was arranged under Article for 10 years and it ended the
21A that states should make reservation of 2 Anglo-Indian
arrangements to provide free seats in Lok Sabha nominated by
elementary education for children
from 6 to 14 years. the President.
Under Article 51A, the 11th duty 105th Amendment Act, 2021 -
related to the same was added. This Act restores the power of
The theme of Article 45 was the State Government and Union
changed, under which the State Territories to identify and specify
will try to provide for free and socially and Educationally
compulsory education to all the Backward Classes (SEBCs).
115
3 Geography
The ancient Greek scholar creating many cosmic bodies in
Eratosthenes is called the father the process since then the universe
of systematic geography. has been expanding continuously.
Hecataeus, the renowned Scientists supporting this theory,
historiographer of Greece, is believe the Big-Bang occurred
considered the father of 13.7 or 13.8 billion years ago.
geography.
Solar System
A World Geography
The solar system consists of the sun
Cosmos and stars revolving around it these
include planets, moon, asteroids,
Everything which we can touch, comets and meteoroids.
feel, sense, measure or detect is
It is called the galaxy or the milky
cosmos.
way in which our solar system is
Nicolaus Copernicus first
located.
expressed the view that the sun,
not the Earth is at the centre of the The distance travelled in 1 year at
universe. a speed of 3 × 108 m/s in a vacuum
Copernicus is considered the by light is called Light Year.
Ku
ip
father of modern astronomy. er
Be
Sa lt
tur
Big-Bang theory was formulated n Pluto
Ea
rth
in 1927 by Georges Lemaitre Sun M
erc
ur
y
Neptune
(1894–1966 AD) and later rs
Ven
us Ma t e r Uranus
i
explained by Robert Wagner in Jup

1967.
According to this theory, all
the substances responsible for The Sun
the origin of the universe were Sun is at the centre of the solar
initially in the conglomerate form system.
with high temperature and density. The age of the Sun is 4.6 billion
Due to excessive concentration, years.
this mass exploded resulting in The Sun is about 1.3 million times
the splintering of substances and larger than the Earth.
116
 The sunlight takes about 8 minutes Earth's only satellite is the Moon.
19 seconds (499 seconds) to reach 1
Earth is tilted on its axis at 23 2 ° .
the Earth.
Weather changes on the Earth
Nuclear fusion is the source of all occur due to its axis tilt and
energy of the sun. rotatory motion.
Bodies of Solar System:
The Earth completes one orbital
There are 8 planets in the solar
revolution in 23 hours 56 minutes
system.
and 4 seconds. This motion is
The order of the planets based
called rotatory motion or daily
on the distance from the sun is
motion.
- Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
The movement of the Earth on its
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
axis is called spin or rotation due
Neptune.
to which day and night occurs.
The largest planet is Jupiter and
It takes 365 days 6 hours, 9
the smallest is Mercury.
minutes and 9.51 seconds or
A solar eclipse occurs only on New
365.25 days for the Earth to
Moon Day or Amavasya.
complete one revolution of the
Mercury
sun.
It completes the circling of the
The Earth revolves around the sun
sun in the shortest time (in 88
at a velocity of 29.8 km/second.
Earth days).
The Earth is nearest to the sun
It is the nearest to the sun and the
on January 3/4 and it is called
smallest planet.
Perihelion.
Mercury has no satellite.
The Earth is at the farthest from
Venus:
the sun on July 4 and it is called
Venus is the brightest planet.
Aphelion.
It completes the orbit of the sun in The star closest to the Earth after
approximately 225 earth days. the sun is Proxima Centauri.
Venus is called the Morning Star or O n 2 1 st M a r c h a n d 2 3 rd
Evening Star or sister of the Earth. September, the day and night are
It has no satellite. equal in both hemispheres of the
The Earth: Earth.
Earth is the only planet in the solar The longest day in the northern
system which provides sustenance hemisphere of the Earth falls on
or life on it. 21/22 June while the longest day
Due to the presence of water on in the southern hemisphere falls
Earth, it is also called Blue Planet. on 22nd December.
117
Mars: The Moon:
Mars is known as the Red Planet. It completes the orbit of the
It appears red due to the presence Earth in about 27 days 7 hours
of Iron Oxide in it. 43 minutes and in that time it also
Mars has two satellites, namely completes a rotation on its axis.
Phobos and Deimos. When the Earth comes between
Jupiter: the Sun and the Moon, it is called
Jupiter is the largest planet in the a Lunar Eclipse.
solar system. The Lunar Eclipse always occurs
Ganymede is the largest and most on the full moon day.
massive moon in the solar system. The Lunar Eclipse always occurs
Saturn: on the Full Moon day.
Saturn is the second-largest Other Bodies of Solar System
planet in the solar system.
Asteroids:
Seven rings are found around
Saturn. Most of the asteroids are located
between Jupiter and Mars.
There are 82 satellites of Saturn.
Titan, the largest satellite of Asteroids revolve around the sun.
Saturn is also the second-largest Comets:
satellite of the solar system. Comets are bodies of the solar
Uranus: system that are made of small
The planet Uranus was discovered fragments of stone dust, ice and
by William Herschel in 1781 AD. gas.
Sunrise occurs in the west and Comets have tails always in the
sunset in the east on Uranus. opposite direction to the sun.
Neptune: The comet is also called the tail
star.
Neptune is farthest from the Sun.
Latitude: Latitude is the angular
It was discovered by the German
distance of a place north or south
astronomer Johann Galle in 1846.
from the equator on the globe.
Its largest satellite is Triton.
Equator: The latitude of zero
Dwarf Planets:
degrees on the globe of the Earth
Pluto was discovered in the
is called the Equator.
year 1930 by Clyde William
The northern part of the Equator is
Tombaugh. called the Northern Hemisphere
Ceres, Haumea, Makemake and and the southern part is called the
Eris are also dwarf planets. Southern Hemisphere.
118
 Each degree of latitude is substantial and brittle part of the
approximately 69 miles (111 earth.
kilometres) apart. The crust mainly consists of Silica
Longitude : The imaginary lines (Si) and Aluminium (Al), thus it is
joining the North Pole with the known as "SiAl" layer.
South Pole are called longitude (ii) Mantle: The Mantle is the layer
lines. located immediately beneath the
All longitudinal lines are equal in crust. It is the most extensive layer
length. of the Earth, approximately 2900
The zero degrees (0°) line of km thick.
longitude that passes through the Moho Discontinuity is the part
Royal Observatory in Greenwich, separating Earth’s crust and
England is the Greenwich
mantle.
Meridian.
The Mantle is composed mainly of
Tropic of Cancer: 23.5° latitude
Silica (Si) and Magnesium (Ma).
on the north side of the equator is
Hence, it is called "SiMa" layer.
called the Tropic of Cancer.
(iii) Core:
Tropic of Capricorn : It is an
The area falls after Mantle is
imaginary line of latitude at 23°5
South to the Equator around the Core.
Earth. The core is the hot and dense
Zero latitude and Zero longitude centre of the Earth.
lines intersect each other in the It consists of Nickel (Ni) and Iron
Atlantic Ocean. (Fe). Hence, it is called "NiFe"
The Equator, the Tropic of Cancer layer.
and the Tropic of Capricorn, Thus, Earth's structure can also
all three lines pass through the be explained as SiAl, SiMa and
Continent of Africa. NiFe.
Internal Structure of the Lithosphere
Earth
The rigid, rocky outer layer
Earth is divided into three layers consisting of the crust and the
based on seismic waves- (i) Crust, outermost solid layer of the upper
(ii) Mantle, (iii) Core. mantle form Lithosphere.
(i) Crust: About 70.8% of the Earth's surface
The crust is the outermost, is water covered.
119
 Examples of metamorphic rocks
Rocks
are Slate, Schist Quartzite, Marble,
Hard materials found on the outer Phyllite and Gneiss.
layer of the Earth are called rocks. Volcanoes:
Based on origin, the rocks are A Valcano is a place where gases,
divided into three parts -
ashes and/or molten rock material
(i) Igneous Rocks
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks - lava-escape to the ground.
(iii) Metamorphic Rocks Ojos del Salado is an active and
Igneous Rocks- Igneous rocks the highest active volcano in the
are formed by the solidification world at 6,893 m in the Andes
of magma and lava. mountain range on Argentina–
Igneous rocks are also known as Chile Border.
Primary Rocks. The highest peak in the Andes, the
Examples of Igneous rocks are Mt. Aconcagua (6,962 metres)
basalt, granite, pegmatite, is the world’s highest extinct
diorite and gabbro.
volcano.
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks- These are
(i) Active Volcano:
formed as layers of sediments
The active volcano erupts
caused by erosion of rocks.
frequently.
The sedimentary rocks are flaky.
Kilauea on the Hawaiian Islands
Fossils of flora and fauna are found
in sedimentary rocks. of America is the most active
Iron ore, phosphate, coal and volcano in the world.
cement forming rocks are found Stromboli volcano located in
in them. Lipari Island north of Sicily in the
Mineral oil is also found in Mediterranean Sea is called the
sedimentary rocks.
lighthouse of the Mediterranean
(iii)Metamorphic Rocks- Because of
Sea.
chemical reactions, temperatures,
pressures, sedimentary rocks (ii) Dormant Volcano-
undergo change transforming A dormant volcano is not currently
themselves into metamorphic active or erupting, but geologists
rocks. think that it is potentially active.
120
 Mt. St. Helen’s of USA is famous Earthquake waves are measured
dormant volcano in the world. by an instrument named
(iii)Extinct Volcanoes: Seismograph.
Extinct volcanoes are those that The Richter Scale, Mercalli
once erupted in earlier times, but Scale and Rossi Forel Scale are
are now inactive. used to measure the intensity of
earthquakes.
Among the extinct volcanoes, Koh-
Various Topographies:
i-Sultan of Pakistan, Damavand
Various types of topographies
in Iran, Popa in Myanmar, Kulal
have been created on the surface
and Kilimanjaro in Africa, caused by the endogenous and
Chimborazo in Ecuador, are exogenous forces of the Earth.
prominent. (A) Mountains:
The Earthquake Mountain is a landform that
rises prominently above its
An earthquake is an intense surroundings, exhibiting steep
shaking of the Earth’s surface slopes, a relatively confined
summit area considerable local
caused by movements in its
reliefs.
outermost layer. Mountains are of four types based
Earthquakes produce three types on structure-
of seismic waves- primary, (i) Block Mountains
secondary and surface. Block Mountains are those formed
Primary waves (P-waves) can as a result of faulting caused by
travel through solids, liquids, and tensile and compressive forces
gases. generated by endogenic forces.
The Vosges Mountains (France),
Secondary waves can only travel
Black Forest (Germany) and Salt
through rocks (solids).
Range (Pakistan) are the prime
Surface waves, also known
examples of Block Mountains.
as long waves or L-waves, are (ii) Residual Mountain
seismic waves that move along Residual mountains are those
Earth’s surface, not through its which have been formed by the
interior. erosion of hard rock caused by
Tsunami is a word of the Japanese wind, rain, frost and running
language. water.
121
 Vindhyachal, Nilgiri, Parasnath, The world's longest above-water
Rajmahal Hills of India and the mountain range is the Andes,
Sierras of Central Spain and about 7200 km long.
Mesas of USA are some examples Plateaus
of Residual Mountains. A plateau is that part of the land
which is more or less flat and level
(iii) Accumulated Mountain
and stays at an elevated level. It
The mountains formed out of
often comes with its steep slopes
the accumulation of volcanic
or vertical cliffs on one or more
materials, pebbles, stones, sands
sides.
and clays are called Volcanic
The flatness of the mountains
Mountains or Mountains of
Accumulation. or the elevation in the middle of
the plain is called Mountainous
Sand dunes or hills of sand that
are shaped by winds as they blow Plateau or Piedmont Plateau.
across deserts are examples of Chotanagpur and Ramgarh
Mountains of Accumulation. plateau in India and the Ozark
(iv) Fold Mountain plateau in the United States are
Fold mountains are created where prime examples of the domed
plateau.
two or more of Earth’s tectonic
Grasslands:
plates are pushed together.
(i) Tropical Grasslands
The Himalayas in India, the
The equatorial region between
Urals in Russia, the Rockies in
north and south latitudes at 10
North America and the Andes
in South America are examples to 25 degrees has extensions of

of fold mountains. tropical grasslands.

The Aravalli Range, an eroded These grasslands are called
stub of ancient mountains, is the Savannah in Africa, Llanos
oldest range of fold mountains in Venezuela and Colombia,
in India. Campos in Brazil, Paraguay,
Guru Shikhar, a peak in Mount Argentina and Uruguay, Parkland
Abu in Rajasthan, is the highest in North America and Selvas in
point of the Aravalli range. the Amazon Basin.
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(ii) Temperate grasslands Russia is the biggest country in
Temperate grasslands are found in Asia in terms of area.
central regions between latitudes The largest peninsula in the
at 30 to 45 degrees North and world is the Arabian peninsula.
South. The world's highest plateau
These grasslands are called the in Asia is the Tibetan Plateau
Prairie in the United States and (average elevation 4500 m).
Canada, the Pampas in Argentina, Kazakhstan is the largest
Uruguay and Brazil, Veld in South landlocked country in Asia.
Africa, Steppes in Eurasia and the The Asian part of Russia is called
Downs in Australia. Siberia where Lake Baikal is
located.
Continents and Major The longest river in Asia is the
Peninsulas Yangtze.
The Baikal Lake in Asia is
Seven continents together
the world's oldest and deepest
constitute the Earth.
(depth 1620 m) lake.
These are- 1. Asia, 2. Europe,
The Caspian Sea (371000 square
3.North America, 4.South
America, 5.Africa, 6.Australia kilometres) is the world's largest
and 7. Antarctica. lake (the inland water body)
Asian Continent located in Asia.
Asia is the largest continent in the India’s Mawsynram in Meghalaya
world. has the highest average rainfall
It is also the world’s most per year which is the highest in
populous continent residing in it the world.
with roughly 60 per cent of the The Trans Siberian Railroad
total population.
from St. Petersburg (Leningrad)
The Arctic borders Asia in the
to Vladivostok is the largest
North, the Pacific in the East and
(9332 km) rail route in Asia.
the Indian Ocean in the South.
The Red Sea and the Suez Canal (NCERT, 2019-20)
separate Asia and Africa. The Suez Canal connects the
The Bering Strait separate Asia Red Sea and the Mediterranean
and North America. Sea.
Gondwana Land (Peninsular Verkhoyansk in Siberia is Asia's
India), Angara Land (Russia coldest (- 67.8°C) place.
and China) of the ancient era, are Laos - Thailand - Myanmar are
located in Asia. known as the Golden Triangle.
123
 Major Mountain Ranges of the World
Name Location Highest Point
1. Cordillera de Los Andes South-West America Aconcagua
2. Rocky Mountain Range North-West America Mount Albert
3. Himalaya-Karakoram-Hindukush South-Central Asia Mount Everest
4. Great Dividing Range East Australia Kosciuszko
Vinson
5. Trans Antarctica Mountains Antarctica Massif
6. Tien Shan South Central Asia Pik Pobedy
7. Altai Mountains Central Asia Belukha
8. Ural Mountain Range Central Russia Narodnaya
9. Kamchatka Range East Russia Klyuchevskaya
Sopka
10.Atlas Mountain North-West Africa Toubkal
11. Verkhoyansk Range East Russia Mus-Khaya
12. Western Ghats Western India Anamudi

13. Sierra Madre Oriental Mexico Potosi

14. Zagros Mountain Range Iran Dena

(Qash-Mastan)
15. Elburz Iran Damavand
16. Scandinavian Range Western Norway Galdhopiggen
17. Drakensberg South Africa Thabana
Ntlenyana
18. Caucasus Russia Elbrus
19. Alaska Range USA (South Peak) Mount McKin-
ley (Denali)
20. Cascade Range USA-Canada Mount Rainier
21. Apennine Italy Corno Grande
22. Appalachian Eastern USA-Canada Mount Mitchell
23. Alps Central Europe Mount Blanc

24. Sierra Madre del Sur Mexico Cerro Nube

124
Currency and Capital of Major Countries of the Continent of
Asia
Country Currency Capital
1. Singapore Dollar Singapore
2. Hong Kong Dollar Victoria
3. Brunei Dollar Bandar Seri Begawan
4. Myanmar Kyat Naypyidaw
5. Taiwan Dollar Taipei
6. Syria Pound Damascus
7. UAE Dirham Abu Dhabi
8. Iraq Dinar Baghdad
9. Kuwait Dinar Kuwait City
10. Jordan Dinar Amman
11. Bahrain Dinar Manama
12. Oman Riyal Muscat
13. Qatar Riyal Doha
14. Cambodia Riel Phnom Penh
15. Yemen Rial Sana'a
16. Saudi Arab Riyal Riyadh
17. India Rupee New Delhi
18. Nepal Rupee Kathmandu
19. Pakistan Rupee Islamabad
20. Sri Lanka Rupee Colombo (Sri Jayawar-
denepura Kotte as leg-
islative capital)
21. China Yuan Beijing
22. Indonesia Rupiah Jakarta
23. North Korea Won Pyongyang
24. South Korea Won Seoul
25. Japan Yen Tokyo
26. Uzbekistan Som Tashkent
27. Israel New Shekel Jerusalem
28. Afghanistan Afghani Kabul

125
European Continent : Ukraine is called the world's
Europe is sixth among the seven granary or breadbasket.
continents in terms of area. The Rhine River waterway
The Caucasus and the Ural is Europe's busiest interstate
Mountains separate Asia and the
waterway.
Europe.
Finland is called the country of
Europe is known as a peninsula
lakes.
among peninsulas.
Denmark is the largest centre of
Paris is also known as the city of
dairy products in the world.
fashion.
Norway is called the country of
London is the largest city in
Europe. the midnight sun.

The largest museum in the world France is called the Country of

is the British Museum (London). the Peasants and the Queen of
London is located on the banks of the Seas.
the River Thames. Italy is called as India of Europe.
The longest river in Europe is the The combined territory of Europe
Volga (3530 km). and Asia is called Eurasia.
The Danube falls into the Black Antwerp (Belgium) is the world's
Sea near the Ukraine border. largest diamond trading centre.
The capitals on the banks of Eastern Europe is called Green
Danube are- Vienna (Austria),
Europe or farmer's Europe.
Bratislava (Slovakia), Belgrade
The English Channel separates
(Serbia) and Budapest (Hungary).
the United Kingdom and
Alps (France) and the Caucasus
France.
are prominent among the new fold
Switzerland is called the
mountains in Europe.
Elbrus (5642 m) is the highest Playground of Europe.

mountain peak in Europe. The channel tunnel connecting

Rome is known as the Eternal France and the United Kingdom
Cty. passes through the Dover Strait.
126
 Currencies and the Capitals of Major Countries of Europe
Country Currency Capital
Luxembourg Euro Luxembourg
Belgium Euro Brussels
France Euro Paris
Switzerland Franc Bern
Ireland Euro Dublin
Great Britain Pound London
Russia Ruble Moscow
Armenia Armenian Dram Yerevan
Belarus Ruble Minsk
Macedonia Denar Skopje
Serbia Dinar Belgrade
Croatia Kuna Zagreb
Denmark Krone Copenhagen
Norway Krone Oslo
Sweden Krona Stockholm
Iceland Krona Reykjavik
Italy Euro Rome
Spain Euro Madrid
Portugal Euro Lisbon
Germany Euro Berlin
Greece Euro Athens
Lithuania Euro Vilnius
Finland Euro Helsinki
Netherlands Euro Amsterdam
Austria Euro Vienna
Bulgaria Lev Sofia
Poland Zloty Warsaw
Hungary Forint Budapest
Ukraine Hryvnia Kiev
Czech Republic Koruna Prague
Romania Leu Bucharest
Azerbaijan Manat Baku
Georgia Lari Tbilisi
127
 England, Wales and Scotland are Famous cities in North America
collectively called Great Britain. Name of the Famous for
city
The United Kingdom includes
Detroit (US) Automobiles
Great Britain and Northern
Akron (US) Synthetic rubber and
Ireland. tyre manufacturing
Montreal Paper Industry
North American Continent (Canada)
In terms of size, North America San Francisco Software and Com-
(US) (Silicon- puter Industry
is the third largest continent (area
valley)
24256 000 square km) of the Arizona (US) Copper Production
world.
Winnipeg Wheat Market
Greenland is the largest island in (Canada)

North America. Los Angeles- Film Industry

(California)
There are a total of 23 countries
New York is called the City of
in North America.
Cities.
100 degree west longitude passes
Mexico is the largest silver
through the middle North America.
producing country in the world
Mount Denali (Mount McKinley) (IMYB: 2018).
(height 6190 meters) in Alaska is There are 5 largest natural lakes
the highest mountain peak in in North America - Superior,
North America. Huron, Michigan, Erie and
The cyclone which occurs in Ontario.
Niagara Falls is located on the
the Gulf of Mexico is called
border of Canada and the United
Hurricane and Tornado.
States.
Hudson Bay (Canada) is the
Ontario is the world's largest gold
largest Bay in the world.
Cuba is called the sugar bowl mine located in Canada.
of the world being the major Quebec in Canada is called a
producer of sugarcane. Country within the Country.
128
 Currencies and Capitals of North America and Caribbean
Countries
Country Currency Capital
Canada Dollar Ottawa
Bermuda Dollar Hamilton
Bahamas Dollar Nassau
Jamaica Dollar Kingston
Barbados Dollar Bridgetown
Cuba Peso Havana
Dominion Republic Peso Santo Domingo
Mexico Peso Mexico City
Costa Rica Colon San Jose
El Salvadore Dollar San Salvador
Guatemala Quetzal Guatemala City
Nicaragua Cardoba Managua
Honduras Lempira Tegucigalpa
Antigua and Bermuda Dollar St. John's
Panama Balboa Panama City
Haiti Gourde Port-au-Prince
Greenland Krone Nuuk
USA Dollar Washington, DC

South American Continent The Amazon River is the world's

South America (area 17819000 largest river in terms of drainage
square km) is the fourth largest basin.
Some Important Facts related to
continent in the world.
South America
South America, Central P l a c e / o t h e r Facts
America and the Western Islands terms
The shape of Triangular
are collectively called Latin the Continent
America.
129
Panama Canal Connects Atlantic The Heart of Argentina is called
and Pacific Ocean Pampas.
Uruguay most urbanized Brazil is the world's largest pro-
country of the
ducer of coffee.
Continent
Aconcagua (6960 m) is the high-
Lapaz Highest capital in the
(Bolivia) world est mountain peak of the Andes
mountain range.
Salto Angel World Highest Water
(Venezuela) fall 979 mt. The tropical savanna grasslands of
Amazon river Largest River of the Venezuela are called Llanos.
Continent The largest landlocked country in
Brazil Largest country of South America is Bolivia.
the Continent
African Continent:
Rio de Janeiro Largest city of the
Continent The African continent is called the
future continent.
Andes World's longest
Mountain It is the second-largest continent
in the world in terms of area.
Currencies and Capitals of Major Countries of South America
Country Currency Capital
Guyana Dollar George Town
Trinidad and Tobago Dollar Port of Spain
Colombia Peso Bogota
Chile Peso Santiago
Uruguay Peso Montevideo
Suriname Dollar Paramaribo
Peru Nuevo Sol Lima
Brazil Real Brasília
Bolivia Boliviano La Paz
Paraguay Guarani Asuncion
Ecuador Dollar Quito
Argentina Peso Buenos Aires
Venezuela Bolivar Caracas

130
 Negrito are natives of this conti- The Nile flows into the
nent. Mediterranean Sea.
The Atlantic Ocean lies to the The primitive tribes of Africa
west of Africa while to its east, are the Pygmy (Congo Basin),
lies the Indian Ocean.
Bushman (Kalahari Desert) and
The Gibraltar Strait separates the
Bedouin (Sahara Desert).
African continent (Morocco) from
The Suez Canal, connecting the
the European continent (Spain).
Red Sea to the Mediterranean
The largest lake in the continent is
Sea is located in Egypt.
Lake Victoria.
The Equator passes through Lake Port Said Harbor is located at the

Victoria. northern end of the Suez Canal

The origin of the world's longest and Port Suez Harbor at the
river Nile is Lake Victoria. southern end.

Some Important Facts related to African Continent

Fact Explanation

Aswan Dam Built on the Nile river

Johannesburg (South City of Gold

Africa)
Temperate Grassland of the Veld
Continent
Congo river Crosses the equator twice

Ghana Country of Forest, Gold Coast

Horn of Africa Comprises Somalia, Ethiopia, Eretria and

Djibouti

Sahara Desert (93 lakh square The Kalahari Desert is located in

Africa.
kilometres), the world's largest
South Sudan is the 193rd member
desert, is located in Africa. of the United Nations.
131
 Currencies and Capitals of Major Countries of Africa
Country Currency Capital
Madagascar Malagasy Ariary Antananarivo
Guinea Franc Conakry
Comoros Franc Moroni
Burkina Faso Franc Ouagadougou
Togo Franc Lome
Niger Franc Niamey
Central African Republic Franc Bangui
Burundi Franc Gitega
Cameroon Franc Yaounde
Djibouti Franc Djibouti
Rwanda Franc Kigali
Congo Franc Brazzaville
Senegal Franc Dakar
Gabon Franc Libreville
Liberia Dollar Monrovia
Mali Franc Bamako
Kenya Shilling Nairobi
Somalia Shilling Mogadishu
Tanzania Shilling Dodoma
Algeria Dinar Algiers
Tunisia Dinar Tunis
Egypt Pound Cairo
Mauritius Rupee Port Louis
Seychelles Rupee Victoria
Ethiopia Birr Addis Ababa
Morocco Dirham Rabat
Democratic Republic of Congo Franc Kinshasa
Nigeria Naira Abuja
South Africa Rand Pretoria / Cape Town

132
Australia Continent: Jackaroos are said to be labourers
Australia is the smallest continent working in sheep farming centres
by area in the southern hemisphere. in Australia.
It is the least populous continent. The Great Barrier Reef is located
The Tropic of Capricorn passes on the northeastern coast of the
through the middle of the State of Queensland.
continent. The Trans-Continental Railroad
The continent of Australia is connecting Sydney to Perth is
also called The Land of Golden Australia's longest railroad.
Fleece. Gibson, Simpson, Grandee,
Abel Tasman (1642 AD) and Sandy, and Victoria are deserts
of Australia.
Captain Cook (1770 AD)
The continent of Australia is
discovered Tasmania and Australia
also known as the Continent of
respectively.
Thirsty Lands and the Land of
Aborigines are natives of
Australia. Kangaroos.
States of The Continent of New Zealand is located in the
Australia and Their Capitals south-east of Australia.
State Capital New Zealand is called Britain of
Western Australia Perth the South.
North Australia Darwin Kiwi is the national bird of New
Southern Australia Adelaide Zealand.
Queensland Brisbane Mount Cook (3724 m) is the
New South Wales Sydney highest peak in New Zealand.
Victoria Melbourne Maori are natives of New Zealand.
Canberra* Canberra The Continent of Antarctica:
Tasmania Hobart Antarctica is a part of the ancient
*Union Territory Gondwana Land.
Antarctica is the fifth-largest
The Great Dividing Range is the
continent in the world in terms
main mountain range of Australia. of area.
Australia's most prominent The continent of Antarctica
agricultural region is the Murray is located in the Southern
Darling Valley. Hemisphere.
133
The British navigator James called the White Continent, as
Cook discovered the continent of 98% of its area is always covered
Antarctica but could not reach its with snow.
mainland. Roald Amundsen of Norway was
Fabian Gottlieb von Belling the first to reach (1911 AD) the
Shausen discovered the mainland South Pole.
of Antarctica. The Antarctica continent is called a
The continent of Antarctica is Continent Dedicated to Science.

World's Major Mountain Peaks and Their Elevations

Mountain Peaks Height ( in meters)

1. Mount Everest (Nepal) 8848.86

2. Kanchenjunga (Nepal-India) 85 86

3. Lhotse Nepal 8516

4. Makalu (Nepal-China) 8463

5. Dhaulagiri (Nepal) 8167

6. Annapurna (Nepal) 8091

7. K-2 [Godwin Austin (India)] 8611
8. Nanga Parbat (India) 8126

9. Nanda Devi (India) 7817

10. Kamet (India-China) 7756

11. Gasherbrum (Pakistan) 8068

12. Rakaposhi (Pakistan) 7788
13. Tirich Mir 7708
14. Gosainthan (Shishapangma) 8014
(China)
15. Namcha Barwa (China) 7756

134
 Continent Highest Peak
1. Asia Mt. Everest
2. Africa Mt. Kilimanjaro
3. Europe Mt. Elbrus
4. South America Mt. Aconcagua
5. Australia Mt. Kosciuszko
6. Antarctica Vinson Massif
7. North America Mount Mc Kinley (Denali)

Longest River Continent

1. Amazon South America
2. Volga Europe
3. Yangtze Asia
4. Missouri North America
5. Murray Australia
6. Onyx Antarctic
Deepest Point Continent

1. Eyre Lake Australia

2. Dead Sea Asia (world also)

3. Assal Lake Africa
4. Caspian Sea Europe
5. Death Valley North America
6. Denman Glacier Antarctica

Major Tribes and Their Habitats

1. YURT- Temporary houses built from the skins of animals by Kirghiz,
Kalmuk and Kazakhs.
2. TIPI-Houses made by Red Indians.
3. KRAAL-Houses built by Masai, Kafirs and Zulu by the grass.
4. IGLOO-Houses built by Eskimos by ice.
5. IZBA-Human made triangular houses constructed in Northern Russia.
135
 Major Tribes of The World and related Countries
Country Tribes
1. Arabian Bedouin/ Bedu
2. Congo Basin Pygmies
3. North America Red Indian
4. Kalahari Desert (Botswana) Bushman
5. Greenland and Canada Eskimos
6. North America Yukon
7. Japan Ainu
8. East Africa (Kenya) Masai
9. Brazil Boro
10. New Guinea Papuans
11. Malaysia Semang
12. New Zealand Maori
13. Siberia Yukaghir
14. Central Asia Kirgiz/Kyrgyz
15. Central Africa Negro
16. Sri Lanka Vedda
17. South Africa Zulu
18. Siberia Tatar / Tartar
19. Southern Africa Inkatha

Major Industrial Cities of The World and Their Industries

City Industry
1. Osaka Iron & Steel, Engineering Industries
2. Nagoya Cotton Textiles, Ship-building
3. Havana Cigar
4. Dhaka Carpet Industry, Muslin
5. Kobe Iron & Steel
6. Wellington Dairy Industry
7. Belfast (Ireland) Ship-building
8. Aachen (Germany) Iron & Steel
9. Los Angeles Entertainment, Petroleum
10. Lyons ( France) Silk Industry

136
11. Venice Glass Industry
12. Birmingham Iron & Steel
13. Milan (Italy) Silk Textiles Industry
14. Plymouth (USA) Ship-building

15. Detroit Automobiles

16. Munich Lens Making

17. Chelyabinsk (Russia) Iron & Steel, Machine Tools
18. Kansas Meat Industry

19. Multan Clay Pottery

20. Seattle Aircraft Construction

21. Vladivostok Ship-building

22. Glasgow Ship-building, Iron & Steel
23. Kiev Engineering Industry
24. Pittsburg Iron & Steel

25. Philadelphia Locomotive

26. Manchester Cotton Textile Industry

27. Hollywood (Los Angeles) Film Industry

Major Deserts of The World and Their Areas

Desert Expansion Area Area (in sq. km)
1. Sahara Chad, Mali, Niger, Sudan, 93,24,000
Egypt, Western Sahara,
Morocco, Libya, Algeria,
Tunisia, Mauritania
2. Australian Great Victoria, Great Sandy, 13,71,000
Gibson, Simpson and Sturt
Stony Deserts
3. Arabian Saudi Arab, Yemen, Jordan, 23,00,000
Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar,
UAE, Bahrain

137
4. Gobi Mongolia and China 12,95,000

6. Taklamakan Xinjiang (China) 3, 20, 000

7. Sonoran USA and Mexico 3, 10,800

8. Namib Namibia 8, 06,000

9. Karakum Turkmenistan 3, 50,000

10. Thar North-West India and 2, 00,000

Pakistan

11. Atacama Northern Chile 128,000

12. Kyzylkum Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan 3, 00,000

13. Dasht-e Lut Eastern Iran 22,780

14. Desierto North- West Peru 188735

de Sechura

15. Patagonia Argentina 6, 73,000

16. Mojave Desert South California 77248

Major Manufacturing Industries of The World

Industry Country
1. Silk Textiles Industry China, India, Japan, Russia, France
2. Cotton Textiles Industry China, India, UK, Russia
3. Woollen Textiles Industry USA, Britain, Japan

4. Iron Steel Industry Japan, USA, Russia, Ukraine

5. Aircraft Manufacturing France, UK, Russia, USA
Industry
6. Automotive Industry Japan, USA, Russia, Italy, France,
Germany
7. Shipbuilding Industry USA, Sweden, Japan, Germany, China
8. Potash Fertilizer Industry USA, Germany
9. Phosphate Fertilizer Industry
Australia, USA
10. Nitrogen Fertilizer Industry Japan, India, USA

138
 Major Plateaus of The World and Their Locations
Names of the Plateau Location
1. Columbia Plateau USA
2. Deccan Plateau South India
3. Madagascar Plateau Madagascar Central Highland Plateau
4. Iranian Plateau Iran (Asia Minor Plateau)
5. Tibetan Plateau North of Himalayas and to the South of QinLing Mountain
6. Mexico Plateau Mexico
7. Brazilian Plateau Middle Eastern Part of South America
8. Greenland Plateau North Atlantic Ocean
9. Colorado Plateau Arizona and the Plateau of the State of Utah, USA
10. Australia Plateau Western Part of Australia
11. Meseta Plateau Iberian Peninsula of Spain
12. Plateau of Mongolia Republic of Mongolia
13. Plateau of Alaska Alaska, Canada (Yukon Plateau)
14. Plateau of Great Basin In between Columbia and Colorado Rivers
15. Plateau of Bolivia Andes Mountains Region of Bolivia
16. Indo-China Plateau Eastern Peninsula of Southern Asia
17. Plateau of Abyssinia Ethiopia and Somalia (East Africa)
18. Arabian Plateau Southwest Asia
19. Plate of Anatolia Su Turkey

Atmosphere

Gases in The Atmosphere

Gas Mass (in %)
Nitrogen (N2) 78.08%
Oxygen (O2) 20.95%
Argon (Ar) 0.93%
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.036 %
Neon (Ne) 0.002 %
Krypton (Kr) 0.001%
Helium (He) 0.000 5%
Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005%
Xenon (Xe) 0.00009%
139
 Carbon dioxide is responsible for the greenhouse effect on the Earth.
Ozone gas is found in the lower part of the stratosphere at an altitude of 15
to 35 kilo metres above the Earth's surface.
The sky appears blue due to the scattering of light from dust particles.

Atmospheric Structure
Layer Height Temperature Specific Facts
Troposphere 15 km (8 km at poles Decreases with in- atmospheric phe-
creasing height nomena such as
thunder-storms, etc.
Stratosphere 15 to 50 km (Thick- In the beginning Ozone gas is found
ness at pole highest) temperature remains from 15 to 35 km
c o n s t a n t , g r o w s called Mesopause.
whengoes up a above
20 km.
Mesosphere 50-80 km Decreases in tem- Upper limit is
perature with in-
creasing height.
Ionosphere 80-640 km Rise in tempera- Communication sat-
ture with increasing ellites are placed in
height. ionosphere, events
like aurora australis
and aurora borealis
occur here.
Exosphere above 640kms — —

Local Winds and Different Names

Major Local Cold Winds
Wind Place
1. Northern USA
2. Norte USA
3. Williwaw Alaska
4. Pampero Argentina, Uruguay
5. Papagayo Mexico
6. Purga Tundra Region
7. Bise Eastern France, Switzerland
8. Mistral Spain & France
9. Buran Russia

140
10. Bora Adriatic Coast
11. Cape Doctor (Table Block) South African Republican
12. Haboob Sudan
13. Seistan Eastern Iran
14. Tramontane Central Europe
15. Levanter Spain

Major Local Hot Winds

Wind Place
1. Sirocco Sahara Desert, Italy
2. Harmattan (Doctor Wind) Guinea Coast
3. Chinook Rocky Mountains (USA)
4. Foehn Alps Mountains (Switzerland)
5. Brickfielder Australia
6. Simoom Arabian Desert
7. Black Roller Plains of North America
8. Ghibli / Gibli Libya
9. Khamasin Egypt
10. Leste Madeira and Canary Islands
11. Chili Tunisia
12. Koimbang Java (Indonesia)
13. Shamal Iraq
14. Norwester New Zealand
15. Santa Ana Southern California
16. Samun Iran
17. Loo Northern India
18. Ayala France
19. Garmsil South-east Iran
20. Solano South-east Spain
21. Poniente North-Eastern Mediterranean Sea
22. Berg South Africa
23. Baguio Philippines
24. Sukhove Russia & Kazakhstan
25. Haboob Sudan

141
Jet Streams: the air condenses and accumulates
Propagation of the jet streams is on the surface in the form of small
between 20° latitudes in both the drops of water which is called dew.
hemispheres at an altitude ranging
Frost :
from 7.5 to 14 km between poles.
Jet streams produce storms, The frost occurs when the dew
rainfall, atmospheric disturbances, point is below freezing point and
cyclones and anti-cyclones. the excess water vapour freezes
Fronts into ice particles.
When two different air masses Fog :
meet, the boundary zone between A cloud of smoke formed
them is called a front. The process near the lower surface of the
of formation of the fronts is known atmosphere due to dust particles
as fronto genesis. and concentrated water particles
Humidity is called fog.
Humidity is the amount of water Fog is formed when the air
vapour in the air. temperature is below the dew
Dew Point : point. The visibility during fog is
Dew point is the temperature at less than a kilometre.
which water is converted from its
Hydrosphere
gaseous state to a liquid or solid
state. The hydrosphere covers about
Condensation : 70% (3/4) of the entire Earth.
The change of water vapour
into the liquid is known as The saline water of the oceans is
condensation. 97% of the total water present on
Dew: Earth, while clean water or soft
When the air temperature is below water is only remaining 3%.
the dew point, the water vapour in Pacific ocean is the largest ocean.

Oceans and Trenches

Position Trench Depth
(in meters)
1. Pacific Ocean Mariana 11033
2. Pacific Ocean Mindanao 10540
3. Pacific Ocean Tonga 10882
4. Atlantic Ocean (Western Islands) Puerto Rico 8385
5. Eastern Indian Ocean Sunda 8152
6. Southern Atlantic Ocean Romanche 7631
142
 Major Countries of The World With Large Coastlines
Country Length of Coastline
1. Canada 202080 km
2. Indonesia 54716 km
3. Greenland 44087 km
4. Russia 37653 km
5. Philippines 36289 km
6. Japan 29751 km
7. Australia 25760 km
8. Norway 25148 km
9. United States 19924 km
10. New Zealand 15134 km
Major Countries of The World With Large Water Areas

1. Canada 891163 sq km
2. Russia 720500 sq km
3. United States 685924 sq km
4. India 314070 sq km
5. China 270550 sq km
6. Iran 116600 sq km

Warm Currents of the Pacific Cold Currents of the Pacific

Ocean Ocean
1. Kuroshio Current 1. Humboldt or Peruvian Current

2. Alaska Current 2. California Current

3. Tsushima Current 3. Antarctica Current
4. El Nino Current 4. Kurile Current/ Oyashio
Current
5. North Equatorial Current
5. Okhotsk Current
6. South Equatorial Current
Warm Currents of The
7. North Pacific Current
Atlantic Ocean
8. East Australian Current 1. Gulf Streams
9. Counter Equatorial Current 2. Brazil Current
143
3. Florida Current Permanent and Cold Currents
4. Irminger Current of The Indian Ocean
5. Northern Equatorial Current 1. West wind drift
2. West Australian Current
6. Southern Equatorial Current
7. Equatorial Counter (Guinea) Tide and Ebb:
Current Tide and ebb is the process of rise
and fall of ocean water due to the
Cold Streams of the Atlantic Ocean gravitational force of the sun and
1. the moon.
Canary Current
The moon is much closer to the
2. Benguela Current earth; therefore, its tide generating
3. Labrador Current power is twice as much as that of
the sun.
4. Falkland Current
The moon, the sun and the earth
5. East Greenland Current are in one line on a full moon and
6. Antarctica Current new moon due to which high tides
are generated on earth on this day.
Permanent and Hot Currents On the seventh or the eighth day of
of The Indian Ocean both the full moon phase and the
1. Mozambique Current new moon phase, the moon and
the sun, form a right angle with
2. Agulhas Current
the centre of the earth, causing a
3. Southern Equatorial Current
low tidal situation on the earth.
Major Canals and The Countries of The World
Canal Country Location in between
1. Suez Canal Egypt Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea
2. Panama Canal Panama Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean
3. Welland Canal Canada Erie and Ontario
4. Erie Canal USA Hudson river and Erie Lake
5. Soo Canal USA Lake Superior and Huron Lake
6. New Water Way Germany North Sea and Rotterdam
7. Kiel Canal Germany Baltic Sea and the North Sea
8. North Sea Canal Germany Amsterdam and the North Sea
9. Gota Canal Sweden Gutenberg and the Stockholm
10. Manchester Canal UK Liverpool and Manchester
11. Volga Don Canal Russia Stalingrad and Rostov
12. Albert Canal Belgium Antwerp and Liege
13. K.P. Canal India Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh

144
 World's Major Rivers, The Place of Origin and Drainage
River Length Origin Drainage
1. Nile 6650 Victoria Lake Mediterranean Sea
2. Amazon 6400 Laggo Wilfero Atlantic Ocean
3. Yangtze 6300 Tibet's Plateau East China Sea
4. Mississippi 6275 Lake Itasca Gulf of Mexico.
Missouri
5 Ob Irtysh 5410 Altai Mountains Gulf of Ob
6. Huang Ho 5464 Kunlun Mountains Gulf of Chihli.
7. Yenisei 5539 Large and small Yeni- Kara Sea
sei confluence
8. Congo 4700 North-East Zambia Atlantic Ocean
9. Amur 2900 Shilka and Argun rivers Sakhalin Gulf, Ok-
hotsk Sea
10. Lena 4270 Baikal Mountains Laptev Sea
(Russia)
11. MacKenzie 1738 Great Slave Lake Beaufort Sea
12. Niger 4184 Guinea (Africa) Gulf of Guinea
13. Mekong 4909 Tibet Plateau South China Sea
14. Volga 3530 Valdai Plateau (Russia) Caspian Sea
15. St. Lawrence 1197 Lake Ontario Law- Bay of St.
rence
16. Brahmaputra 2900 Near Mansarovar Lake Bay of Bengal
17. Indus 2880 Near Mansarovar Lake Arabian Sea
18. Danube 2845 Black Forest (Germany) Black Sea
19. Euphrates 3000 From the confluence Shatt al-Arab
of Karasu and Murat
rivers
20. Darling 1472 Great Dividing Range Murray River
Australia
21. Murray 2508 Australian Alps South Sea
22. Paraguay 2695 Mato Grosso (Brazil) Parana River
23. Ural 2428 Southern Ural Moun- Caspian Sea
tains (Russia)
24. Ganga 2525 Gomukh Gangotri Glacier Bay of Bengal
25. Amu-Darya 2540 Pamir Plateau Aral Sea
26. Salween 2400 Tibet Plateau Andaman Sea

145
27. Arkansas 2364 Rocky Mountains Mississippi River
28. Colorado 2333 Rocky Mountain Gulf of California
29. Dnieper 2284 Valdai Hills (Russia) Black Sea (Russia)
30. Ohio 2108 Allegheny River Penn- Mississippi River
sylvania
31. Irrawaddy 2170 Mali and Nmai Rivers Andaman Sea
32. Orange 2200 Drakensburg Atlantic Ocean
Mountains
33. Orinoco 2410 Sierra Parima Moun- Atlantic Ocean
tains
34. Columbia 1954 Rocky Mountains Pacific Ocean
35. Don 1870 Tula (Russia) Azov Sea

36. Tigris 1850 Taurus Mountains Euphrates

Note: After confluence of Tigris and Euphrates river, it is called Shatt al- Arab.

Major Straits of The World

Strait Geographical Connects
location
1. Dover France-England North Sea and English Channel
2. Davis Canada-Greenland Atlantic Ocean and Baffin Bay
3. Denmark Greenland-Iceland Greenland Sea and North At-
lantic Sea
4. Palk Strait Sri Lanka-India Bay of Bengal and Gulf of
Mannar
5. Malacca Malaysia-Indonesia South China Sea and Andaman
Sea
6. Hudson Canada Atlantic Ocean and
Hudson Bay
7. Bering Russia-Alaska Chukchi Sea and Bering Sea
8. Luzon Taiwan-Luzon Island Philippines Sea and South Chi-
(Philippines) na Sea
9. Magellan Chile Atlantic Ocean and Pacific
Ocean
10. Gibraltar Morocco-Spain Atlantic Ocean and
Mediterranean Sea
11. Korea South Korea-Japan East China Sea and Sea of Japan
12. Torres South Korea-Japan East China Sea and Sea of Japan

146
13. Florida Cuba-USA Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of
Mexico
14. Bab-Al- Djibouti-Yemen Arabian Sea and Red Sea Mandab
15. Dardanelles Turkey Aegean Sea and Sea
Marmara
16. Bass Australia South Sea and Tasman Sea
17. Tsushima Japan and South East China Sea and Sea of Japan
Korea
18. Bosporus Turkey Black Sea and Sea of Marmara
19. Cook New Zealand (North- Tasman Sea & Southern Pacific
ern and Southern Ocean
Islands)
20. Tsugaru Japan Pacific Ocean and Sea of Japan
21. Sunda Indonesia Indian Ocean and Java Sea
22. Belle Isle Canada Atlantic Ocean & Gulf of St.
Lawrence
23. Tatar Russia Sea of Japan and Okhotsk Sea
24. Yucatan Mexico-Cuba Caribbean Sea and Gulf of
Mexico
25. North Channel England-Ireland Atlantic Ocean & Irish Sea
26. Otranto Albania-Italy Ionian Sea and Adriatic Sea
27. Foveaux New Zealand Pacific Ocean and Tasman Sea
28. Makassar Indonesia Celebes Sea and Java Sea
29. Hudson Canada Hudson Bay and Atlantic Ocean
29. Hudson Canada Hudson Bay and Atlantic Ocean
30. Hormuz Iran-Oman Gulf of Oman and Gulf straight
of Persia

Major Lakes of The World and Their Respective Countries

Name Area Related Country
(in sq km)
1. Caspian Sea 371000 Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Russia,
Iran & Azerbaijan
2. Superior Lake 82097 Canada & USA
3. Huron Lake 59600 Canada & USA
4. Erie 25655 Canada & USA
5. Ontario Lake 19009 Canada & USA
6. Michigan Lake 57753 USA
7. Great Slave Lake 27000 Canada
147
8. Lake Winnipeg 24500 Canada
9. Lake Athabasca 7935 Canada
10. Reindeer Lake 6650 Canada
11. Lake Baikal 31500 Russia
12. Ladoga Lake 16400 Russia
13. Onega Lake 9890 Russia
14. Lake Balkhas 17580 Kazakhstan
15. Issyk Kul Lake 6236 Kyrgyzstan
16. Rudolf / Turkana 6500 Kenya, Ethiopia
Lake
17. Lake Victoria 69484 Kenya Uganda and Tanzania
18. Aral Sea 17158 Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan
19. Lake 32600 Burundi, Zambia, Congo Tanganyika
and Tanzania
20. Malawi Lake 29604 Tanzania, Mozambique and Malawi
21. Lake Titicaca 8300 Bolivia & Peru
22. Nicaragua Lake 8150 Nicaragua
23. Chad Lake 1600 Niger, Nigeria Cameroon and Chad
24. Eyre Lake 9690 Australia

Major Waterfalls of The World and Their Respective Countries

Waterfall Height (metre) Country
1. Salto Angel 979 Venezuela
2. Kukenan 674 Venezuela
3. Mardalsfossen 645 Norway
4. Tugela 948 South Africa
5. Yosemite 739 California, USA
6. Della 440 British Columbia (Canada)
7. Gavarnie 422 France
8. Victoria 105 On Zambia and Zimbabwe Border
9. Sutherland 580 New Zealand
10. Ribbon 491 California, USA
11. Jog (Garsoppa) 253 India
12. Niagara 55-57 On the order of USA and Canada
13. Reichenbach Fall — Switzerland
14. Wollomombi — Australia
148
 is the shortest in length (118 km).
B Geography of India Nine States of India viz. Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka,
General Introduction Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha and West
The mainland of India extends
Bengal have coastal borders.
from 8° 4' north latitude to 37° 6'
The 82°30' east-longitude passes
south latitude and from 68 ° 7' east
through Prayagraj, Mirzapur,
longitude to 97° 25' west longitude
etc.
in the northeastern hemisphere.
The standard time of India is
It is the seventh-largest country
five and a half hours ahead of
by area and second-largest
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
country by population.
The southernmost point of Neighbouring Countries of
India is known as Indira Point India
(Great Nicobar Island), and
The neighbours of India are
the southernmost point on the
Pakistan, Afghanistan, China,
mainland is known as Kanya
N e p a l , B h u t a n , M y a n m a r,
Kumari, Tamil Nadu.
Bangladesh, Maldives and Sri
The northernmost point of India
Lanka.
is known as Indira Col (Ladakh)
India shares its longest
near Siachen Glacier.
international territorial border
The far eastern point of India
with Bangladesh. Its length is
is called Kibithu located in
4096.7 km, while the shortest
Arunachal Pradesh.
international territorial border
The far western point of India is
(106.0 km) shares with
known as Guhar Moti (Gujarat).
Afghanistan.
The Indian territory measures
2933 km from East to West and Sri Lanka is the closest country
3214 km from North to South. to India across the sea, which
The state with the longest coastline is separated from the Indian
in India is Gujarat (1214.70 km), mainland, Tamil Nadu by the
while the Union Territory with the Palk Strait.
longest coastline is the Andaman Sikkim shares its border with three
Nicobar Islands (1962 km). The countries Nepal, Bhutan and
coastline of Goa (among States) China.
149
 Pakistan is separated from India officially the world’s highest peak.
by the Radcliffe Line. The Mount Everest is called the
China is separated from India by Sagarmatha in Nepal.
the Mac Mohan line. Kanchenjunga (8598 m), Nanga
Afghanistan is separated from Parbat, Nanda Devi, Kamet and
Namcha Barwa are important
Pakistan by the Durand Line.
peaks of the Greater Himalayas.
The Physical Characteristics (III)Middle (Lesser) Himalaya :
of India The Middle Himalaya is a Lesser
Himachal Range, consisting
According to the physical
of Pirpanjal, Mahabharata,
characteristics, India is divided
Mussoorie, Dhauladhar and Nag
mainly into four parts.
Tibba Ranges.
(A) Northern Mountain Regions
Pirpanjal (Kashmir) is the longest
(B) Peninsular Plateaus
chain of the Middle Himalayas.
(C) The Great Plains
(IV) Outer Himalayas :
(D) Island Regions and Coastal
Outer Himalayas are also called
Plains
Shivalik or Lower Himalayas.
Northern Mountain Regions
Peninsular Plateaus-
The northern mountain region are
The peninsular plateau has
divided into four parts-
been formed by old crystalline,
(I) Trans-Himalaya :
pancreatic and metamorphic
The Karakoram, Ladakh and
rocks.
Zaskar Ranges of the mountain
The Aravalli Hills extend up to
fall under the Trans-Himalayan
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana
Region.
and Delhi.
The highest peak of Karakoram
It was built during the
is called K2 or Godwin Austin
Precambrian Period.
(8611 m) which is the highest peak
The Chota Nagpur plateau is
falling in India.
known as the 'Ruhr of India' for
The Indo-Tsangpo Shuture-Zone
its abundant mineral resources.
separates the Trans-Himalayas
The Hill of Ajanta is located
from the Greater Himalayas.
in Aurangabad district in
(II) Great Himalaya :
Maharashtra.
It has an average elevation of more
Anamudi (2,695 m) is the
than 20,000 feet (6,100) meters.
highest peak of South India on
Mount Everest (8848 m) is
the Anaimalai Hills.
150
The Great Plains of North India : 36 Islands.
The Great Plain of North India is Barren Island is an active volcano.
also known as the Indus-Ganges The 8-degree channel separates
and Brahmaputra Plains. Maldives and Minicoy.
The vast plains of north India are The 10-degree channel separates
divided into four parts based on the Little Andaman from the Car
the typical terrestrial regions - the Nicobar.
Bhabar, the Bhangar, the Khadar
and the Terai.
Drainage System
Island Region :
Ganga is called the Padma in
Andaman & Nicobar and
Bangladesh.
Lakshadweep are the two islands
The Brahmaputra river is called
of India. Andaman and Nicobar
Tsangpo in China (Tibet) and
islands are situated in the Bay of Jamuna in Bangladesh.
Bengal. Majuli Island, the largest
In the Andaman and Nicobar river island, is located on the
archipelago, there are 572 islands Brahmaputra river in Assam.
out of which 550 islands are Peninsular Rivers :
in Andaman island group and The Narmada and the Tapti (Tapi)
22 islands are in the Nicobar rivers flow westward.
archipelago. Both these rivers form estuaries.
Saddle Peak is the highest peak Mahakaleshwar Temple in Ujjain
(732 m) of the Andaman and is located on the banks of the
Nicobar archipelago. Shipra river. Kumbha Mela is
The largest port of the Andaman organized here at the interval of
archipelago is Port Blair (South 12 years.
Andaman). In descending order, the lengthwise
The Lakshadweep, archipelago is peninsular rivers are- Godavari,
located in the Arabian Sea. Krishna, Narmada, Mahanadi,
The Lakshadweep is a group of Kaveri and Tapti in that order.
Regional Division of the Himalayas
Territorial Part Extension Between Length
Punjab Himalaya Indus and Sutlej Rivers 500 km
Kumaun Himalaya Sutlej and Kali Rivers 320 km
Nepal Himalaya Kali and Teesta Rivers 800 km
Assam Himalaya Teesta and Brahmaputra Rivers 720 km
151
 Rivers of India
Rivers Origin Length Confluence/
Estuary
Indus From a glacier near Bokhar 2880 km The Arabian Sea
Chu near Kailash Mountain (1114 km
in Tibet in India)
Chenab Near Bada Lacha Pass 1180 km Sutlej River
Lahaul District (Himachal
Pradesh)
Ravi Near Rohtang Pass in Kangra 725 km Chenab River
District
Jhelum From Bering (undivided 724 km Chenab River
J a m m u a nd Kashmir)
waterfall situated on Pirpanjal
Mountain
Beas At at altitude of 4000 m from 470 km Sutlej River (Kapurthala
Beas Pond near Rohtang Pass near Harike
Sutlej From the Rakshastal located 1500 km Indus River
near Kailash Mountain (1050 km
(Height 4555 m above sea- in India)
level)
Ganges G o m u k h g l a c i e r n e a r 2525km The Bay of Bengal
Gangotri (at an altitude of more
than 3900 meters above sea-
level)

Ramganga From Dudha Toli Range 696 km R i v e r G a n g e s (near

located in Garhwal near Kannauj)
Nainital
Sharda (Kali Milam Glacier of Kumaon 596 km River Ghaghara near
Sarayu) Himalaya Ghaghara Nepal Bahram Ghat
Gandak Nepal 425 km River Ganges (Sonpur
near Patna)
Kosi North of Gosainathan Peak 730 km River Ganges
Yamuna Lies in the western side of 1384 km River Ganges
Banderpooch Yamunotri (at Prayagraj)
Glacier
Chambal Near Mhow in Malwa Plateau, 965 km Yamuna River (Etawah)
Madhya Pradesh (600 m above
sea-level)
Betwa Vindhyachal Mountain in 590 km River Yamuna
Raisen District of Madhya (Hamirpur)
Pradesh

152
Son Amarkantak Hills 7 8 0 k m River Ganges
(Patna)
Brahmaputra Angsi Glacier near Lake 2900 km ( River Padma) The Bay of
Mansarovar in Tibet (916 km in Bengal
India)
Narmada From Amarkantak Plateau 1312 km The Gulf of Khambhat
located in Vindhyachal
Mountain Ranges
Tapti From Multai in Betul district 724 km The Gulf of Khambhat
(M.P.) near Surat
Mahi Dhar district (Madhya 583 km The Gulf of Khambhat
Pradesh) in the Vindhya
Mountain Region
Luni Ajmer (Rajasthan) Western 511 km Rann of Kutch
Aravalli Mountains
Mahanadi Near Sihawa in Dhamtari 851 km The Bay of Bengal (near
District of Chhattisgarh Cuttack)
Shipra Kakri Bardi Hills (Indore) 210 km Chambal River
Sabarmati A r a v a l l i M o u n t a i n s 371 km The Bay of Khambhat
(Udaipur)
Banas Khamnor Hills Aravalli 512 km Chambal
Mountains (Rajsamand
District)
Krishna From the Western Ghats 1400 km The Bay of Bengal
near Mahabaleshwar
(Maharashtra)
Kaveri Brahmagiri Hills (in the 800 km The Bay of Bengal
Coorg District of Karnataka)
Godavari Trimbakeshwar of Nasik 1465 km The Bay of Bengal
(Maharashtra)
Tungabhadra Tunga and nearby origin 531 km Krishna River
of Bhadra river at Kadur,
from Gangamoola Peak of
Western Ghat Mountains in
Karnataka
Pennar From Chenna Kesava Hills 597 km The Bay of Bengal
(Karnataka) of Nandi Range
Periyar From the forest area of Sivagiri 244 km The Arabian Sea
Peak of Sundaramala

Hooghly It is a tributary of river Ganges 260 km The Bay of Bengal

w h i c h s e p a r a t e s from
Ganges and flows south
from Dhulia (West Bengal)

153
 Major Indian Cities on the Banks of Rivers
Citie River
Delhi Yamuna
Agra Yamuna
Bareilly Ramganga
Mathura Yamuna
Kanpur Ganges
Prayagraj Ganges-Yamuna confluence
Varanasi Ganges
Kannauj Ganges
Lucknow Gomti
Ayodhya Sarayu
Jaunpur Gomti
Badrinath Alaknanda
Firozpur Sutlej
Kolkata Hooghly
Dibrugarh Brahmaputra
Kota Chambal
Ujjain Shipra
Jabalpur Narmada
Guwahati Brahmaputra
Pandharpur Bhima
Ahmedabad Sabarmati
Jamshedpur Swarnarekha
Hyderabad Musi
Surat Tapti (Tapi)
Srinagar Jhelum
Kurnool Tungabhadra
Cuttack Mahanadi
Nasik Godavari
Srirangapatnam Kaveri
Tiruchirappalli Kaveri
Orchha Betwa
Ludhiana Sutlej
Vijayawada Krishna
154
 Surnames of Important Cities of India
Surname Place
1. Abode of God Prayagraj
2. City of Golden Temple Amritsar
3. City of Temples and Ghats Varanasi
4. Queen of Arabian Sea Kochi
5. Venice of East Kochi
6. City of Festivals Madurai
7. Gem of Karnataka Mysore
8. Pink City Jaipur
9. Paris of East Jaipur
10. Paris of India Jaipur
11. Switzerland of India Kashmir
12. Mini Switzerland of India Khajjiar
13. Scotland of East Shillong
14. Kashmir of South Kerala
15. Rajasthan Pride Chittorgarh
16. Gateway of Rajasthan Bharatpur
17. Thermopylae of Rajasthan Haldighati
18. Hollywood of India Mumbai
19. Gateway of India Mumbai
20. City of Seven Isles Mumbai
21. Steel City Jamshedpur
22. Pittsburgh of India Jamshedpur
23. Heart of India Delhi
24. The Ganges of the South Kaveri River
25. Fruit Bucket Himachal Pradesh
26. Manchester of India Ahmedabad
27. Garden of India Bangaluru
28. City of Palaces Kolkata
29. Spice Garden of India Kerala
30. Queen of Chota Nagpur Netarhat Jharkhand
31. Queen of Mountains Mussoorie
32. Land of Five Rivers Punjab

155
33. Blue Mountains Nilgiri Hills
34. Sorrow of Bengal Damodar River
35. Manchester of North India Kanpur
36. Samudra Putra Lakshadweep
37. Diamond Harbour Kolkata
38. Twin Cities Hyderabad-Sikandrabad
39. City of Lakes Srinagar
40. City of Nawabs Lucknow
41. The Spine of Economy of North India River Ganges
42. Sorrow of Bihar River Kosi
The Tulbul project is located on
Major Lakes and Waterfalls the Jhelum river.
in India Lonar Lake is located in Buldhana
district of Maharashtra.
The shallow saltwater lakes Lonar Lake was created by the
formed in the coastal areas impact of an asteroid collision
separated from the sea are called with earth during the Pleistocene
lagoon. epoch.
The largest coastal lake in India Tungabhadra Lake is a man-
is Chilika Lake (Odisha), which made lake located on the
is a saltwater lagoon. Tungabhadra River.
Ashtamudi lake is the backwater Hussain Sagar Lake is located
between Hyderabad and
lagoon of Kerala which opens to
Sikandrabad.
the sea.
Vembanad Lake is located on
Loktak Lake, located in Manipur,
the west coast and is a lagoon in
is the largest freshwater lake in
Kerala.
northeast India. In the Loktak
India’s second-largest lagoon
Lake Keibul Lamjao National
located on the east coast is Pulicat
Park is present, the world's only
Lake.
floating wildlife sanctuary.
Fulhar Lake is located near Pulicat Lake is located on the
Madhotanda in Pilibhit district border of Andhra Pradesh and
(Uttar Pradesh). Tamil Nadu on the Coromandel
The Gomti River originates from Coast. It is the second-largest
Fulhar Lake. brackish water lagoon in India.
Sambhar Lake is the largest Barrier Island named Sriharikota
saltwater lake (inland) in India,
separates Pulicat Lake from the
located in Rajasthan.
Wular Lake, the largest Bay of Bengal.
freshwater lake, in India, is Satish Dhawan Space Centre is
located in Jammu and Kashmir. situated in Sriharikota.
156
 Major Waterfalls of India
Waterfalls Height (m) Rivers Location
Jog / Garsoppa 253 Sharavati Karnataka
Mahatma Gandhi
Chitrakoot 29 Indravati Chhattisgarh
Shivasamudram 98 Kaveri Karnataka
Gautam Dhara/Jonha 45 Ranu Jharkhand
Hundru 98 Swarnarekha Jharkhand
Lodh Budhaghagh 143 Budha Jharkhand
Gokak 52 Gokak Karnataka
Dasham 44 Kanchi Jharkhand
Pykara 61 Pykara Tamil Nadu
Kapil Dhara 30 Narmada Madhya Pradesh
Chulia 15 Chambal Rajasthan
Dhuandhar 30 Narmada Madhya Pradesh

4. Autumn (16th September to

Climate of India
15th December)
The climate of India is Tropical Rainfall in winter occurs due to
Monsoon Climate. western disturbance in the plains
In summer, the monsoon winds of northern India.
travel from southwest to Rainfall occurs during the winter
northeast and during winter, months (January-February) on the
northeast to the southwest. coasts of Tamil Nadu due to the
The change in the direction of returning monsoon.
monsoon winds causes a change North eastern monsoon is also
in the season. Based on this, there
called the returning monsoon.
are four seasons in India-
The intense humid winds are called
1. W i n t e r S e a s o n ( 1 6 t h
December to 15th March) Kalbaisakhi in West Bengal and
2. Summer (16th March to 15th Norwesters in eastern India.
June) The intense and humid winds in
3. Rainy Season (16th June to Karnataka and South India are
15th September) called Cherry Blossom Rain.
157
 The mango shower in south Bhangar is called old alluvial soil
India (Kerala) is known for and Khadar is called new alluvial
having strong humid winds being soil.
congenial for the mango crop in Bhangar consists of pebbles and
Kerala. calcium carbonate.
The hot and dry winds blowing (2) Black Soil :
Black soil is also known as Regur
in the dry parts of northwestern
soil, Black Cotton soil, Tropical
India during the summer are called
Black Earth and Tropical
"loo".
Chernozem.
The monsoon of the Arabian Sea
Black soil is formed by regular
direction showers in Kerala in the
weathering and erosion of basalt
first week of June.
lava.
Leh (Union Territory of Ladakh,
Black soil is highly suitable for
9.2 cm) receives the lowest annual
cotton cultivation.
rainfall in India. Black soil has the maximum
The southwest monsoon is more water holding capacity.
powerful than the monsoon of the (3) Red Soil :
Arabian Sea. Red soil is formed due to the
The retreating monsoon season disintegration and dissolution of
is called the autumn season. metamorphic rocks as a result of

Soil of India climatic changes.

It is red due to the presence of
The Indian Council of Agricaltural oxide of iron, ferric oxide.
Research has divided India's soils into Red soil is also often found as
8 categories. Whose description is as infertile wasteland.
fources – (4) Laterite Soil :
(1) Alluvial Soil : Laterite soil is rich in iron oxide
The soil brought by rivers is and aluminium oxide.
called alluvial soil. Laterite soil is most suitable for
There are two types of alluvial the cultivation of cocoa, cashew,
soil - Bhangar and Khadar tea and cardamom.
158
 Major Agricultural Revolutions
Revolution Related Field
1. Green Revolution Food Grain Production

2. Golden Revolution Fruit and Vegetables Production

3. White Revolution Milk Production
4. Brown Revolution Fertilizer Production Non-Conventional Energy
5. Blue Revolution Fishery Production
6. Red Revolution Tomato, Meat Production
7. Black Revolution Petroleum Production
8. Yellow Revolution Oilseed Production
9. Pink Revolution Lobster/Meat Export/Onion Production

10. Amrit Revolution River Link Project

11. Silver Revolution Egg Production
12. Almond Revolution Spices Production
13. Round Revolution Potato Production

Major Methods of Agriculture

1. Hydroponics Growing of Plants in Water (Soil-free Agriculture)

2. Pomo Culture Fruit Production
3. Olericulture Vegetables Production
4. Horticulture Gardening

5. Viticulture Grapes Cultivation

6. Pisciculture Fishing
7. Sericulture Silkworm Rearing
8. Apiculture Beekeeping
9. Floriculture Flower Production
10. Vermiculture Earthworm Production

159
 Major Multipurpose Projects of India and Their Respective
States
Project Name River/Dam Related State/Union Territories
Bhakra Nangal Sutlej Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Himachal
Pradesh
Beas (Pong-Dam) Beas Rajasthan, Punjab,
Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh
Indira Gandhi Canal Confluence of Beas Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab
and Sutlej
Chambal Chambal Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan
Damodar Valley Damodar West Bengal and Jharkhand
Hirakud Dam Mahanadi Odisha
Mayurakshi Mayurakshi West Bengal, Jharkhand
Kosi Kosi Bihar and Nepal
Tungabhadra Tungabhadra Karnataka and Telangana
Nagarjuna Sagar Krishna Telangana and Andhra Pradesh
Gandak River Gandak Bihar and Nepal
Farakka Ganges West Bengal Bhagirathi
Kakrapar Tapi Gujarat
Tawa Tawa Madhya Pradesh
Ukai Tapi Gujarat
Malprabha Malprabha Karnataka
Pochampadu Shri Ram Godavari Telangana
Sagar
Baglihar Chenab Jammu and Kashmir
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan & Maharashtra
Tilaiya Barakar Jharkhand
Dulhasti Chenab Jammu and Kashmir
Tulbul Jhelum Jammu and Kashmir
Sirhind Canal Sutlej Punjab
Jawahar Sagar Chambal Rajasthan
Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal Rajasthan
160
Gandhi Sagar Chambal Madhya Pradesh

Shivasamudram Kaveri Karnataka

Bansagar Son Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh
Panchet Dam Damodar Jharkhand, West Bengal
Sharavati Sharavati Karnataka
Hasdeo Bango Hasdeo Chhattisgarh
Sharda Sahayak Sharda, Gomti, Sai Uttar Pradesh
Machhakund Machhakund Odisha, Andhra Pradesh
Kangsabati Kangsabati West Bengal
Jayakwadi Godavari Maharashtra
Bhadra Bhadra Karnataka
Bhima Pavana and Krishna Maharashtra
Ghatprabha Ghatprabha Karnataka
Rihand Rihand Uttar Pradesh
Matatila Betwa Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
Ramganga Ramganga Uttar Pradesh
Tehri Dam Bhagirathi Uttarakhand
Idukki Periyar Kerala

Major Mineral Reserves: Top States IMYB 2019

Minerals First Second Third
Apatite West Bengal Jharkhand Meghalaya
Rock Phosphate Jharkhand Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh
Asbestos Rajasthan Karnataka Andhra Pradesh
Baryte Andhra Pradesh Rajasthan Telangana
Bauxite Odisha Andhra Pradesh Gujarat
Chromite Odisha Manipur Nagaland
Coal (1st April 2019) Jharkhand Odisha Chhattisgarh
Dolomite Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Chhattisgarh
Dunite Tamil Nadu Karnataka Jharkhand
Felspar Rajasthan Telangana Andhra Pradesh
Graphite Arunachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Odisha

161
Iron Ore* (Hematite) Odisha Jharkhand Chhattisgarh
Magnesite Uttarakhand Tamil Nadu Rajasthan
Manganese Ore* Odisha Karnataka Madhya Pradesh
Crude Oil (1 April Assam Gujarat Rajasthan
2019)*
Natural Gas (1 April Assam Andhra Pradesh Rajasthan
2019)*
Copper Ore Rajasthan Jharkhand Madhya Pradesh
Gold (Metal) Karnataka Rajasthan Andhra Pradesh
Silver (Ore) Rajasthan Jharkhand Andhra Pradesh
Magnetite * Karnataka Andhra Pradesh Rajasthan
Diamond Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Chhattisgarh
*According to IMYB, 2019 Data

Top Mineral Producing States of India 2018-19(P)

Minerals First Second Third
Rock Phosphate Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh —
Bauxite Odisha Jharkhand Gujarat

Chromite Odisha — —

Coal Chhattisgarh Odisha Jharkhand

Copper Ore Madhya Pradesh Rajasthan Jharkhand

Diamond Madhya Pradesh — —

Gold Karnataka Jharkhand —

Graphite Odisha Jharkhand Kerala

Iron ore* Odisha Chhattisgarh Karnataka

Magnesite Uttarakakhand Tamil Nadu Karnataka

Manganese Ore * Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Odisha

Crude Oil Rajasthan Gujarat Assam

Natural Gas Assam Tripura Rajasthan

Silver Rajasthan Karnataka —

162
 Indian Railways was nationalized
Transportation in India
in 1944.
There are four modes of transport There are three types of railway
available in India. Road Transport, lines in India.
Rail Transport, Air Transport and Types of Rail Gauges
Water Transport. Rail Line Width of the
The national highways fall under Track
the control of union body-National Broad Gauge 1.676 m
Highway Authority of India Meter Gauge 1.00 m
(NHAI).
Narrow Gauge 0.762 m and
The five Indian states with
0.610 m
the highest length of national
highway (according to the report Gorakhpur railway platform
of 2020-21) are Maharashtra, (1355.40 m) is the longest in the
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya world.
Pradesh and Gujarat. India’s first semi high-speed train
Golden Quadrilateral was is Gatimaan (5 th April 2016),
a national highway project equipped with WAP-5 engine. The
undertaken in 2001 connecting
first engineless semi high-speed
four metro cities-Delhi, Mumbai,
train in India is Vande Bharat
Chennai and Kolkata with a total
(Train-18).
road length of 5846 kms.
In India, Metro rail was first
According to Basic Road Statistics
introduced in Kolkata.
of India 2017-18, states with
Air Transport :
the highest state borders are-
The first air flight in India
1. Maharashtra (38999 km), 2.
was started in 1911 between
(Karnataka (19521 km), 3. Gujarat
Allahabad (Prayagraj) and
(17201 km), 4. Rajasthan (15085
Naini.
km), 5. Andhra Pradesh (13604
The Airport Authority of India was
km).
formed on 1st April 1995.
Rail Transport :
The first train in India ran between It manages India's airports
Mumbai to Thane on 16th April designated both for international
1853 during the Governor-General and domestic traffic.
ship of Lord Dalhousie. The first greenfield airport in India
The Railway Board was established is Cochin Airport on a public-
in March 1905. private partnership basis.
163
 Railway Zones and Their Headquarters
Zone Headquarters
1. Central Railway (CR) Mumbai (CST)
2. Eastern Railway (ER) Kolkata
3. Northern Railway (NR) New Delhi
4. North Eastern Railway (NER) Gorakhpur
5. North East Frontier Railway (NEFR) Maligaon Guwahati
6. Southern Railway (SR) Chennai
7. South Central Railway (SCR) Secunderabad
8. South Eastern Railway (SER) Kolkata
9. Western Railway (WR) Mumbai (Churchgate)
10. East Central Railway (ECR) Hajipur
11. North Western Railway (NWR) Jaipur
12. East Coast Railway (ECR) Bhubaneswar
13. North Central Railway (NCR) Prayagraj (Allahabad)
14. South Western Railway (SWR) Hubli
15. Western Central Railway (WCR) Jabalpur
16. South East Central Railway (SECR) Bilaspur
17. Kolkata Metro Railway (KMR) Kolkata
18. Southern Coast Railway (SCR) Visakhapatnam

Major International Airports in The Country

Indira Gandhi International Airport New Delhi
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport Mumbai
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport Kolkata
Babasaheb Ambedkar International Airport Nagpur
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport Ahmedabad
Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport Varanasi
Tiruchirapalli International Airport Tiruchirapalli
Coimbatore International Airport Coimbatore
Jaipur International Airport Jaipur
Mangaluru International Airport Mangaluru
Kempegowda International Airport Bengaluru
Veer Savarkar International Airport Port Blair

164
Cochin International Airport Kochi
Rajiv Gandhi International Airport Hyderabad
Calicut International Airport Kozhikode (Kerala)
Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport Guwahati
Anna International Airport Chennai
Devi Ahilyabai Holkar International Airport Indore
Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport Lucknow
Sheikh-ul-Alam International Airport Srinagar

Major National Waterways of India

Waterway Range Distance Establishment
Sl. N. (Kilometer)
NW-1 Prayagraj-Haldia 1620 1986
NW-2 Sadia-Dhubri Brahmaputra River 891 1988
NW-3 Kollam to Kottapuram (Kerala) 205 1993
NW-4 Kakinada-Marakkanam 1078 2008
(Godavari-Krishna-River Region)
NW-5 Geonkhali-Talcher-Paradip (West 623 2008
Bengal and Odisha)
NW-16 Lakhimpur-Bhanga 121 2016

Major Ports of India

Kolkata, Haldia Hooghly River West Bengal
Chennai Bay of Bengal Tamil Nadu
Mumbai Arabian Sea Maharashtra
Visakhapatnam Bay of Bengal Andhra Pradesh
Kochi Arabian Sea Kerala
Paradip Bay of Bengal Odisha
Tuticorin Bay of Bengal Tamil Nadu
Mormugao Arabian Sea Goa
Kandla Arabian Sea Gujarat
Nhava Sheva Arabian Sea Maharashtra
New Mangalore Arabian Sea Karnataka
Ennore Bay of Bengal Tamil Nadu

165
 India’s Largest Ship Cycling the establishment of a company,
Yard is located at Alang, Gujarat. Bengal Iron works, at Kulti in
West Bengal.
Industries in India In 1907, Tata Iron and Steel
A. Iron Steel Industry : Company (TISCO) was founded
Iron production on an industrial at Sakchi (now Jamshedpur) in
scale began in India in 1870 with Bihar (now Jharkhand).

Major Units of Iron Steel Industry

Name Establishment Place
Year
Bengal Iron Works Company 1870 Kulti (West Bengal)
Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) 1907 Sakchi(Jharkhand)

Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) 1918 Burnpur

(West Bengal)
Visvesvaraya Iron & Steel Limited (VISL) 1923 Bhadravati (Karnataka)
Rourkela Steel Plant 1959 Rourkela (Odisha)
Bhilai Steel Plant 1955 Bhilai (Chhattisgarh)
Durgapur Steel Plant 1959 Durgapur (West Bengal)
Bokaro Steel Plant 1964 Bokaro (Jharkhand)
Salem Steel Plant 1972 Salem (Tamil Nadu)

B. Aluminium Industry : India was established in 1818 at

India’s first aluminium industry Port Gloaster near Kolkata which
was established in 1937 at JK soon closed.
Nagar in West Bengal. India’s first successful cotton
In 1965, the first public sector textiles factory was established
Aluminium producing company, in 1854 by Cowasji Nanabhai
Bharat Aluminum Company Davar Mumbai.
Limited (BALCO) was Coimbatore is known as the
established. Manchester of South India.
C. Cotton Textiles Industry : Kanpur is known as the
The cotton textiles industry is the Manchester of North India.
largest in India. Ahmedabad in India is called
The first cotton textiles mill in Boston of the East.
166
 (Uttarakhand) is the first national
Major Wildlife Sanctuaries
park in India.
in India
It was established in 1936. Its
The Wildlife Act was passed by former name was Hailey National
the Government of India in 1972 Park.
to create wildlife sanctuaries and The first tiger project in Jim
national parks. Corbett National Park in India was
Jim Corbett National Park launched in 1973.

India's Leading Aluminum Companies

Company Main Centre Coordinating
BALCO Korba (Chhattisgarh) and Koyana (Maharashtra) USSR
NALCO Damanjodi (Odisha) France
HINDALCO Renukoot (UP) USA
INDALCO JK Nagar (W. Bengal) Muri (Jharkhand), Canada
Alwaye (Kerala
MALCO Chennai, Mettur, Salem (Tamil Nadu) Italy
Vedanta Jharsuguda (Odisha) Germany

National Park/ Wildlife Sanctuary State/Union Territory

Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh
Chandraprabha Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh
Gir National Park Gujarat
Nal Sarovar Sanctuary Gujarat
Jim Corbett Park Uttarakhand
Bhadra Sanctuary Karnataka
Bandipur National Park Karnataka
Someshwar Sanctuary Karnataka
Palamu Sanctuary Jharkhand
Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary Jharkhand
Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary Jharkhand
Manas National Park Assam
Kaziranga National Park Assam
Keoladeo Ghana National Park Rajasthan
Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan
Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary Rajasthan

167
Sariska National Park Rajasthan
Pench National Park Maharashtra/Madhya Pradesh
Borivali (Sanjay Gandhi) National Park Maharashtra
Bhitarkanika National Park Odisha
Simlipal Wildlife Sanctuary & National Park Odisha
Nandan Kanan Zoological Park Odisha
Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary Tamil Nadu
Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary Kerala
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary Kerala
Dampa Sanctuary Mizoram
Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh
Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve Madhya Pradesh
Dachigam National Park Jammu and Kashmir
Kishtwar National Park Jammu and Kashmir
Bandhavgarh National Park Madhya Pradesh
Nagarhole (Rajiv Gandhi) National Park Karnataka
Keibul Lamjao National Park Manipur
Bhagwan Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary Goa
Great Himalayan National Park Himachal Pradesh
Sultanpur National Park Haryana
Sundarbans National Park West Bengal
Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary West Bengal
Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary Punjab
Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh

Tribes in India India and Antarctica

The first Indian to reach the South
They are listed under Article 342 Pole was Dr. Giriraj Sirohi (Bu-
in the Indian Constitution. landshahar, Uttar Pradesh).
The President of India has the right India’s first research centre in
to notify a tribal community. Antarctica was established at
Dakshin Gangotri (1983-84). It
Madhya Pradesh has the highest does not exist now.
number of Scheduled Tribes' India established Maitri, the second
population in India. research centre in Antarctica in
1988-89.
The Bhils are the largest tribal India’s third research centre Bharti
group in India. is located at Larsemann Hills.
168
 Spatial Description of Major Tribes of India
State/UT Tribes
Andaman Nicobar Sentinelese, Onges, Jarawa, Shompen, Nicobarese
Tamil Nadu Kurumba, Karikaran, Toda, Kota
Andhra Pradesh Chenchu, Koya, Gadaba, Lambada, Savara, Yenadi
Telangana Koya, Kondh Chenchu, Koulia, Gadaba

Punjab Sansi

Kerala Malayan, Puliyan, Kuruman Urali, Kadar

Karnataka Pardhi, Yereva, Naikda

Gujarat Bhil, Charan, Koli

Maharashtra Bhil, Dhanwar, Koli, Worli,Gond
Rajasthan Meena, Bhil, Garasia, Saharia, Koli, Damor
Himachal Pradesh Gaddi, Kanaura, Jad, Bhot, Gujjar
Jammu & Kashmir Bakarwal, Gujjar,( Muslim) Gaddi, Chang Pa
(Undivided)
Ladakh Balti, Beda, Bot, Boto, Changpa, Brokpa, Drokpa, Dard,
Shin Garra, Mon, Purigpa
Uttarakhand Tharu, Bhutia, Buxa, Jaunsari, Raji
Odisha Munda, Kharia, Bhumij, Santhal, Ho, Kol, Oraon, Saora
Jharkhand Santhal, Munda, Ho, Birhor, Kol, Baiga, Asur
Madhya Pradesh Bhil, Gond, Paharimaria, Muria, Baiga, Kol, Kamar
Chhattisgarh Muria, Kabar Sahariya, Khond, Gond Abhujmaria
Meghalaya Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Kuki Mikir
Manipur Kuki, Medhi
Nagaland Naga, Kachari

Mizoram Hajong, Pawi, Mizo

Tripura Halam, Riang, Tripuri
Arunachal Pradesh Momba, Kamba, Apatani, Mishmi, Singpho, Abor

Assam Garo, Khasi Jaintia, Karbi, Kuki, Bodo

West Bengal Lodha, Bhumij, Santhal, Lepcha
Sikkim Lepcha, Bhutia

169
 Economics &
4 Indian Economy
Economics Important Economic
1
Terminologies
Economics is the study of activities • Price: The price of a commodity
in the market is determined by
like production, consumption
the interaction of the forces of
and distribution of goods and demand and supply.
services. • Supply: It is the quantity of an
item that the seller is willing
Adam Smith is called the ‘Father
to sell at a particular price at a
of Economics’. specific time.
In his book ‘An Inquiry • Law of Demand: There is an
inverse relationship between
Economics into the Nature and
the price of a commodity and
Causes of the Wealth of Nations’ the quantity demanded. If
(1776), he defines economics as other things remain the same
‘Science of Wealth’. when there is an increase in the
price, there will be a decrease
Major Books of Economics and Its in the demand and if there is a
Authors decrease in the price, there will
be an increase in the demand.
Books Authors
• Equilibrium Price: The
Das Kapital Karl Marx equilibrium price of a
commodity is the price at which
Wealth of Nations Adam Smith demand and supply are equal.
The same quantity is demanded
Foundations of Paul at this price, as it is supplied.
Economic Analysis A. Samuelsson

General Theory J.M. Keyne 2 Indian Econonomy

of Employment,
Interest and Money From the point of view of
economic development, the
Nature and L. Robbins economy is divided into three
Significance o f parts - 1. Developed economy, 2.
Economic Science
Underdeveloped economy and 3.
Developing Economy.
170
Characteristics of a Developed country also exist there. E.g. India,
Economy : China, Brazil, etc.
• Socially and economically Economy is divided into three
advanced, categories based on control over
• High level of production and production -
consumption, 1. Capitalist Economy
• High level of national income and Under Capitalist Economy, the
per capita income, objective of profit is predominant
• High level of savings and and production is under private
investments, ownership.
• High rate of capital formation and Capitalist Economy is also called
• Low population growth rate. Market Economy or Unplanned
E.g. America, Japan, Britain, Economy.
Germany and France are 2. Socialist Economy:
considered as developed In a Socialist Economy, the
economies. government has control over
Characteristics of Underdeveloped demand, supply, price and
Economy: production.
• Socio-economic backwardness, Socialist Economy is also called
• Low level of production and ‘Planned Economy’.
consumption, The concept of a socialist
• Low level of national income and economy appeared in Russia
per capita income, (the then Soviet Union) after the
• Low rate of capital formation, (Bolshevik) Revolution of 1917.
• High population growth rate and 3. Mixed Economy:
• Dependence on agriculture, In a Mixed Economy, the ownership
illiteracy and unemployment are of the public and private sector
considered as underdeveloped exists simultaneously.
countries. Indian Economy is an example
E.g. Uganda, Burundi, Namibia of Mixed Economy.
(African countries) etc. are Sectors of Economy
considered as underdeveloped On the basis of economic activities,
economies. the economy is divided into three
3. Developing Economy sectors (1) Primary Sector, (2)
Economies having the Secondary Sector and (3) Tertiary
characteristics of underdeveloped Sector.
e c o n o m y, b u t i m m e n s e 1. Primary Sector: It includes those
possibilities of being a developed production units which are derived

171
 from the exploitation of natural 3. P u rc h a s i n g P o w e r P a r i t y
resources such as Agriculture, Method was presented by Gustav
Animal Husbandry, Fisheries, Castle.
Mining, Forestry, etc. It ensures This method was first used by
the availability of raw materials the International Monetary Fund
for the secondary sector. (IMF) in 1993.
2. Secondary Sector: The sector
The PPP method is currently
of the economy which uses
being used by the World Bank to
primary sector products as a
raw material in its activities is compare the standard of living of
called Secondary Sector. For different countries.
example, Factories, Construction, Note - According to the World Bank
Electricity Generation, Water data, in the year (2019) India is the
Supply, are examples of the third-largest economy in the world
secondary sector. on the basis of Gross National
It is also known as “Industrial Income (GNI) purchasing power
Zone”. parity. China and America are
3. Tertiary Sector: Tertiary sector is in first and second position
also known as ‘Service Sector’. It respectively.
consists of units providing various Human Development Index, HDI:
services. Examples are Transport, The concept of the Human
Education, Banking, Insurance, Development Index was
Hotel Industry, Medical, Tourism, formulated in 1990 by the
Government Administration, economist Mahboob-ul-Haq
Finance, etc. and his colleagues.
Measurement of Economic
The following three variables
Development :
The following are the methods for included under the Human
measuring economic growth and Development Index are (A) Life
comparative state of economic Expectancy Index, (B) Education
development.
1. Basic Needs Approach was Index and (C) Income Index
rendered by the World Bank in (A) Life Expectancy Index:
1970. Life Expectancy Index measures
2. PQLI : Physical Quality Of Life the life expectancy of a country's
Index Approach was rendered by
people at birth.
Maurice de Maurice.
In this method, the average value (B) Education Index:
of infant mortality, adult literacy Two figures are included in
rate and life expectancy index Education Index
of a country is used to measure 1. Average years of schooling
economic development. 2. Estimated years of schooling
172
(C) Income Index : Calculation of National Income:
Standard of living is the amount National income is calculated by
of goods and services available to three methods - 1. Factor Cost or
purchase in a country. Real GDP Income Method, 2. Production
per capita and Gross National Method and 3. Expenditure
Income per capita are the two Method.
most common ways to measure the Both the income method and
standard of living. production method are used to
In Human Development Index calculate national income in India.
(HDI), 2020. India ranks 131st Important Concepts of National
out of 189 countries. Income:
National Income: National Income is a broad
Nobel laureate Simon Kuznets concept, for which the following
is considered the originator of concepts are commonly used to
national income accounting. calculate the present national
In India, Dadabhai Naoroji income - 1. Household Products
calculated first India's national and 2. National Products.
income and per capita Gross Domestic Product, GDP:
income. The total income earned from the
The per capita income of India goods and services produced by all
was stated as Rs 20 by Naoroji in the people (including foreigners)
1868. living in a country in a single
For the calculation of national financial year is called 'Gross
income, in 1949, by the Domestic Product'.
Government of India,The National The most comprehensive retention
Income Committee was formed of all concepts of GNP national
under the chairmanship of P.C income in Indian context.
Mahalanobis. GNP = GDP + Net income earned
Before May, 2019 the calculation from abroad
of national income was being Net National Product (NNP):
done by the Central Statistics The Net National Product is the
Office (CSO), established in May return that is received by reducing
1951, at present this work is being the depreciation of capital goods
done by National Statistical Office from the gross national product.
(NSO).
NNP = GNP–Price Depreciation
The financial year for calculating
India's national income is 1st April National Income
Per capita Income =
to 31st March. Population
173
Planning in India: In 1944-45, 8 industrialists of
Economic Planning is the Mumbai (JRD Tata, Ghanshyam
process of realization of the pre- Das Birla, Ardeshir Dalal,
determined objective by optimum Purushottam Das Thakur Das, Dr.
use of natural resources. John Mathai, Shri Ram, Kasturi
The beginning of the Five Year Bhai Lal Bhai and A.D Shroff) in
Plans in India is inspired by the India, presented a 15-year plan for
planning method of the former the economic development of the
Soviet Union. country, known as the 'Bombay
India has so far completed of 12 Plan/ Tata-Birla Scheme'.
five-year plans and 6 annual The British Government also
plans in its development journey established the 'Planning and
since 1951. Development Department' in
The sources of planning goals 1944, headed by Sir Ardeshir
and social objectives in India Dalal.
are determined by the 'Directive On behalf of MN Rai and Bhartiya
Principles of State Policy' Shramik Sangh, a scheme called
mentioned in part IV of the 'The People's Plan' inspired by
Constitution. Planning is also cited the Russian scheme was presented.
in the 'Concurrent List' of the 7th In 1950, 'Sarvodaya Yojana' for
Schedule of the Constitution. the establishment of a society
The first discussion on economic without exploitation, was drafted
planning in India started from by Jayaprakash Narayan.
1934 when M. Visvesvaraya After the independence, the 'All
wrote a book known as 'Planned Indian Congress Committee"
Economy for India'. That is why formed an 'Economic Programme
Visvesvaraya is also called the Committee' in 1947 under the
'Pioneer of modern planning in chairmanship of Jawaharlal
India'. Nehru. On 25 th January 1948,
After this, in 1938, then Congress this committee recommended
President Subhash Chandra Bose that a permanent Planning
Commission should be established
has established the National
in the country. As a result of the
Planning Committee under recommendation, the Planning
the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Commission was formed by a
Nehru. Cabinet resolution on 15th March,
In 1944, Sriman Narayan 1950. First year plan came into
Aggarwal prepared the Gandhian existence on 1st of April, 1951 on
Plan based on Gandhian the recommendation of planning
principles. commission.
174
Five Year Plan

Schemes Objectives Growth Growth Other Features

Rate Rate
Estimated Achieved
First Five Resettlement of 2.1% 3.6% Based on Harrod- Domar
Year Plan Refugee, Agricul- model, Community De-
1951-56 ture sector and the velopment policy was
commencement of given top priority to
National Extension achieve self-sufficiency
Service. in Food Grain Sector in
minimum time.
Second With the 4.50% 4.3% B a s e d o n P. C .
Five Year development of Mah a l a n o b i s F o u r
basic and heavy regional models, Setting
Plan
industries, the up of Steel Plants at
(1956-61) Rourkela (Odisha),
emphasis on rapid
Bhilai (Chhattisgarh)
industrialization.
and Durgapur (West
Bengal)
Third Five Making the 5.6% 2.8% Based on Four Regional
Year Plan economy Models of Mahalanobis,
(1961-66) self-reliant and self- J. Sandy Demonstration
sustaining, more Model and Sukhmay
emphasis on Charaborty input-
agriculture. output Model, to achieve
self-sufficiency in Food
Grain Sector, Three
Annual Plans were
made, it is called Plan
Holidays.
Fourth Five Economic 5.7% 3.3% Based on Gadgil Plan
Year Plan growth and self- and Leontief input-output
sufficiency, stability model, Nationalisation
(1969-74) Reduction in of 14 Banks, MRTP Act,
regional inequality, 1969, it ensures that the
emphasis on
balanced operation of the economic
development, system does not result
promotion of in the concentration of
industrialization economic power in hands
and special of few.
emphasis on heavy
industries.

175
Fifth Five Achieving Poverty 4.4% 4.8% Slogan of Poverty
Year Plan Elimination and elimination, Minimum
(1974-79) Economic Self- Needs programme started,
sufficiency food grains against work
(1977) program started.
Note: Fifth Five Year
Plan was completed one
year before in 1978.
Sixth Five Direct attack on the 5.2% 5.7% Based on input-output
Year Plan problem of poverty Model, Special emphasis
(1980-85) by moderization on poverty elimination
and expansion of and employment creation.
the economy, self- NOTE : Sixth Five Year
reliance and social
Plan was implemented
justice, etc.
twice. First time by Janta
Party Government for
the period of 1978-83,
and second time by the
Congress Government
for the period of 1980-
85. The plan was named
'continuous plan' during
1978-83. The credit for
continuous plan goes to
Gunnar Myrdal.
S e v e n t h E m p h a s i s o n 5.0% 6.0% Long-term development
F i v e Ye a r m o d e r n i s a t i o n , method and liberalization
Plan self-reliance and m o d e l , I n d i r a Aw a s
social justice Yojana, Jawahar Rozgar
Yo j a n a a n d N e h r u
Rozgar Yojana were
started. Emphasis on
energy conservation and
development of non-
conventional energy
sources.
N o t e - Tw o a n n u a l
schemes were run from 1st
April 1990 to 31st March
1992.

176
 Eighth Five Human resource 5.6% 6.8% Based on the John
Year Plan development, W. M u l l e r m o d e l
full employment
(1992-97) generation by Universalization of
the end of the primary education,
century, control on eradication of illiteracy
Population Growth,
to promot social in the age group of 15-35
welfare measures years.
like improved
healthcare,
sanitation,
communication
and provision for
extensive education
facilities at all
levels
Ninth Five To sustain quality 6.5% 5.4% The scheme emphasised
Year Plan of life, generation seven basic minimum
(1997-2002) of productive services including
employment to primary education for all,
maintain regional home for the homeless,
balance and self nutritious food for children,
reliance roads for all villages
and hamlets, improving
public distribution system
for the poor, etc.

Tenth Five Year Plan (2002–2007): Five Year Plan was 7.7%, although
The Tenth Five Year Plan (1st April the plan was below its target
2002 to 31st March 2007) was (8.0%), yet it was the highest
implemented at the time when
growth rate ever.
economic reforms were at its peak
in the economy. Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-
This plan was based on a more 2012):
comprehensive input-output The main objective of the Eleventh
model. Five Year Plan was to achieve the
It was based on two basic elements- goal of inclusive growth with faster
(i) Further development on the same economic development so that
line, keeping the achievements of everyone can be integrated with
previous years intact. the mainstream of development
(ii) To remove the bottlenecks in the and can be benefitted from
development of various sectors of economic development.
the economy in the past years on During the Eleventh Five Year Plan
a priority basis. period, a target of 9% growth was set,
The actual growth rate in the 10th while the actual realization was 8%.
177
Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017) : Poverty in India:
'Rapid, More Inclusive and Poverty refers to the situation
Sustainable Development' was when a person does not have
the title of the Twelfth Five Year the lowest basic necessities of
Plan. The scheme began at the
life such as food, clothing and
time when the global economy
was facing another global financial housing. That is, when a person is
crisis which began in the final not in a position to fulfil his basic
years of the 11th Plan due to the needs, he is counted as poor.
debt crisis that hit the eurozone. In principle, to measure
This financial crisis had an impact poverty Relative and Absolute
on all over the world, including measurement are used.
India.
A. Relative Poverty: Relative
Twelfth Five Year had 25 main
Poverty explains the extent
goals-
Economic Development : of disparity between different
1. Real GDP growth rate of 8%. income groups. Two methods
2. Agriculture growth rate of 4%. are commonly used to measure
3. Manufacturing growth rate of it - 1. Lorenz Curve, 2. Gini
10%. Coefficient.
4. Preferably higher average growth Both the Lorenz Curve and the
in the Twelfth Plan compared to Gini Coefficient are related to
the Eleventh Plan by each state. the measurement of inequality of
NITI Aayog: (National Institution for income.
Transforming India Commission) : The Lorenz Curve was developed
Establishment of National
in 1905 by Max O Lorenz, and
Institution in its new form
(NITI Aayog) by a government the Gini coefficient was developed
resolution was made on 1st January in 912 by Corrado Gini (Italy).
2015. NITI Aayog takes the place B. Absolute Poverty:
of Planning Commission that was The minimum requirement criteria
established on 15th March 1950 is used to estimate the actual
through a resolution. number of the poor. That is, a
The NITI Aayog is acting as a think person who does not meet the
tank to advise the Government of minimum requirements is called
India on policy issues, following the poor.
the principles of cooperative
This minimum consumption
federalism.
NITI Aayog is more inclusive than criteria set is called 'Poverty
Planning Commission. Line'.
178
Major Efforts to Determine Poverty Under this Act, 75 per cent of the
in India: rural population and 50 per cent
The concept of measurement of the urban population, that is,
of poverty was first introduced
in Dada Bhai Naoroji's book about two-thirds (67 per cent) of
'Poverty and Un-British Rule in the population, have been given
India'. the legal right to food.
For the measurement of 2. Antyodaya Anna Yojana:
poverty in the country by the
This scheme started on 25 th
Planning Commission in 1989,
a committee was formed under December, 2000. 1 crore poorest
the chairmanship of Prof. D.T. families were targeted at providing
Lakdawala. subsidized food grains.
Later on, the Planning Commission Currently, under this scheme, 2.5
in India constituted a Committee
crore poor families in India get
headed by Suresh Tendulkar that
submitted its report in 2009. 35 kg of grains per month. The
In 2012, the Planning Commission grain is being made available at
appointed a Committee formed concessional rates (rice, wheat and
under the chairmanship coarse grains at Rs. 3, Rs. 2 and
of Rangarajan for poverty Rs. 1 per kg respectively).
determination. This committee
submitted its report in 2014. 3. National Food Security Mission:
Rangarajan Committee The National Development
considered consumption Council, in its 53rd meeting held
expenditure below the poverty
on 29 May 2007, had passed a
line for rural areas below Rs 972
per capita and Rs 1407 per capita resolution to launch the Food
for urban areas. Safety Mission under which the
Poverty Prevention and National Food Security Mission -
Welfare Schemes NFSM, Started in October 2007.
1. National Food Security Act, 4. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada
2013: Yojana:
The National Food Security In May 2017, the Centre Sponsored
Act, 2013 was passed by the Scheme sampada (SAMPADA:
government which aims to provide Scheme for Agro-Marine
adequate food grains to every Processing and Development of
citizen of the country, so that they Agro-Processing clusters) was
get food and nutritional security
approved.
and live a dignified life.
179
 Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Rural Employment Guarantee
Yojana is a comprehensive Scheme (NREGA) was launched
package that will create modern on 2 February, 2006 from
infrastructure with efficient supply Anantapur district of Andhra
chain management from farms to
Pradesh in 200 selected districts
retail outlets.
of the country. It was expanded
Schemes Related to Poverty
Alleviation and Unemployment to 130 additional districts in 2007-
Scheme Launch 08. It was expanded the whole
Year country on 1st April 2008, except
National Rural Employment 2006 Jammu and Kashmir.
Guarantee Scheme On 2 nd October, 2009 it was
Bharat Nirman Program 2005
renamed from NREGA to
Antyodaya Anna Yojana 2000
Mahatma Gandhi National
Janashree Bima Yojana 2000
Rural Employment Guarantee
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya 2000
Yojana Scheme (MNREGA).
Annapurna Yojana 2000 The goal of MNREGA is to
Jawahar Gram Samridhi 1999 provide a minimum of 100 days
Yojana
of unskilled employment to one
Swarnjayanti Gram 1999
Swarozgar Yojana adult member of each rural family.
Swarnjayanti Urban 1997 6. Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas
Employment Scheme Yojana:
Employment Assurance 1993 The Union Cabinet chaired by
Yojana
Pradhan Mantri Rozgar 1993
the Prime Minister approved the
Yojana 'Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas
Indira Awaas Yojana 1985 Yojana' worth Rs 1500 crore on 20
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana 1989 March, 2015 and it was launched
DWCRA 1982
on 15 July, 2015.
TRYSEM 1979
The scheme is being implemented
5. Mahatma Gandhi National
by the National Skill Development
Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme (MNREGA): Corporation under the Ministry

After the President's approval on of Skill Development and

5 September 2005, The National Entrepreneurship.
180
 Central Schemes / Projects
Scheme/Projects Date of Implementation
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi Yojana 24th February, 2019
KUSUM Yojana 8th March, 201
Election Bond Scheme 2nd January, 2018
Waterways Development Project 3rd January, 2018
International Nutrition Mission 8th March, 2018
Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandan Yojana 1st January, 2017
Migrant Skills Development Scheme 8th January, 2017
Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana 1st April, 2017
Darwaza Bandh Campaign 30th May, 2017
Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandan Yojana 21st July, 2017
Startup India 16th January, 2016
E-National Agriculture Market (E-NAM) 14th April, 2016
Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana 1st May, 2016
Pradhan Mantri Yuva Yojana 9th November, 2016
Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana 22nd January, 2015
Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana 8th April, 2015
Atal Pension Yojana 9th May, 2015
Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana 15th July, 2015

7. Swachh Bharat Mission: Indian Agriculture :

Swachh Bharat Mission was India is an agricultural country
started on 2nd October 2014. The and about 55% of its population
goal of Swachh Bharat Mission (as per census 2011) are engaged
is to provide toilet facilities to all in agriculture and allied activities.
rural families and make India Crop Pattern in India:
Open Defecation Free (ODF) by In India, crops are classified on the
October 2nd, 2019. nature and seasons of the crops.
8. Mission Indradhanush: Depending on the nature of the
On 25 December 2014, the Union crops, the crops are divided into
Ministry of Health and Family food Crops and non-food Crops.
Welfare has launched 'Mission Rice, Wheat, Millet, Maize, etc.
are food crops whereas pulses
Indradhanush'to vaccinate
as Urad, Moong, Gram, etc. are
children and pregnant women. included.
181
 Non-food crops include oilseed
Sources of Agricultural Credit
crops and commercial crops in India
(Sugarcane, Cotton, Jute, z The sources of agricultural
Plantation Crops, etc.). credit in India are divided
into two parts - Institutional
On the basis of seasons, crops Sources and Non-
are classified into three parts (1) i n s t i t u t i o n a l S o u rc e s .
Rabi Crop (2) Kharif Cop and Institutional sources include
government, cooperatives,
(3) Zaid Crop. commercial banks and
Rabi Crops are sown in November regional rural banks, while
non-institutional sources
- December, and harvested in include moneylenders,
March - April. Wheat, Barley, traders, landlords, relatives,
etc.
Gram, Peas, Mustard, Potato, etc. z Co-operative Credit
are the major Rabi season crops. Societies: These societies
Kharif crops are sown in June- are the main sources of
agricultural credit in India.
July and harvested in October- z Cooperative Societies in
November. Jowar, Millet, Maize, India are expanded after the
Indian Cooperative Credit
Rice, Sesame, Groundnut, etc. are Societies Act, 1904 came into
the main Kharif crops. existence.
z The main objective of
Zaid crops are also called
establishing cooperative
'summer crops'. These crops credit societies in India is to
are grown between March and nurture the financial needs
July. These include watermelon, of the farmers and protect
them from the debt trap of
cucumber, etc. moneylenders.
Green Revolution in India z Short-term, middle-term and
long-term loans are provided to
Green Revolution was meant to
the farmers by the cooperative
increase agricultural production in credit societies.
irrigated and non irrigated areas. z The cooperative credit
structure in India is three-
Nobel Laureate Prof. Norman tier. It consists of State
Borlaug was the propounder of Cooperative Banks at the
top level, Central / District
the Green Revolution in the world. Cooperative Banks at the
district level and Agricultural
The father of the Green Revolution
Credit Societies at the
in India is MS Swaminathan. primary level.
182
 z The main objective of the An array of strategies was
formation of Primary created to increase agricultural
production in which a strategic
Agricultural Credit Societies is
use of improved seeds, fertilizers
to raise funds to provide loans and pesticides were adopted to
to the members and to instil increase agricultural production.
a sense of self-reliance and As a result, a new technological
austerity among the members. change began in the agricultural
z State Co-operative Bank which sector from 1966-67 which has
is the apex co-operative bank been termed as a new aphorism
of the State is established to of agricultural development or the
direct / coordinate the functions Green Revolution.
of District Cooperative Banks Green Revolution was meant to
and provide credit facilities. increase agricultural production
in irrigated and non-irrigated areas
Their members are only central
of the country by producing high
cooperative banks. It does not yielding varieties of seeds.
give loans to common people. Nobel Laureate Prof. Norman
Land Development Bank: Borlaug was the propounder of
The Land Development Bank Green Revolution in the world.
provides long-term loans to the The father of the Green Revolution
farmers. in India is MS Swaminathan.
The purpose of establishing the The most positive impact of Green
Land Development Bank is to Revolution in India was on the
provide loans to the farmers for production of Wheat and Rice. Its
the land development works and impact on the production of coarse
to get rid of old debts. grains and pulses was limited.
The Land Development Bank
Minimum Support Price (MSP):
provides loans by mortgaging the
The minimum support price
land.
for 23 crops in India is
Kisan Credit Card Scheme: announced by the government
In the financial year 1998-99, on the recommendation of the
the Kisan Credit Card Scheme Commission for Agricultural
was introduced by the Central Costs and Prices, whereas along
Government to solve the problems with 2 other crops, the Central
of agricultural credit of the Government declares a minimum
farmers. support price of a total of 25
Green Revolution in India: Agricultural Crops.
The food crisis that originated in Minimum Support Price is
1960s inspired the adoption of declared twice a year (for Rabi
scientific agriculture in place of and Kharif Crops) by the Central
traditional one. Government.
183
 In 1965 the Union government Industrial Policy before 1991:
constituted the Agricultural Price After independence, on 6 April
Commission to make suggestions 1948, the then Minister of Industry
regarding the minimum pricing of and Commerce, Shyama Prasad
agricultural products. Mukherjee had declared India's
In 1985, it was renamed as first industrial policy.
Second Industrial Policy was
commission for Agricultured presented on 30 April 1956. The
Costs adn Prices. main objective of this policy
National Agricultural Cooperative was to lay a strong foundation
for basic and heavy industries,
Marketing Federation (NAFED):
curb monopolistic trends and
National Agricultural Cooperative progressively develop a growth-
Marketing Federation was oriented industrial cooperative
sector.
established on 2 October, 1958.
India's third industrial policy was
Its Headquarter is located in Delhi presented on 23 December, 1977
and has offices in all States. by the then Industry Minister
George Fernandes.
States with Maximum Produc- New Industrial Policy of India on
tion of Agricultural Produce 23 July, 1980 was presented in
(Year 2020-21) Parliament.
Crop/Crop Group State New Economic Policy:
Rice W. Bengal The new economic policy
Wheat Uttar Pradesh has three major dimensions -
Maize Karnataka Privatization, Liberalization
Coarse Grains Rajasthan
and Globalization.
The main areas of the New
Total Pulses Madhya Pradesh
Economic Reform Policy (1991)
Total food grains Uttar Pradesh were fiscal policy, monetary
Groundnut Gujarat policy, pricing policy, foreign
Rapeseed and Rajasthan trade policy, industrial policy,
Mustard foreign investment policy and
public sector policy.
Soyabean Maharashtra
Under the Fiscal Policy, 1991,
Sunflower Karnataka
mainly four steps were taken
Total Oilseeds Rajasthan - 1. Strict control of public
Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh expenditure, 2. Increasing tax and
Cotton Maharashtra non-tax revenues, 3. Implementing
Jute and Mesta West Bengal
fiscal discipline on Central and
State governments, 4. Reduction
Source: Economic Survey, 2021-22 in grant money.
184
 Restrictive measures were taken Its main objective was to remove
under the inflationary policy, 1991 the bottlenecks in production and
for inflationary pressures. export in the country and attract
foreign investment in India.
The scope of activities reserved for
the public sector was limited and In 2005, the SEZ Act, 2005 was
enacted, which became effective
the private sector was allowed in
from 10 February, 2006.
the said area.
Public Enterprises in India :
On 24 July, 1991, the then Prime First Indian Prime Minister
Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao Jawaharlal Nehru called public
announced the New Industrial enterprises the Temple of
Policy, 1991. Modern India.
Reducing the industrial licensing Many public enterprises in India
system through new industrial are also given the status of gems
policy, a strategy was adopted to provide financial autonomy.
to eliminate the unnecessary At present, companies are
interference of industrial controls given the status of Maharatna,
and bureaucracy. Navratna and Mini Ratna.
Currently, there are only 4 Maharatnas of India
industries that are alcoholic 1. National Thermal Power
beverages, tobacco and its Corporation (NTPC)
products, electronic aerospace 2. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
and defence equipment, industrial (ONGC)
explosives and hazardous 3. Steel Authority of India Limited
chemicals in which license is (SAIL)

required. 4. Indian Oil Corporation (IOC)

5. Coal India Limited (CIL)
MRTP Act 1969 is currently
6. Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.
replaced by the Competition Act.
(BHEL)
Export Processing Zone, EPZ's:
7. Gas Authority of India Ltd.
India is the first country in Asia (GAIL)
to establish an Export Processing 8. Bharat Petroleum Corporation
Zone. The first EPZ was Ltd. (BPCL)
established in Kandla in 1965. 9. Power Grid Corporation of India
Special Economic Zones: Ltd. (PGCIL)
The Special Economic Zones 10. Hindustan Petroleum
(SEZ) policy in India was Corporation Ltd. (HPCL)
announced in April, 2000. 11. Power Finance Corporation

185
Navratna Companies the country world's favourite
In 1997, Navratna status was 'manufacturing hub'.
created for nine companies. Emergence and Development of
As of December 2021, there are a Banking Sector in India:
total of 14 Navratna companies. The modern banking system in
Mini Ratna Companies : India was launched in 1770 with
the establishment of 'Bank of
Mini Ratna scheme was launched
Hindustan'. Bank of Hindustan
in October 1977. was founded by Alexander &
Currently, as of December, 2021 Company in collaboration with
(updated), the number of Mini foreign capital.
Ratna companies is 73. The Awadh Commercial Bank
Industrial Development and (founded in 1881), based on
Financial Institutions : limited liability, was the first
Textile industry is the second bank operated by Indians. But
largest employment generating absolutely the first bank by any
industry in India after agriculture. Indian completely is Punjab
National Bank which was
Small Industries Development
established in 1894.
Bank of India (SIDBI) : It started
Reserve Bank of India (RBI):
functioning from 2 April, 1990. The Reserve Bank of India
The head-quarter of Small was established as the central
Industries Development Bank of bank on 1st April, 1935 on the
India is located in Lucknow. recommendation of the Hilton
It works to coordinate the work Young Commission. The bank
of all those institutions which are was nationalized on 1st January,
1949.
engaged in the promotion of small
Its head office is located in
scale industries.
Mumbai. In addition, the Reserve
The role of the Industrial Bank of India has regional 31
Development Bank of India offices at different locations.
(IDBI) is very crucial in the field The first governor of the Reserve
of industrial finance. Bank of India was Sir Osbon
It was established in 1964. Smith (1 April, 1935 to 30 June,
Make in India Programme: 1937).
O n 2 5 t h S e p t e m b e r, 2 0 1 4 , The first Indian Governor of
Reserve Bank of India was C.D.
P r i m e M i n i s t e r, N a r e n d r a
Deshmukh (11 August, 1943 to
Modi had launched 'Make in 30 June, 1949). During this period,
India' programme to boost up the Reserve Bank of India was
industrial development by making nationalized.
186
 All Indian currency notes (2, 5, 10, Canara Bank, (6) Dena Bank, (7)
20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 2000) are Syndicate Bank, (8) Union Bank
incorporated by Reserve Bank of of India, (9) Allahabad Bank, (10)
India. India Bank, (11) United Bank of
Ministry of Finance (Government India, (12) Bank of Maharashtra,
of India) incorporates one rupee (13) Indian Overseas Bank and
note and coins. (14) Punjab National Bank
The decimal system currency is in Second Phase:
circulation in India since 1st April, On 15 April, 1980, 6 commercial
1957. banks were nationalized.
Banking in India : Nationalized banks in the second
Banks registered under the Indian phase are - (1) Andhra Pradesh
Companies Act, 1956 were Bank, (2) New Bank of India,
(3) Punjab and Sindh Bank, (4)
designated as Commercial Banks.
Corporation Bank, (5) Oriental
Commercial banks are regulated Bank of India and (6) Vijaya Bank
and governed under the Indian Regional Rural Banks:
Bank Exchange Act, 1949. Regional bank in India was
State Bank of India: established by the recommendation
of Banking Commission chaired
The first public sector bank in
by R.G. Saraiya (constituted in
India emerged in 1955 named
1972) and Narsimhan Committee
State Bank of India.
(constituted in 1975).
State Bank of India is considered The order of establishment of
to be the largest among public Regional Rural Banks in India
sector banks. started on 2 October, 1975.
Nationalisation of Banks in 50% of the capital in the Regional
India: After the failure of the Rural Banks is invested by the
policy of social control over Central Government, of which
banks, the Government of India 15% of the capital by the State
Government and 35% by the
decided to nationalize the banks. Promoter Bank.
First Phase: NABARD: National Bank for
On 19 July, 1969, 14 banks with Agriculture and Rural Development:
paid-up capital of Rs. 50 crores or On 12 July 1982, the Central
more were nationalized. Government established National
Bank for Agricultural and Rural
The nationalized are- (1) Central
Development (NABARD) as a
Bank of India, (2) Bank of
Baroda, (3) Bank of India, (4) separate bank for agriculture and
United Commercial Bank, (5) rural development.
187
 NABARD Bank was established There is a negative relationship
on recommendation of B. between the above rates and credit
Sivaraman Committee. generation.
Other Major Institutions: 2. Qualitative Measure Ration:
Life Insurance Corporation of Qualitative credit control is
India (LIC) was established in also called a selective method.
1956. Under this, the flow of credit is
The headquarter of the Life controlled. Under this method,
Insurance Corporation of India RBI discourages loans given
(LIC) is located in Mumbai. by commercial banks for
The headquarter of the Insurance undesirable economic actions
Regulatory and Development while encouraging the flow of
Authority of India (IRDA) is credit towards desired activities.
located in Hyderabad. The following methods are used
Unit Trust of India (UTI) was under this.
established in 1964 to encourage (a) Determination of Minimum Limit
small savings to invest in mutual or Margin
funds. (b) Moral pressure
The headquarter of Unit Trust of (c) Determination of Credit Criteria
India (UTI) is located in Mumbai. Open Market Operations:
National Housing Bank was By RBI when government bills in
established in July 1988. the money market are controlled
Its headquarter is located in New by buying and selling in the money
Delhi. market and commercial banks in
Monetary Policy Instruments: the country, it is called 'Open
Credit Control: Market Actions'.
There are two methods of credit When the Reserve Bank of India
control. Following is a brief
has to withdraw or reduce the
description of them.
1. Quantitative Measure: currency prevailing in the market,
The quantitative credit control it uses the open market.
method affects the amount of
credit creation. It affects all sectors Presently Major Rates
of the economy. The following (Updated as on February, 2022)
devices are used under this -
a. Bank Rate Policy Rates
b. Marginal Standing Facility Rate (i) Repo Rate - 4%
c. Open Market Actions (ii) Reverse Repo Rate -3.35%
d. Repo / Reverse Repo Rate
(iii) Bank Rate - 4.25%
e. Cash Reserve Ratio
f. Statutory Liquidity Ratio (iv) MSF - 4.25%
188
 Reserve Rates 12 April 1992 under Securities
(v) CRR - 4% and Exchange Board of India Act,
(vi) SLR - 18% 1992.
SEBI has been given the right to
Currency Supply
control and regulate mutual funds
M1 = Cash in Treasury + Net and stock markets.
Demand Deposits of Banks +
The headquarter of SEBI is located
Other Deposits with RBI [C +
in Mumbai, while its regional
DD + OD]
M2 = M1 + Post Office Deposits offices have been established in
M3 = M1 + Fixed Deposits of Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Delhi and
Banks Chennai.
M4 = M3 + Post Office Deposits World's Major Stock Exchanges
Index
Inflation & Money Deflation:
Stock Exchange Share Index
Inflation : Inflation refers to the
rise in the prices of most goods Korea Kosp
and services of daily or common China SSE
use, such as clothing, housing, food, Tokyo Nikki
recreation, transportation, etc. Taiwan TAIEX
Inflation is also known as Thailand Set
'Currency Expansion'. Germany Mid Dex
Stagflation: It is a state of inflation Brazil Bovespa
in which economic inactivity and USA Nasdaq
unemployment prevail along with
Singapore Cimax, Straits
price rise.
Times
Devaluation:
Mexico Bolsa
Devaluation refers to a country
England FTSE - 100
intentionally reducing the external
value of its currency relative to the Hong Kong Hang Seng
currency of another country. Securities / Banknote Printing in
In India, devaluation has been India:
done three times (1949, 1966 and The responsibility of printing
1991).
securities papers / currencies /
Securities and Exchange Board of
India (SEBI): coins, etc. is on Security Printing
Securities and Exchange Board of and Minting Corporation of
India (SEBI) was established on India Limited: SPMCIL.
189
 It was established in January 2006 In Viceroy Lord Canning's
in New Delhi under the Ministry Executive Council, James Wilson
of Finance. presented the first budget in 1860.
Security Paper Mill, Hoshangabad, The first budget of independent
Madhya Pradesh: India was introduced by the
It was established in 1968. first Finance Minister, R.K.
This mill produces various types ShanmuKham Chetty on 26
of security papers. November, 1947.
Security Printing Press: Fiscal Policy:
There are four banknote security Following are the objectives of
printing presses in India fiscal policy :
1. Currency Note Press, Nasik, (i) Development through the
Maharashtra: This (first) note mobility of resources
printing press in India was (ii) Efficient Allocation of
established in 1928. Resources
2. Bank Note Press, Dewas, (iii) Price Stability and Inflation
Madhya Pradesh: It was Control
established in 1974. In addition (iv) Employment Generation
to banknotes, high-quality inks are (v) Balanced Regional
also produced in this press. Development
3. Establishment of Indian Copyhold (vi) Capital Formation
Printing, Nasik 1925. Fiscal Policy Instruments
4. Establishment of Securities Press There are four instruments of fiscal
Hyderabad, 1982. policy :
Mint: 1. Taxation
There are four government mints 2 Public Expenditure
in India, where coins are minted. 3. Public Debt
They are located in Mumbai, 4. Issue of New Currency
Hyderabad, Kolkata and Noida. Fiscal Responsibility and Budget
Indian Public Finance Management Act (FRBM Act),
2003:
Budget:
FRBM Act, 2003 was passed
James Wilson is considered the
in the Parliament by the
founder of the budget system in Central Government for Fiscal
India. Consolidation.
190
Finance Commission: In this first report, the Commission
The provision of Finance has recommended 41% for
Commission has been made under divisional revenue for the states
Article 280 in the constitution for the financial year 2020-21.
Tax Policy
to decide the framework of the
In addition to direct and indirect
division of financial resources
classification, tax is also divided
between the Centre and the States.
into specific tax and value-based
Finance Commission shall act tax, non-compliant, regressive,
as an independent semi-judicial downward and progressive taxes.
expert body in accordance with Value-Added Tax is a tax that is
the provisions contained in Article levied on the value of a commodity.
280 and after deliberating the Specific taxes are those taxes that
subjects assigned to it by the are levied on the unit and quantity
President. of the commodity.
According to the constitutional Those taxes are termed Regressive
Taxes in which the tax rate
provisions in India, there is a
decreases progressively with the
provision of the formation of
increase in the tax base (income).
the Finance Commission every This type of tax has a heavy
5 years. But if it is needful, the burden on the poor.
President can also appoint it Regarding regressive taxes, the
earlier. important fact is that on higher
income, the total tax volume
First Finance Commission in India
increases, but the tax rate
was chaired by K.C. Neogi in
decreases.
1951 and since then 15 Finance Proportional taxes are those taxes
Commissions have been formed. in which the tax rate remains
15th Finance Commission: unchanged even after the change
The Government of India has in the basis of tax.
announced the formation of the There is no change in the tax rate
when income increases under
15 th Finance Commission on
proportionate taxes. Although the
27 November, 2017 after the total amount of tax paid by the
President's assent. Its current taxpayer increases as the income
chairman is Mr. N.K. Singh. increases.
191
 A progressive tax is a tax in which on the amount of consumption
tax rates increase with the increase expenditure incurred by the
in income. people.
Forward tax is a tax in which the The suggestion of levying
rate of tax increases at first as expenditure tax in India was
income increases, but after a limit, first given in 1956 by Nicholas
the tax rate becomes constant. Kaldor.
Expenditure Tax Act was passed
Major Taxes In India
on 1 April 1957. Consequently,
1. Income Tax:
it was imposed for the first time
Income Tax in India is charged
on 1 st April, 1958 but finally
and collected by the Central
abolished in 1964.
Government. The Central
4. Estate Duty:
Government distributes the
Estate duty is a direct tax levied
revenue received from Income
by the Central Government.
Tax on the recommendation of
5. Wealth Tax:
Finance Commission between the
Wealth tax is also a direct tax that
Centre and the States.
is meant to be levied annually on
Note: Income Tax is not levied on
total value of a person's wealth,
income from agriculture.
capital or money.
2. Corporation Tax:
The British economist, Keldar
The tax levied on the income
suggested the imposition of wealth
of business companies and
tax in India which was resulted in
corporations is called 'corporation
the first taxation of wealth in 1957.
tax'.
It was abolished from the financial
It is also called 'company profit
year 2015-16.
tax', but it is different from the
6. Service Tax:
tax which the shareholders of the Service tax in India was introduced
companies pay on their income. in 1994-95.
It is levied by the Central For the first time in 1994-95,
Government. service tax was imposed at the rate
3. Expenditure Tax: of 5 per cent on telephone, general
It is a type of direct tax levied insurance and stock brokerage.
192
7. Central Excise Duty: India has been made under 101st
Excise duty is an indirect tax Constitutional Amendment
levied by the Central Government Act which was enacted on 8 th
and distributed amongst the states September, 2016 and came into
based on the formula prescribed by effect from 1 July, 2017.
the Finance Commission. Taxes included in GST:
It is a type of commodity tax. Central Tax: Central Excise,
8. Customs Duty: Additional Excise, Service
Customs duty is an indirect tax. It is Tax, Additional Customs Duty
levied by the Central Government (Countervailing Duty), Special
on import and export of goods by Additional Customs Duty and
the Central Government. Surcharge and Cess.
It is levied both in terms of value State Tax: State Value Added Tax
and quantity. (VAT) / Sales Tax, Entertainment
9. Inauguration of Goods and Tax (excluding taxes applicable by
Services Tax: Local Bodies), Central Sales Tax
On 1 July, 2017 (at midnight of (levied by the Center and collected
30th June), Goods and Services by the States), Octroi and Entry
Tax (GST) was launched from Tax, Purchasing Tax, Luxury
the historic Central Hall of the Tax, Taxes on Lottery, Betting
Parliament House by the then and Gambling and Surcharge and
President Pranab Mukherjee and Cess.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
Taxes kept outside the purview of
It is an indirect tax that has GST:
covered most of its predecessor
Tax on intoxicating liquor for
indirect taxes.
human use is exempted from GST,
It is a single tax on the supply
while five petrochemical products
of goods and services from
(crude petroleum, high-speed
manufacturer to consumer.
diesel, motor spirit, natural gas
Under this only the value addition
is taxed at each stage. and aviation fuel) are temporarily
It is noteworthy that the provision excluded from the purview of
of Goods and Services Tax in GST.
193
 Miscellaneous Blue Revolution Fisheries
Mainly three types of steps have Production
been taken under land reforms in Silver Revolution Egg / Poultry Meat
India - 1. Abolition of Middlemen Production

(landlords) 2. Tenancy Reforms Red Revolution Tomato Production

and 3. R e o rg a n i z a t i o n o f Silver Fibres Cotton Production

Revolution
Agriculture.
Golden Fibre Jute Production
First National Farmers Revolution
Commission was formed in Golden Revolution Fruits & Vegetables
January 2004. Production
Various Priority Area Brown (Gray) Fertilizer
Revolutions Revolution Production

Green Revolution Food Production Round Revolution Potato Production

White Revolution Milk Production Pink Revolution Onion, Shrimp

Production
Yellow Revolution Oilseed Production

Agricultural Produce Board

Sl. Board Establishment Headquarters

No.
1. Coffee Board of India 1942 Bengaluru (Karnataka)

2. Indian Rubber Board 1947 Kottayam (Kerala)

3. Tea Board of India 1954 Kolkata (West Bengal)

4. Tobacco Board of India 1976 Guntur (Andhra Pradesh)

5. Indian Spices Board 1987 Kochi (Kerala)

6. N ational Meat and Poultry 2009 Delhi

Processing Board

7. National Grapes Processing 2009 Pune (Maharashtra)

8. National Fisheries Development 2006 Hyderabad

9. National Jute Board 2009 Kolkata (West Bengal)

194
 Key points
Economic Survey, 2021-22
The government has projected
On 31 January 2022, Union
growth at 8% to 8.5% compared
Finance and Corporate Affairs Minister
with an estimated 9.2% for the
NirmalaSitharaman presented the
current fiscal year and a 6.6%
“Economic Survey, 2021-22” in the
contraction the previous year.
Parliament.
Vi r t u a l d i g i t a l a s s e t : T h e
Key points —
government has proposed to issue
The Indian economy is estimated
a Digital Rupee, or Central Bank
to grow by 9.2 percent in 2021-22
Digital Currency (CBDC), in the
(1st AE) as against a decline of 7.3
fiscal year 2022-23.
percent in the year 2020-21.
The GDP growth rate in the year Mission POSHAN 2.0: It is to

2022-23 is estimated to be 8 to 8.5 improve nutritional outcomes

percent. across 112 aspirational districts .

Agriculture and allied sectors There will be operationalisation
are expected to grow by 3.9 per of 17 new public health units at
cent, industry at 11.8 per cent and points of entry .
services sector by 8.2 per cent in 100 new Sainik Schools is to be
2021-22. set up.
India is the country with the tenth 750 Eklavya schools are to be set
largest forest area in the world.
up in tribal areas.
India ranked third in the world in
A Central University will come up
terms of increase in forest area
in Ladakh .
during 2010 to 2021.
National Rail Plan created to bring
Union Budget, 2022-23
a future-ready Railway system by
Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman 2030 .
on February 1, 2022-23 presented the 100% electrification of Railways
Union Budget 2022. to be completed by 2023.
195
 General Science
5 (Physics)
Fundamental Unit : In the inter-
Units national system of units (SI sys-
tem), the numbers of fundamental
A standard is needed for the mea- units are seven.
surement of a physical quantity.
Derived Unit : Units of all those
This standard is known as the unit
of that physical quantity. physical quantities that can be
Unit divided into two categories represented by the combination
are (i) Fundamental or Base unit
(ii) Derived unit. of fundamental units.

SI Fundamental Quantities and Their Units

Fundamental Quantities S.I. Units Symbols
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric Current Ampere A
Thermodynamic Temperature Kelvin K
Quantity of Matter Mole mol
Luminous Intensity Candela cd

22 Derived SI Units of Specific Names and Symbols

Physical Quantities Specific Names of Symbols and values in
the Units terms Fundamental Units
Plane Angle Radian rad = m/m
Solid Angle Steradian sr = m2/m2
Frequency Hertz Hz = s–1
Force Newton N = kg ms–2
Pressure, Stress Pascal Pa = kgm–1 s–2
Energy, Work, Quantity Joule J = kg m2s–2
of Heat
Power, Radiant Flux Watt W = kgm2 s–3
196
Electric Charge Coulomb C = As
Voltage/Electrical Volt V = kg m2s–3A–1
Potential
Electrical Capacity Farad F = kg–1 m–2 s4A2
Electrical Resistance Ohm Ω = kg m2s–3A–2
Electrical Conductivity Siemens S = kg–1m–2 s3A2
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb = kgm2s–2 A–1
Magnetic Flux Density Tesla T = kgs–2 A–1
Inductance Henry H = kgm2s–2A–2
Temperature Degree Celcius °C = K
Luminous flux Lumen lm = cd sr
Illuminance Lux lx = cd sr m–2
Activity of a Radio Becquerel Bq = s–1
Nuclide
Amount of Absorbed Gray Gy = m2s–2
Radiation
Ionizing Radiation Sievert Sv = m2 s–2
(Dose equivalent)
Catalytic Activity Katal Kat = mols–1
1 Nautical mile is equal to 1852
International System of
meters.
Units
A Megawatt is the unit of mea-
The International System of Units surement of electricity that is
(SI), commonly known as the generated at the power plant.
metric system is the international 1 megawatt = 106 (million) watt
standard for measurement. Cusec (Cubic feet per second) is
It is denoted by S.I. the unit of rate of flow of water.
A Light year is used to measure 1 Cusec = 28.317 liter/second
the very long distance. The thickness of the ozone layer
1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 meter in the atmosphere is measured in
A Nautical mile is a unit to mea- Dobson Unit.
sure distance in the sea. One Dobson unit expresses a 10
197
 micrometer ozone layer at stan- change its state by the action of an
dard heat and pressure. external force.
One Dobson Unit (DU) = 2.69×1020 This law is also known as the Law
Ozone molecule per square meter of Intertia or Galileo's Law.
Force has the unit 'Dyne' in the Inertia : Inertia means resistance
CGS system. to change. Inertia is a kind of
S.I. Unit of force is Newton
property of an object which makes
1 Newton = 105 Dyne
it resistant to any kind of change
Motion and Force in its state of rest or the uniform
motion.
Scalar Quantity : Scalar quantities
Newton's second law of motion:
are those physical quantities
that have no direction but only The acceleration of an object as
have magnitude, e.g. distance, produced by a net force is directly
volume, mass, density, work, proportional to the magnitude of
energy, time, temperature, power, the net force, in the same direction
charge, frequency, potential and as the net force, and inversely
speed, etc. proportional to the mass of the
Vector Quantity : Vector quantities object.
are those physical quantities a = F/m, F = m×a,
that have both magnitudes as where F = force
well as direction. e.g. impulse, m = mass
displacement, acceleration, a = acceleration
velocity, force, momentum, Newton's Third Law of Motion :
electric field, magnetic field, etc. According to this law of motion,
Newton's Laws of Motion : Sir every action has an equal and
Issac Newton proposed three basic
opposite reaction. This is why
laws of motion based upon the
this law is also called the 'Law of
assumptions of Galileo.
Action and Reaction'.
Newton's First Law of Motion
According to this law, when a
: According to this law, every
object which remains in the state body applies a force upon another
of rest or in uniform motion in a body, it also applies equal and
straight line, unless compelled to opposite force to that body.
198
Example : Generally, all types of energy in
The boat moves back when we the universe can be classified into
jump out of it. two parts –
Work, Power & Energy (i) Kinetic Energy (ii) Potential
Energy
Work : Work is that physical ac-
tivity in which a force is applied Kinetic Energy : Energy present
upon an object to displace it in the in a moving body due to its motion
direction of the force. is called Kinetic energy. The Ki-
Work done on applying a force
netic energy of a body of mass 'm'
upon an object is equal to the
product of the magnitude of force moving with velocity 'v' is equal
1
applied and the displacement in to 2 mv2.
the direction of the force.
Kinetic Energy is a scalar quantity.
Work done (W) = Force (F) ×
1
Displacement(s) Kinetic Energy (K.E.) = 2 mv2.
Work is a scalar quantity and S.I. Potential Energy : The energy
Unit of work is the joule. present in a body due to change
Power : The rate of doing work by in its state or the shape is called
any machine or a person is called
potential energy.
power.
Work Potential Energy (PE) = mgh
Power = Time
Examples :
W (i) Stretched segmented energy.
P= t
(ii) The energy of water held up by
Power is a scalar quantity and its building dams.
S.I. Unit is joule/second or watt. Principle of conservation of
Another unit of power is also Energy : Energy can neigther be
horsepower. created nor be destroyed, but it can
1 Horsepower = 746 watts be transformed.
Energy : The capacity for doing Conversion of Energy : Accord-
any work by anybody is called
ing to the principle of conserva-
Energy.
Energy is a scalar quantity and tion of energy, energy cannot be
its S.I. Unit is the joule. destroyed but its form changes.
199
 Appliances that Transform Energy
Appliance Transformation of Energy
Electric Fan Mechanical energy from electrical energy
Electric Bulb Heat and light energy from electrical energy
Electric Cell Electric energy from chemical energy
Candle Heat and light energy from chemical energy
Photo-electric cell Electric energy from light energy
Dynamo Electrical energy from mechanical energy
Loud Speaker Sound energy from electrical energy
Sitar Sound energy from mechanical energy
Steam Engine Mechanical energy from heat energy
Turbine Rotation Electrical energy from mechanical energy
Photosynthesis Chemical energy from solar energy
Electric generator Electrical energy from mechanical energy
Electric motor Mechanical energy from electric energy
Diesel Engine Mechanical energy from chemical energy
weight of a body in it appears to
Gravitation decrease.
When a lift moves upward, the
Gravity
weight of the body inside it
Gravity refers to that force of
increases.
attraction by which the Earth
Escape Velocity : Escape velocity
attracts an object towards its
is the minimum velocity by
centre.
which a body is thrown above the
Acceleration due to gravity is
surface of the Earth; it crosses the
represented by g.
gravitational field of the earth and
The value of g on Earth is 9.8
never returns to the Earth.
m/s2.
Value of escape velocity for the
Change in the value of g :
Earth is 11.2 km/second.
At the Poles of the Earth value of
Time period : Time taken to
g is maximum and it is minimum complete one oscillation or one
at the Equator. vibration is known as time period.
Weight of a body in a lift : Time period of the second
When a lift goes downward, the pendulum is 2 seconds.
200
Frequency : Number of vibrations minimum possible surface area
completed by a vibrating body in possible is called surface tension.
one second is called frequency. Examples of Surface Tension :
S.I. Unit of frequency is called Detergents work upon the principle
hertz or second–1. of surface tension.
Archimedes Principle : When The surface tension of the water
a body is partially or completely decreases after mixing detergent
immersed in a liquid then there is in it.
an apparent decrease in its weight, A drop of oil expands upon water
this apparent decrease in weight because the surface tension of oil
of the body is equal to the liquid is much less than that of water.
displaced by it. Capillarity :
Density : Density is a characteristic A glass tube of very short radius
property of matter. and having both ends open is
In the definite volume how much called a capillary tube.
mass of matter is present, this Examples of Capillarity :
relation is expressed by density. Blotting paper easily absorbs the
Amount of mass concentrated in ink because of the presence of
a unit volume of the substance is small holes in it which work as
called the density of the substance. small capillary tubes.
Density = Volume &d = m 0
Mass Kerosene rises in a wick of lantern
v
because of capillarity action in the
S.I. Unit of density is kg/m3. wick.
Bernoulli's Theorem : The sum Pressure
of the total energy (i.e. the pres-
The force acting normally upon
sure energy, the kinetic energy and
per unit area of the surface is called
the potential energy) of an ideal pressure. Therefore, pressure =
volume of the fluid at each point Force & = F 0
Area P A .
of its passage in a streamlined flow
of an ideal fluid is constant. The pressure is a scalar quantity.
S.I.Unit of pressure is Newton/m2,
Surface Tension
it is also called Pascal (pa).
The tendency of a liquid surface As there is an inverse relationship
to shrink its free surface into the between the pressure and area,
201
 therefore objects with less area received in this way is known as
exert more pressure. the spectrum of visible light.
Barometer is used to measure air In the spectrum of light violet,
pressure. indigo blue, green, yellow, orange
Rapid reduction of atmospheric and red colours (VIBGYOR) are
pressure at any place is an indicator visible.
of the coming of storm or cyclone In visible light, the wavelength,
or blowing of fast winds. of red colour is the longest while
Electromagnetic Waves : the wavelength of violet colour is
These waves are produced by the shortest.
the vibration of electromagnetic Sound
fields. These waves can travel
without any medium (a vacuum). Sound is a type of wave which
Their speed is equal to the speed propagates in the form of audible
of light. mechanical waves with the help of
Electromagnetic waves are a medium.
transverse waves. Sound waves are of three types–
A. Infrasonic Waves B. Audible
Light is also an electromagnetic
Waves or Sonic Waves C. Ultra-
wave with a speed of 3 × 108 m/s.
sonic Waves.
The wavelength range of
A. Infrasonic Waves : Sound waves
electromagnetic waves is in the of a frequency less than 20 hertz
band of 10–14 meter to 10–4 meter. are known as infrasonic waves.
Electromagnetic waves exhibit A human cannot listen infrasonic
both particle (photon) and wave waves.
nature (transverse wave). B. Audible waves : Waves of
The Photoelectric effect can be frequency from 20 to 20,000
explained only by the particle hertz are called Audible Waves.
nature or photon-model of light Human ears can only listen to
(electromagnetic waves). audible waves.
The concept of electromagnetic C. Ultrasonic waves : Waves of a
frequency more than 20,000
waves was proposed by Maxwell.
hertz are known as Ultrasonic
The light of the sun is a mixture
Waves. The human ear cannot
of seven colours, these colours are listen to these waves but a bat,
produced by the light of different dog and cat can easily listen to
wavelengths. The coloured band these waves.
202
 Sound can travel through different original vibrations becomes equal
mediums such as air, liquid and to an external frequency applied
solids. by any force, and it results in the
Sound waves are longitudinal generation of abnormally large
waves. amplitude (or large vibration), this
Speed of sound in solids is condition is known as resonance.
maximum while in liquid it is
Doppler's Effect : The apparent
slower and slowest in gases.
change in the frequency of the
Speed of the Sound in different
sound wave that occurs when ei-
Mediums at 25°C
ther the source of the sound or the
Mediums Speed of-
observer is moving relative to each
Sounds
(m/s) other, is called Doppler Effect.
Hydrogen 1284 Doppler effect is produced due to
the relative motion of source and
Helium 965
observer.
Air 346
Mach Number : Under the same
Oxygen 316
conditions of temperature and
Sulphur dioxide 213
pressure in any medium ratio of
Seawater 1531 the speed of the body to the speed
Distilled water 1498 of sound is called Mach Number.
Ethanol 1207 Speed of Object
Methanol 1103 Mach Number =
Speed of Sound
Aluminium 6420
Nickel 6040 Heat
Steel 5960 Measurement of Temperature :
Iron 5950 There are four main scales used
Brass 4700 to measure the temperature (i)
Glass (Flint) 3980 Celsius (ii) Fahrenheit (iii) Kelvin
Echo : (iv) Reaumur Scale
Echo is the reflection of sound (i) Celsius Scale : In this scale, the
that reaches to the listener when freezing point of water is marked
original sound returns after hitting as 0°C and its boiling point
a hard surface distant away from 100°C and space between them
the listener. is divided equally into 100 parts.
Resonance : When the frequency of Each part is equal to 1°C.
203
 A scientist of Swedish origin, Kirchhoff's Law : This law
Anders Celsius invented this is called Kirchhoff's Radiation
scale. Law. According to this law, at the
(ii) Fahrenheit Scale : In this thermodynamic equilibrium, a
scale, 32°F is marked for the system that absorbs or emits heat
radiation has its absorptivity equal
freezing point of water while
to emissivity. According to this,
212°F is marked for the boiling
good absorbers of heat are also
point and space between these two
good radiators.
points divided into 180 equal parts
States of Matter : There are three
every part represents 1°F. types of physical matter.
Scientist of German origin (i) Solid (ii) Liquid (iii) Gas
Fahrenheit originated this scale. Melting Point : A temperature
(iii) Kelvin Scale : This scale is also at which the melting process of
known as Absolute Temperature solids takes place is called the
Scale. This scale measures 273K melting point of the solid.
as the freezing point of water and Boiling Point : The temperature
the boiling point as 373K. at which any liquid or fluid starts
Relation between Celsius and boiling is called the boiling point
Fahrenheit : of that liquid. e.g. water boils at
C F–32 100°C; therefore, its boiling point
=
5 9 is 100°C.
Condensation : In the process of
Relation between Celsius and
condensation, a substance changes
Kelvin : from the state of vapour to that of
C = K –273 liquid and the fixed temperature at
K = C + 273 which this process takes place is
Specific Heat : The amount of called the condensation point.
heat required for a unit increase in Sublimation : The transformation
the temperature of the substance of solids directly into vapour (or
of unit mass is called the specific gaseous form) on heating is called
heat of that substance. sublimation. The substances which
Specific heat is represented by 'C'. sublimate are Ammonium Chloride,
Its S.I. Unit is Joule/Kg. Kelvin. Iodine, Camphor, Naphthalene, etc.
Cooling : The process of cooling Refrigerator : A refrigerator (also
a heated body is called cooling. called a fridge) is a household
Anybody can cool down only appliance that is thermally
when the temperature of the body surrounded by a conductor and
is greater than its surroundings. has a heat pump connection.
204
 thin-edged obstacle, it turns and
Light
enters the shadow region of the
Light: Light is the energy through obstacle, this phenomenon is
which we can see things. called diffraction of light.
Light can pass through a vacuum The wavelength of the violet
and transparent medium. colour of light is the lowest among
Light moves in a straight line all the colours of visible light, so
in the form of electromagnetic the scattering of violet light is
radiation.
the highest due to the Rayleigh’s
Light waves move through a
Law.
medium or a vacuum as transverse
waves, i.e. light is a kind of The Red colour is scattered the
transverse electromagnetic least.
waves. The blue colour of the sky is due
The photon theory of light to scattering of light.
was explained by the famous Reflection of Light : When light
physical scientist Albert Einstein collides with a smooth surface
to illustrate the Photo- Electric
and returns. This phenomenon is
Effect.
called Reflection of Light.
Albert Einstein explained that
Spherical mirrors are of two
light is of dual nature. He
types -
observed both the particle and
wave-like behaviours of light. (i) Concave Mirror (ii) Convex
Light travels approximately 150 Mirror Concave Mirror
million kilometres to reach the : If a hollow sphere is cut into
Earth from the Sun and it takes parts and the outer surface of
about 8 minutes 19 seconds. The the cut part is painted. Then it
speed of light is 3 × 108 m/s in a becomes a mirror with its inner
vacuum while it is lower in other surface as the reflecting (surface)
dense media.
known as concave mirror.
Some Physical Phenomena Dentists, E.N.T (Ear, Nose and
related to the Light-
Throat) specialists exclusively
Diffraction of Light: When light use a concave mirror because it
rays fall upon a very sharp or enlarges images of nearby objects.
205
 Different Conditions of Reflection made from Concave Mirror
Osition of object Position of Image Nature of Image Size of Image
At center of curvature At center of Inverted and Real Equal in size
curvature
At infinity At focus Inverted and Real Pointed
At focus At infinity Inverted and Real Very large
Between Center of Between focus & Inverted and Real Small
curvature and Infinity center of Curvature
Between pole and Behind the mirror Erect & Virtual Large
focus
Between Center of Between Center Inverted & Real Large
Curvature & Focus of Curvature and
Infinity

Convex Mirror : If the concave due to its large field of view and
part is polished in a spherical its reflection becomes straight.
mirror then the convex part Convex mirrors are also used as
reflects light. Such a mirror is sodium reflector lamps.
called a Convex Mirror. Reflection : Reflection of light is
In every case of a convex mirror, the phenomenon in which light
the reflection of an object becomes rays return after hitting a smooth
virtual, small and upright. and shining surface.
The convex mirror is used in Light is also reflected from the
vehicles as a rear-view mirror surface of the water.

Formation of Image at Various Positions

Object Location Image Location Image Nature & Size
Infinity At F2 Real, Inverted, Reduced
Beyond 2 F1 Between 2F2 and F2 Real, Inverted, Reduced
Between 2F1 and F1 Beyond 2F2 Real, Inverted, Enlarged
At F1 At infinity Real, Inverted, Enlarged
At 2F1 At 2 F2 Real, Inverted, Same size
Between F1 & O On the same side as object Virtual, Erect, Enlarged

206
 Refraction : If light rays are
Human Eye
travelling from one medium
The human eye is capable of
to another, they change their
presenting a three-dimensional
direction at the point where two
view.
transparent media separate with All images in the eye are formed
different refractive indexes is on the retina.
called Refraction. The conical-shaped cells present
Dispersion of Light: White Light in the retina are sensitive to
(Light from the sun) or visible colours, that is, they are used to
light is the combined effect of light identify colours.
split into seven different colours. The retina also contains rod-like or
Seven colours deflected from rod-shaped cells that are sensitive
the prism are-Violet, Indigo, to light intensity.
The minimum distance of clear
Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange
vision for the human eye is 25 cm.
and Red from the base upwards.
Myopia (Near-Sightedness) :
The acronym of these prismatic In myopia, a person can see the
colours is VIBGYOR. closer object clearly but he cannot
Rainbow: A rainbow is formed see the distant objects clearly.
owing to the dispersion of sunlight Hypermetropia (Farsighted-
(split of light into various colours) ness): People with farsightedness
by the tiny droplets of water are able to see distant objects
present in the atmosphere (colour clearly but nearby objects appear
deflection). blurred or unclear to them.

Vision Defects
Types of Vision Nearby object Distant Object Lens for Treat-
Defects ment
Near-Sighted- Can be seen Cannot be seen Concave lens
ness clearly clearly
Far-Sightedness Cannot be seen Can be seen Convex lens
clearly clearly

207
 R2, and R3, the total resistance R
Electric Current is –
[R = R1 + R2 + R3]
Rate of flow of charge in a con-
ductor is called electric current. Similarly, when the inverse of
the combined resistance is equal
Electric current flows in the direc-
to the sum of the inverse of the
tion of motion of positive (+ve)
resistance, the total resistance is
charge.
said to be in parallel combination.
Electric current is a scalar quan- If the combined resistance is rep-
tity. Its SI unit is Ampere (A). resented by R1, R2, and R3 then in
Ohm’s Law: Ohm’s law states parallel combination inverse of the
that if no physical change occurs total resistance R is –
in the state of the conductor, the [1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3]
potential applied at the ends of the
Nuclear Physics
conductor is directly proportional
to the current flowing through it.
When the resultant of combined The Nucleus of an atom is studied
resistance is equal to the sum of under Nuclear Physics.
all the resistance, they are in a se- The number of protons (Z) present
ries combination. If the combined in the nucleus is known as the
resistances are represented by R1, Atomic Number.

Important Inventions Related to Physics and Discoveries

Inventions Scientists
Electron J.J. Thomson
Proton Goldstein/Rutherford
Neutron James Chadwick
Atom John Dalton
Atom Bomb Autohon
Atomic Structure Neils Bohr & Rutherford
Laws of Motion Newton
Theory of Relativity Albert Einstein
Electromagnetic Induction Michael Faraday
Raman Effect C.V. Raman
X-Rays Wilhelm Roentgen
Quantum Theory Max Plank
Photo-Electric Effect Albert Einstein
208
 Contribution of Some Physicists of Different Countries
Name Important Contributions/Inventors
R.A. Millikan Measurement of Electron Charge
Ernest Rutherford Nuclear Model of an Atom
Neils Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom
Chandra Shekhar Venkataraman Inelastic scattering of light by the atoms
Louis Victor de Broglie Wave nature of matter
Meghnath Saha Thermal Ionisation
Satyendra Nath Bose Quantum Mechanics
Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion Principle
Enrico Fermi Controlled Nuclear Fission
Werner Heisenberg Quantum Mechanics and Uncertainty
Principle
Paul Dirac Relativistic Electron Theory, Quantum
Mechanics
Edwin Hubble Expanding Universe
Hideki-Yukawa Principle of Nuclear Forces

Homi Jehangir Bhabha Cosmic Radiation

Lev Davidovich Landau Superfluidity Principle, Liquid Helium
S. Chandra Shekhar Chandra Shekhar Limit Structure of
Stars and Development
Albert Einstein Photo electric Principle, Theory of
relativity
C.H. Townes Moser and Laser
Abdul Salam Electroweak theory, concerned quantum
electrodynamics and quantum field
theory
Galileo Galilei Law of Inertia
Christiaan Huygens Wave Theory of Light
Isaac Newton Universal Law of Gravitation, Laws of
Motion, Reflector Telescope
Michael Faraday Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

209
 6 Chemistry
Chemistry studies the composition, Plasma : The state of matter at a
structure, physical and chemical high temperature in which atoms
properties of substances and their of the matter are in an ionic-state is
chemical reaction. called plasma. Therefore plasma is
Jacob Berzelius is called the
a good conductor of electricity. It
grandfather of chemistry and
Antoine Lavoisier, the father of is one of the fourth states of matter.
modern chemistry. Bose - Einstein Condensate :
The credit of establishing It is the state of matter obtained
chemistry as a separate discipline when a dilute gas of low density
goes to Robert Boyle. is cooled to near zero temperature
Physical Classification of Matter : (–273.15°C).
Under normal conditions of Average Quantity of Elements
temperature and pressure, the in Human Body
matter based on its physical
conditions is divided into three Element Percentage
states - solid, liquid and gas. Oxygen 65.0
Solid : That physical state of Carbon 18.5
matter which has fixed volume and Hydrogen 9.5
shape, is called solid e.g. metals,
wood, salts, bricks, etc. Nitrogen 3.2
Liquid : That physical state of Calcium 1.5
matter which has fixed volume Phosphorus 1.0
but its shape is uncertain is called Potassium 0.4
liquid. The liquid takes the shape Sulphur 0.3
of the vessel in which it is kept e.g. Sodium 0.2
water, milk, alcohol, mercury, etc.
Gas : That physical state of matter Chlorine 0.2
in which volume and shape both Magnesium 0.2
are uncertain is called gas. It Iron 0.004
spreads in the whole vessel in
Others 0.046
which it is filled e.g. Hydrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, air etc. Metals : The elements which
Density of Solid Liquid and Gas are good conductors of heat and
- Solid > Liquid > Gas electricity, with high melting and
210
 boiling points and shine are called Mixtures are of two types :
metals. They have the property A- Homogeneous mixture
of ductility and malleability e.g. B-Heterogeneous mixture
Iron, Silver, Copper, Gold and John Dalton, a teacher in New
Aluminium, etc. College of Manchester, England,
Non-metals : The elements after going through study of
having opposite characteristics of structure of matter in 1808, had
metals, i.e. which have no glitter, proposed the systematic view
(except iodine) and no property about the structure of atom
of ductility and malleability are and structure of matter in his
called non-metals, e.g. sulphur, hypothesis which is known as
benzene phosphorus, etc. Dalton's Atomic Theory.
Metalloids : The elements which Av o g a d ro ' s H y p o t h e s i s :
have characteristics common to According to this hypothesis "At
both metals and non-metals are
equal temperature and pressure,
called metalloids. E.g. arsenic,
silicon, antimony bismuth, etc. number of molecules in the equal
Organic Compounds : volumes of all gases remains the
Those compounds which are same."
mainly obtained from life sources The number of molecules present
and in which one or more carbon in a gram molecular weight of a
atoms are combined with covalent substance is called Avogadro's
bonds of the elements (like Number.
Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen) The number of atoms in one gram
are called organic compounds. atomic mass of each element is
Inorganic Compounds : 6.022 × 1023.
Those compounds which are Atomic and Molecular Mass :
The atomic mass of an element
formed by the combination of two
Mass of one atom of an element
or more elements (generally other =
Mass of one atom of Hydrogen
than carbon) are called inorganic
Atomic mass is a ratio, therefore
compounds, e.g. water, salt, etc. it has no unit.
Mixture : When two or more Atomic mass of an element
substances are mixed in any ratio, Mass of one atom of an element
it is called a mixture. Constituents =
Mass of 1/16 part of one atom of oxygen
of a mixture can be separated by Carbon-12 method :
ordinary physical processes. Atomic mass of an element
211
 Mass of one atom of an element particles are found in an atom -
= Mass of 1/12th part of one atom of 612
Electron, Proton and Neutron.
Molecular Weight : Molecular
The Real mass of an isotope of
weight of any element or
Carbon-12 is 1.9926 × 10–23 gram,
compound is the number which
which is equivalent to 12 amu.
represents that, how many times
1.9926 × 10–23
1 amu = & 1.66 × the weight of one molecule of it
12
10–24 gram. is in comparison to the weight of
1
Number of grams atoms of an part of atom carbon-12.
element 12
Electron : Electron is the
Weight of element (in gram)
= negatively charged particle that
Gram atomic mass of element
has a unit negative charge and
Atom : The smallest particle of
mass equal to 9.109 × 10–31 kg.
the matter which has the property
of participating in a chemical Proton : Proton is a positively

reaction is called atom. charged particle with a unit

Atomic Structure : The positive charge and mass equal
to 1.6726 × 10–27 kg.
distribution of fundamental parts
Neutron : Neutron is a neutral
inside the atom is called atomic particle. Its mass is 1.675 × 10–27
structure. Three fundamental kg.

Some other Sub-Atom Particles

Particle Symbol Discoverer Mass (amu)
Positron + 1e0 C.D. Anderson Negligible (0.000548)
(1932)
Meson π+, π–, π0 Yukawa (1935) Approximately 200 times of
mass of an electron
Neutrino v (Neu) Pauli (1930) Uncertain (< 0.000548)
Antiproton p– Segre and 1.00757
Chamberlain
(1955)
Antineutron n Cork (1956) 1.00893

212
Rutherford Structure of Atom :
Chemical Bonding
Rutherford asserted that most
of the part of an atom is empty. Chemical Bonding : Chemical
Most of the mass of an atom is bonding is that alternative force
concentrated in the nucleus and that forms the molecules by
combining two or more atoms.
the electrons revolve around it.
Valency :
Mass Number : The sum of
In 1852, the scientist, Frankland,
the total number of protons and
used the term Valency for the
neutrons in the nucleus is called
'combining capacity of atoms of
mass number.
elements'. Valency has the origin
Mass number of atom (A) =
from the Latin word Valentia
Number of protons (Z) in the (Power or Capacity).
nucleus + Number of neutrons (N)
i.e. A = Z + N Acid and Base
Atomic Number : The number
Acid : The substances which
of protons in a nucleus of an atom release hydrogen ion in an
or the number of electrons in a aqueous solution or the substance
neutral atom is called its atomic which can release a proton or
number. the substance which can absorb
Isotopes : The elements which electron pairs are known as acids.
have the same atomic number Some main acids are as follows –
but different atomic weight are HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, CH3COOH,
called isotopes, e.g. hydrogen has etc.
three isotopes 1H1 (Protium), 1H2 Acid tastes sour.
(Deuterium) and 1H3 (Tritium). Base : Compounds that form salt
Isobars : The elements which and water on reacting with acids
are called Base. Bases are of two
have the same atomic masses
types A- Base soluble in water and
but different atomic numbers
B- Base insoluble in water.
are called Isobars, e.g. Ar 40
18 # Note : Magnesium Hydroxide
(Argon), 19K40 (Potassium) and [Mg(OH)2] is used in reducing the
20
Ca40 (Calcium). acidity in the stomach.
213
 Major Salts and their Chemical Names and Uses
Salts Chemical Names Uses
1. Comman Salt Sodium Chloride In preservation of food, pickles,
(NaCl) meat and fish
2. Washing Soda Sodium Carbonate In washing of clothes, in making
(Na2CO3) of caustic soda and detergent
powder
3. Baking Soda Sodium Bicarbonate Baking powder, fire-extinguisher
(NaHCO3) and in reducing acidity in stomach
4. Alum Potassium Aluminium To stop bleeding from wounds,
Sulphate [K 2 SO 4 , colouring and for the purification
Al2(SO2)3. 24 H2O] of water
5. Potash Potassium Nitrate In the formation of fertilizer and
(KNO3) in making of gunpowder
6. Blue Vitriol Copper Sulphate Fungicide, electro-plating,
(CuSO4. 5H2O) colouring and printing

pH Scale : When any acid or base

is dissolved in water then the ionic
Gaseous State and Nature
product of the solution remains of Gases
constant while the concentration
Gas is the simplest state of
of H+ and OH– ions in it change.
matter. The mixture of various
Sorensen constructed the pH scale
gases is present around us in the
to show the concentration of H+ or atmosphere. CO2, O2, N2 and water
OH– ions in any solution. vapour all gases are present in the
For any acidic or basic solution atmosphere.
pH + pOH = 14 The following are the
Some Natural Acids characteristics of the gaseous
Apple Malic acid state-
The Sting of ant and M e t h a n o i c • Gases are highly compressible.
Scorpion Acid or • Gases release the same pressure in
Formic acid
all directions.
Vinegar Acetic acid
• Density of gases is small in
Curd (Sour milk) Lactic acid comparison to solids and liquids.
Grapes and Tamarind Tartaric acid • Volume and the shape of gases is
Orange and Lime Citric acid uncertain.
214
• Diffusion of gases takes place 0.01% of Nitrogen is present in
rapidly. whole of the earth, including the
Boyle's Law : At constant atmosphere.
If there was no Nitrogen, the
temperature, the volume of a
whole of the earth would be burnt
certain mass of gas is inversely
to ashes by the one presence of
proportional to its pressure. Here,
oxygen.
mass means the number of moles
Nitrous Oxide : Nitrous oxide
in the gas.
1 (N2O) is also called Laughing
V ? P Gas. This is also an anaesthetic
(At constant temperature and (Chloroform is also used as
mass) anaesthetics).
Charle's Law : At constant The main compound of nitrogen
pressure, the volume (V) of a is ammonia.
certain mass of gas is directly Ammonia gas is formed by the
proportional to its absolute Haber Process.
temperature (T). Phosphorus :
(Absolute temperature T = 273° + There are 5 Allotropes of
t°C) Phosphorus - Yellow Phosphorus,
V?T Red Phosphorus, White
Avogadro Law : At the constant Phosphorus, Violet Phosphorus
and Black Phosphorus.
temperature and pressure number
Red Phosphorus and Phosphorus
of molecules (moles) in the equal
Trisulphide are used in the making
volume of gases is equal.
V of matchstick.
Molar volume of the gas = n Sulphur :
= 22.4 litres (at N.T.P.)
Sulphur dioxide gas (SO2) emits
(Here n = 1 mole) and from petroleum refining plants and
Number of molecules in 22.4 litres vehicles causing pollution.
of gas is= 6.022 × 1023
Sulphur dioxide and the oxides of
Some Important Non-Metals Nitrogen on reacting with water
and their Uses vapour present in the atmosphere
from Sulphuric and Nitric Acids
Nitrogen : which reach the top soil with rain
Nitrogen has a 78% share among and make it acidic, is called acid
gases present in the atmosphere. rain.
215
 Magnesium :
Some Important Metals and
Magnesium is present in the
their Uses Chlorophyll of plants.
Magnesium Elba [Mg(OH) 2 ;
Sodium :
MgCO 3.3H 2O] is an anti-acid
Molten Sodium is used as a
(removes acidity of stomach).
coolant in nuclear reactors.
Magnesium Elba is sold in the
Sodium vapour is used in sodium
market as ENO.
lamps.
Zinc :
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is used as
edible salt. Zinc Oxide (ZnO) is used in
Potassium : making lotion and face cream.
Potassium Nitrate (KNO 3 ) is Zinc Oxide (ZnO) is used in
called nitre or gunpowder. It is making white paint.
used in making explosives. Zinc is used in the galvanization
Calcium : of iron sheets.
Calcium and Phosphorus are the
Gold :
main constituent elements of
bones and teeth. Gold is a very soft metal; therefore
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) is other metals are mixed with it to
used in making toothpaste and make it durable.
toothpowder. Gold used in making ornaments
Plaster of Paris [Chemical name- is mixed with Copper. The
Hemihydrate Calcium Sulphate amount of gold present in alloys
1
(CaSO4 2 H2O)] upon reacting is generally expressed in Carat.
with water turns into solid. Pure gold (100% gold) is 24
Plaster of Paris is used in plastering carats, 50% pure gold is 12
the fractured bone, making idols carats. This means that 4% of
and toys. gold is present in one carat gold
Copper : (Alloy).
Being a good conductor of Silver :
electricity, copper is used in the Silver is a good conductor of heat
making of wires and electric and electricity.
appliances. Silver is one of the most
Utensils, coins and alloys, etc. are corrosionless metals.
made of Copper. Silver Amalgam (an alloy of
C o p p e r S u l p h a t e ( C u S O 4) Silver and Mercury) is filled in the
and Copper Oxide are used in cavities of teeth.
the making of pesticides and Silver nitrate is used in making
analgesis. mirrors.
216
 Major Metals and their Ores
Metals Ores
Bismuth (Bi) Bismithinite
Copper (Cu) Azurite, Copper Pyrite, Chatcopyrite, Chalcocite Cuprite
Calcium (Ca) Calcium Carbonate (Lime-stone), Gypsum Fluorspar,
Phosphorite
Cadmium (Cd) Greenockit
Antimony (Sb) Stibnite
Cobalt (Co) Smeltite
Chromium (Cr) Chromaite
Aluminium (Al) Bauxite, Cryolite, Corundum, Diaspore
Sodium (Na) Sodium Chloride, Solium Carbonate, Sodium Nitrate Borax
Tin (Sn) Cassiterite
Gold (Au) Silvenite, Calaverite
Silver (Ag) Native Silver, Argentite, Chlororgyrite
Zinc (Zn) Sphalerite, Zinc Blende, Franklinite, Calamine Zincite
Nickel (Ni) Millerite
Potassium (K) Potassium Chloride, Potassium Carbonate Potassium
Nitrate
Barium (Ba) Baryte
Magnesium (Mg) Magnesite, Dolomite, Carnallite, Epsom Salt
Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar
Manganese (Mn) Pyrolusite
Iron (Fe) Magnetite, Haematite, Limonite, Siderite Iron Pyrite,
Chalcopyrite
Uranium (U) Pithc-blende (Uraninite), Carnotite
Lead (Pb) Galena

Metals and Uses of their Compounds

Sl. No Compounds Uses
1. Mercury (Hg) In making Thermometer, Amalgam and
Vermilion
2. Mercuric-Chloride (HgCl2) In making wood preservative and Pesticides
3. Sodium-Bicarbonate Fire extinguishing instrument, Bakery, industry
and in the form of repulsive.
4. Magnesium (Mg) In making flash bulbs and metal alloys

217
5. Magnesium-Carbonate In making Toothpaste, medicine and Gypsum
[MgCO3] salt
6. Magnesium Hydroxide Making sugar from molasses in the sugar
[Mg(OH)2] industry
7. M a g n e s i u m - C h l o r i d e In decorating cotton
[MgCl2]
8. Calcium (Ca) Used to remove Sulphur from the petroleum
and as reagent.
9. Calcium Oxide (CaO) In making bleaching powder and in the form
of slurry
10. C a l c i u m C a r b o n a t e Toothpaste, Lime, in making Carbondioxide
[CaCO3]
11. Gypsum [CaSO4.2H2O] In making-Ammonium Sulphate Plaster of Paris
and in Cement industry
12. Plaster of Paris (CaSO4) In making Idols, Bone-treatment and tying-
1 bandage
2 HO2

13. Bleaching Powder Used as a germicide and for decolouring paper

[CaOCl2] and clothes
14. Copper (Cu) In making brass and electric wire
15. Copper Sulphate or Blue In the construction of electric cell, making
Vitriol [CuSO4. 5H2O] germicides, purification of copper, in making
color
16. Cupric Oxide (CuO) In purification of petroleum and in the
construction of blue & green glass
17. Cuprous Oxide (Cu2O) In the formation of red glass and pesticides
18. Chlorine (Cl) Mustard Gas, Tincher, in making bleaching
powder
19. Bromine (Br) In making medicine, Tincher, Colour industry
and as repulsive
20. Iodine (I) In colour industry pesticide and in making
Tincher-iodine
21. Sulphur (S) Medicine, Pesticides and in making of
gunpowder
22. Phosphorous (P) White phosphorous is used to kill rats, red
phosphorous used in matches and in making
phosphorous-bronz
23. Hydrogen (H2) In the production of Ammonia, formation of
organic compounds
24. Liquid Hydrogen Used as rocket fuel

218
25. Heavy Water (D2O) In nuclear-reactions, Deuterated compounds and
as neutron retander
26. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Aqua-R, Chlorine, Colour, Chloride salts
formation
27. Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) Storage, Battery, Fertilization production,
purification of petroleum, color making and as
reagent in laboratory.
28. Ammonia (NH3) In making rayon, as reagent and in ice-factory
29. Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Before surgery as an anaesthesia

30. Producer Gas (CO +N2) In heating furnace, as cheap fuel, in the
extraction of metal.

31. Water Gas (CO + H2) In creating inert atmosphere, in the work of
welding.
32. Alum [K2SO4. Al2(SO4)3 In medicine making, leather industry in the
24H2O] purification of water, in colouring of clothes
33. Zinc (Zn) In making a battery, in the formation Hydrogen.
34. Zinc Odie (ZnO) To make ointments and to make porcelain shine

Formulas, Chemical and Commercial Names of Chemical Compounds

Commercial Name Chemical Name Formula
Washing Soda Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3
Baking Soda Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3
Caustic Soda Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Common Salt Sodium Chloride NaCl
Bleaching Powder Calcium Oxychloride Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl2
Alum Potassium Aluminium K2SO4Al2 (SO4)3 24H2O
Sulphate
Dry Ice Solid Carbon dioxide CO2 (Solid)
Marsh Gas (Gobar Gas) Methane CH4
Lime Water (Slaked Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Lime)
Quick Lime Calcium Oxide CaO
Gypsum Calcium Sulphate CaSO4. 2H2O
Lime Stone (Chalk) Calcium Carbonate CaCO3
Green Vitriol Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4.7H2O

219
 7 Biology
Aristotle is called the father of
Biology Biology.
Cytology
Biology is the science of life. The
Cell
term 'Biology' is derived from
Robert Hook used the term 'cell'
two words 'Bios' (life) and 'Logos' first time.
(study). A cell is a mass of cytoplasm
Biology is the branch of science that is bound externally by a cell
that focuses on the study of living membrane.
beings. Significally, the cell is basic struc-
The term 'Biology' was first used tural and functional unit of life.
by scientists, Lamarck and Tre- Two types of cell- Prokaryotic
viranus. cells and Eukaryotic cells.

Sub-Divisions of Biology

Gerontology Study and causes of ageing of Humans

Pedology Study of soil, soil formation, etc.
Lithotripsy Study of medical procedure to break stones in Kidney, Pan-
creas, Gall-bladder
Agrostology Study of Grasses
Biometry Study of biology by Mathematical and Statistical methods

Bionics Study and design of engineering system and modern tech-

nology by the application of biological and system present
in nature
Bionomics Study of the relations of living beings with environment
Conchology Study of shells of Molluscs
Genetics Study of genetic characteristics and heredity of living beings
Ethology Study of all animals' behaviour including humans'

220
Ichthyology Study of the science of Fish
Palynology Study of different types of pollen grains

Parasitology Study of Parasites

Entomology Study of Insects

Phrenology Study of the functioning and insanity of various parts of the

brain, based on structure of the cranial cavity
Sericulture Rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk
Pisciculture Rearing of Fish
Malacology Study of Mollusca
Oncology Study of Cancer
Teratology Study of abnormalities in physiological development
Osteology Study of Bones
Serology Study of Blood Serum
Ornithology Study of Birds

Difference Between Plant and Animal Cells

Plant Cell Animal Cell

1. Cell wall is present. 1. Cell wall is absent.

2. Chloroplast is present. 2. Chloroplast is absent.
3. Centrosome is absent (Cen- 3. Centrosome is present. It helps
trosome is found in Algae and in cell division.
Fungi only).

4. There is usually a large vacuole 4. Vacuole is either absent or very

in the centre of a fully devel- small.
oped cell.

5. In cell division, a plate is 5. In cell division, cell divides into

formed at the centre of the two parts by invagination of the
cell. cell membrane.

221
 Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

1. Cells are often small in size. 1. Cells are often big in size.
2. Incipient Nucleus. 2. Fully developed Nucleus.
3. Nuclear membrane and nucle- 3. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
olus absent. present.
4. Histone proteins are not asso- 4. Histone proteins are associated
ciated with DNA. with DNA.
5. Cell organelles are present 5. Cell organelles like golgi body,
without membrane. endoplasmic reticulum, chlo-
roplast and mitrochondria are
present with cell membrane.
6. Cellular respiration occurs in 6. Cellular respiration occurs in
plasma membrane. mitochondria.
7. All cells have 70S type of 7. All cells have 80S ribosomes.
ribosomes.
Main Cell Organelles and Other The main function of endoplasmic
Parts reticulum is the transportation of
(A) Cell Membrane : constructive fats and proteins for
Cells are surrounded by a thin different membranes, like cell
semi-permeable membrane called membrane, nucleus membrane,
the cell membrane. etc.
(B) Cell Wall : (E) Ribosomes:
It is the outer covering of the cell Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) and ribo-
membrane. nucleoprotein are found in equal
It is found only in cells of plants, measure in ribosomes.
fungi and bacteria. It is the site of protein synthesis. It
It consists of cellulose in plants. is also known as protein factory.
The cell wall of bacteria is made A Ribosome is of two types based
of peptidoglycan. on the size and sedimentation
(C) Mitochondria : coefficient- (i) 70S Ribosome and
Richard Altman discovered mito- (ii) 80S Ribosome.
chondria in cells but named them (F) Golgi Complex:
bioplast in 1890. It was discovered by Camillo
(D) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) : Golgi in an animal cell in 1898.
It is the largest membrane found in It forms the cell wall and lyso-
the eukaryotic cell. some.
222
 It is called the Traffic Police of III. Leucoplast:
the Cell, because it sort-out the Leucoplast is colourless. It is
proteins and other components found in that part of a plant which
including enzymes, of the cell fails to receive sunlight.
membrane in the same or modified It is mostly found in roots and
form.
underground stems.
It is formed by different types of
(J) Nucleus:
vesicles and microtubule clusters.
(G) Lysosome: Nucleus was discovered by Felice
Discovered by Christian Rene de Fontana and named by Bowman.
Duve in 1955. A thread-like structure located in
Its main function is to devour and nucleoplasm is called Chromatin.
digest outer substances. Chromatin is a nucleoprotein that
It is also called Suicide Bag. is made by a mixture of nucleic
acids and basic protein (Histone).
(H) Centrosome:
IV Genetics
Centrosome was discovered by
The process of transmission of
Edouard Van Beneden in 1883 genetic traits from one generation
and was named in 1888 by Theo- to another is called heredity. It
dor Boveri. is a major factor responsible for
It is found only in animal cells. variations in the characteristics of
individuals.
(I) Plastid:
Greger Johann Mendel is called
Plastid was discovered by Ernst
the Father of genetics.
Haeckel. Mendel chose the garden
It is often found in plant cells. pea 'Pisum sativum' for his
I. Chloroplast: hybridization experiments.
Chloroplast contains a green-co- DNA is the genetic material in
cells.
loured pigment known as chloro-
phyll. Friedrich Miescher discovered
A chloroplast is also known as the DNA in 1869. He called it
kitchen of the cells. 'Nuclein'.
II. Chromoplast: DNA contains 5 carbon sugar
Chromoplast is found with many 'deoxyribose'.
colours like red, yellow, orange, DNA molecules contain
etc. except green. nitrogenous bases called Adenine,
It is found in coloured parts of a Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine.
plant like a flower, pericarp, seeds, DNA conducts all genetic
etc. processes.
223
 DNA regulates protein synthesis. Human species has a total of 23
The fundamental physical and pairs or a total of 46 chromosomes.
functional unit of genetics is a 22 pairs of chromosomes are
gene. homologous in females and males.
Genes are constituted by DNA. They are called Autosomes.
RNA: Full form of RNA is One pair (23rd) of a chromosome
Ribonucleic Acid. The synthesis is not homologous in males and
of RNA from DNA is called females. It is called Heterosomes
Transcription. or Allosomes.

Genetic Diseases and Affected Organs

Disease Impact Carrier
Colour-blindness Red and green colour Women
cannot be recognized
Haemophilia Blood clotting does not Women
occur
Turner Syndrome Infertility (women) —
Klinefelter Syndrome Infertility (men) —
Down Syndrome Feeble minded, slanting —
eyes, protruding tongue,
unusual body structure

Important Animals and Their Conception Period

Animal Conception Period (Near about in days)
Human 270
Cow 280
Buffalo 310
Elephant 620
Goat 150
Sheep 150
Pig 115
Dog 61
Rabit 340
Mouse 21
Lion 110
Blue Whale 360
224
 Plant Kingdom

Flowering Plant or Non-flowering Plants or

Phanerogams Cryptogams

Angiosperm Gymnosperm Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta

Monocotyledons Diocotyledons Bacteria Lichen Fungi Algae

Study of different types of plants and their activity is called Botany.

Theophrastus is called the Father of Botany.

Diseases in Plants Due to Lack of Elements

Disease Elements
Heart rot of sugar beets Boron
Internal cork of Apple Boron
Dieback disease of Citrus Copper
Whiptail disease of Cabbage Molybdenum
Little leaf disease of Citrus Zinc
Khaira disease of Paddy Rice Zinc
Browning disease of Cauliflower Boron
Reclamation disease in cereals and legumes Copper

Some Important Facts Related to Botany

Tallest angiosperm plant in the world Eucalyptus
Tallest tree in the world Sequoia (Gymnosperm)
Smallest (shape) angiosperm plant Wolffia Globosa
Plant having largest leaf Victoria
Biggest seed Lodoicea
Largest flower Rafflesia Arnoldii
Biggest antherozoid Cycas
Biggest ovule Cycas
Smallest seed Orchid
225
 Smallest cell Mycoplasma
Angiosperm plant having minimum Haplopappus Gracilis
chromosome numbers (2n = 4)
Angiosperm plant having maximum Ophioglossum
chromosome numbers (2n = 1266)
Smallest gymnosperm Zamia Pygmaea
Smallest pteridophyte Azolla
Smallest bryophyte Zoopsis
Largest bryophyte Dawsonia
Coffee producing plant Coffea arabica
Opium producing plant Papaver Somniferum

Virus: Bacteria:
Viruses are acellular microscopic The branch of science that deals
organisms that replicate inside the with the study of bacteria is called
living cells. Bacteriology.
Ivanovsky discovered the virus in Bacteria are the simplest microbial
1892. and unicellular proto organisms.
Fungi : Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek,
Mycology is the branch of biology a resident of Holland, first
discovered it in 1683. He is called
concerned with the study of fungi.
the Father of Bacteriology.
Fungi are often found everywhere.
Ehrenberg coined the term
These are achlorophyllous,
'Bacteria' in 1829.
eukaryotic, vascular tissueless
Robert Koch discovered bacteria
thallophytes.
of cholera and tuberculosis.
Lichens: Louis Pasteur discovered
Lichen is an organism formed rabies vaccines, pasteurization
by the combination of algae and and fermentation. Bacterias,
fungi. depending on their different
The fungal partner is involved in shapes, can be classified into the
sexual reproduction with the help following.
of reproductive structures called The main diseases caused by
apothecia. bacteria in plants are:
226
 Bacteria Disease Angiosperm:
Pseudomonas Potato Wilt In this group of plants, the seeds
Solanacearum are embedded in the fruit and thus
Agrobacterium Crown Gall it is different from gymnosperm.
Tumifaciens In this group of plants, root, stem,
Xanthomonas Black Rot of leaf, fruit, flowers and seeds all are
Campestris Cabbage
fully grown.
Xanthomonas Citri Citrus Canker
The presence of flowers and
Gymnosperm:
double fertilization is a unique
It is a group that falls between the
categories of Pteridophytes and feature of these plants.
angiosperms. The seeds of these plants contain
This group consists of plants in cotyledons, based on which
which seeds are formed, but they this group is divided into (1)
remain without cover. The ovules Monocotyledon plants and (II)
or seeds developing out of them
Dicotyledon plants.
are not embedded in any shell,
I. Monocotyledon Plants: Monocot
wall or fruit.
is a group of flowering plants that
They lack an ovary.
The worlds tallest plant Sequoia have only one Cotyledon in their
Sempervirens which is found in seeds.
Redwood Park, California, belongs II. Dicotyledon Plants:
to this group. Their seeds have two cotyledons.

Following are the major diseases caused by Fungi in Plants

Disease Fungi
Late blight of Potato Phytophthora infestans
Wart disease of Potato Synchytrium endobioticum
Early blight of Potato Alternaria Solani
White rust of Crucifer Albugo Candida
Loose smut of wheat Ustilago Tritici
Red rot of Sugarcane Colletotrichum Falcatum
Tikka disease of Groundnut Cercospora Personata
Wilt of Arhar Fusarium Udum
Loose smut of Barley Ustilago Nuda
227
Family Major Plants
Cruciferae Mustard, Radish, Turnip
Malvaceae Ladyfinger, Hibiscus (Shoe flower), Cotton, Jute
Leguminosae Rosewood, Acacia, Catechu, Ashok, Gulmohar, Kachnar,
Shameplant, Shikakai, Fenugreek, Sanai, Tamarind and all
Pulse crops
Asteraceae or Sunflower, Bhringraj, Chrysanthemum, Marigold, Kusum,
Compositae Dahlia, Kush, etc.
Cucurbitaceae Pumpkin, Kheera, Water melon, Cucumis melo (Kharbooza),
Lagenaria Siceraria (Lauki), Trichosanthesanguina
(Chachinda), Momordica Charantia (Karela), Cucumber, etc.
Rosaceae Apples, Almonds, Pears, Strawberries
Rutaceae Lemon, Orange, Sweet Lemon, Wood apple
Solanaceae Datura,Potato, Eggplant, Raspberry, Chilli, Tomato, Tobacco,
Queen of the night, Ashwagandha, Atropa Belladonna

Modification of Stem
Underground Stem Examples
Rhizome Turmeric, Ginger
Tuber Potato
Corm Mistletoe, Saffron
Bulb Onion

Pollination: Tissue: A group of cells that have

The process of transfer of pollen a similar origin and function is
called Tissue.
grains from the Anthrax to the
stigma of the carpel is called Life Process in
Pollination. Pollination is of two Plants
types - (i) Self-Pollination and (ii)
Nutrition:
Cross-Pollination.
Plants are divided into two groups
Fertilization:
on the basis of nutrition.
The cross of male and female
reproductive organs is called A. Autotrophic Plants:
fertilization. B. Miscellaneous or Leguminous
Plant Tissue: Plants :
228
Respiration: the growth of many metabolic
Respiration can be defined as a activities.
catabolic process in which the Auxin, Gibberellin and Cytokinin
absorbed oxygen is used in the are growth promoters while
oxidation of food resulting in the abscisic acid and ethylene are
release of energy.
growth inhibitors.
(4) Reproduction:
Following are the major plant
Each organism has the ability to
hormones.
produce its progeny.This process
Note- Fluorescence is called flowering
is called reproduction. It has hormones. They are formed in
mainly three methods (i) Sexual, the leaf, but help in blooming of
(ii) Asexual and (iii) Vegetative. a flower.
In bacteria, fungi and algae Ecosystem
vegetative reproduction occurs
by budding and fission. In terms of composition and
Photosynthesis: function, the combined units
In the process of photosynthesis, of different organisms and
green parts of plants absorb environments are called
solar energy and carbon dioxide Ecosystem.
(CO 2 ) from the air and form The term Ecosystem was first
carbohydrates by absorbing water
used by a scientist, named A.G.
(H2O) from the soil and releasing
Tansley.
oxygen as a by-product.
Light The ecosystem consists of two
6CO2 + 12 H2O Chlorophyll
components (a) Biotic components
C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2 (b) Abiotic components
A. Biotic Components are divided
Plant Hormones:
into three parts - 1. Producer, 2.
Plant hormones are also called
Consumer, and 3. Decomposer
phytohormones.
1. Producer: Those components that
Plant hormones are special organic
make their own food are called
compounds produced naturally producers such as green plants.
in plants, which after transport 2. Consumer: Consumer mainly
reach other organs in very small consumes food produced by the
amounts, and affect and regulate producer. There are three types of
229
 consumers - (i) Primary Consumer, The ultimate source of energy in
(ii) Secondary Consumer and (ii) any ecosystem is the Sun.
Tertiary Consumer. The entire dry mass per unit area
(i) Primary Consumer: It includes of living beings in an ecosystem
herbivorous animals, who depend is called its Biomass.
on plants for food, such as cows, The biomass of the primary
goats, rabbits, etc. producer of terrestrial ecosystems
(ii) Secondary Consumer: Under is more than each stage of
this category those animals come, consumers of the food chain.
which consume herbivorous In the terrestrial ecosystem, the
animals i.e, primary consumers pyramid of biomass is up-right.
as their food, such as Frogs, Foxes, The pyramid of the biomass in
Wolves, etc. the grassland is up-right.
(ii) Tertiary Consumers: It includes The pyramid of the biomass
lower organisms that use primary of aquatic ecosystem (pond) is
and secondary consumers as their inverted in shape.
food, such as Snakes, Lions, At each level of the food chain,
Cheetahs, etc. the consumer converts only 10 per
3. Decomposer: This includes those cent of the accumulated energy
lower organisms which decompose into his body weight.
(rotten) dead producers and The transfer of energy in any
consumers, such as Bacteria, ecosystem is unidirectional.
Fungi, etc. Ten per cent law related to the
transfer of energy in ecosystems
B. Abiotic Component: It can be
has been given by Lindeman
divided into the following three
(1942).
parts –
Primary producers of any
1. Climatic Components: like heat,
ecosystem get the highest amount
water and air, etc.
of energy. The primary consumer
2. Inorganic Substances: such as
nitrogen, carbon, calcium, sulphur, gets less energy than the producer
phosphorus and water etc. while the final consumer gets the
3. Organic Substances: including least energy.
proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, Pyramid of Energy is always up-
etc. right.
230
 Often there are a large number of of 30 cm, 2.5 m and 3.5 m
primary producers in a food chain. respectively.
Microorganisms in the aquatic Liver:
It is the largest gland in human
environment are called plankton.
body.
Continuous energy is required in
It converts an excess amount of
an ecosystem.
glucose into glycogen and also
Key Organs for converts glycogen into glucose
Digestion when needed.
The liver converts excess protein
Digestion in Stomach: into carbohydrates.
As soon as food reaches the Fibrinogen protein is produced in
stomach through the oesophagus,
the liver, which helps to form a
peristalsis starts from the stomach
blood clot with vitamin K.
towards the pyloric part.
The liver synthesizes bile.
Gastric juice contains enzymes
Pancreas:
called pepsin and renin.
The pancreas is considered as the
Pepsin breaks down proteins
second largest gland in the human
and converts them into simpler
substances, peptones and protease. body.
Renin helps in the digestion of It has features of both Endocrine
milk proteins. and Exocrine glands.
Digestion in Small Intestine: Insulin :
Digestion of chyme or liquid food Insulin was discovered by Banting
flowing from the stomach is done and Best.
in the small intestine.
Insulin controls the action of
The small intestine is mainly
formed of three parts, duodenum, glycogen formation by glucose.
jejunum and ileum, with lengths Insulin deficiency causes diabetes.

Serial No. Blood group Antigen Antibody

1. A A Anti- B or b
2. B B Anti- A or a
3. AB A and B None
4. O None Both a and b
According to Bernstein, ABO blood group is a genetic characteristic of
human.

231
 Blood Groups of Offspring
Mother-Father Blood Possible Impossible
Group
O×O O A, B, AB
O×A O,A B,AB
A×A
B×B
O×B O,B A, AB
A×B O,A,B,AB -
A × AB A,B O, AB
A × AB
B × AB
AB × AB A, B, AB O

Lungs:
Excretory System
The exhalation of carbon dioxide
Excretion: The removal of toxic formed as a result of oxidation of
wastes from the body of organisms carbohydrates in the cells of the
body is performed mainly in the
is called excretion. In other words,
lungs during respiration process.
excretion refers to the removal of
The lungs also emit volatile
nitrogenous excretory substances
components of certain foods such
such as ammonia, urea, uric acid,
as garlic, onions and some spices.
etc.
Liver:
Following are the primary Liver cells contribute significantly
excretory organs in humans- to the excretion by converting
1. Skin, 2. Lungs, 3. Liver, 4. nitrogenous substances of excess
Kidneys amino acids and ammonia of
Skin: blood, etc. into urea.
Sweat glands of the skin excrete Kidney:
water, CO2, urea and salts in the The kidney is a bean-shaped organ
of dark red colour.
form of sweat.
In humans and other mammals, it
The oily glands of the skin secrete
is present in a pair.
sebum.
232
 Its outer part is called Cortex and Hypothalamus: Its main function
the inner part is called Medulla. is to control the hormones secreted
Each kidney is made up of about by endocrine glands. Thus, it
10,00,000 renal tubules called contains the centres which control
Nephrons. hunger, thirst, temperature, love,
hatred, etc. It also regulates
Nervous System
feelings of anger, aggression,
(a) Brain: The brain of man is safe emotions, pain, happiness and
in the cranial cavity of the skull. pleasure. It controls the rhythm of
The human brain weighs about sleep and daily activities.
1.3–1.4 kg. Cerebellum : This is located in
The brain has three major parts, the upper part of the hindbrain.
viz., forebrain, midbrain and It is the second-largest part of
hindbrain. the hindbrain after cerebrum.
The cerebrum, thalamus and Its function is to maintain the
hypothalamus are part of the balance of the body and control the
forebrain. contraction of voluntary muscles.
Cerebellum, medulla oblongata It coordinates all skilful actions.
and pons Varolii are parts of the Medulla Oblongata: This is the
hindbrain. lower part of the hind brain, and
The cerebrum is the largest part of is often called only the medulla.
the brain. The main functions of the
medulla oblongata are to control
Cerebrum: It is the centre of
heart beating rate and intensity,
intelligence, will power, voluntary
respiration rate, food ingestion,
motions, knowledge, learning,
vomiting, coughing, sneezing,
memory, speech and thinking. It
hiccups, taste, secretion of saliva,
is an analysis and coordination hearing balance and movement of
centre of inspiration derived from the tongue.
the senses. II. Peripheral Nervous System: It
Thalamus: It gives the feeling of consists of nerves emanating from
heat, pain, touch, etc. the central nervous system.
233
 There are two types of peripheral or voice box, trachea, bronchi,
nerves-(1), Cranial nerves related bronchioles and lungs, etc.
to the brain and (2) Spinal nerves Through lungs, gases are inhaled
related to the spinal cord. and exhaled. It is the most
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves important part of the human
and 31 pairs of spinal nerves in the respiratory system. Hence, it is
human body. called pulmonary respiration.
III. Autonomic Nervous System: Endocrine System
The Autonomic Nervous System
The gland consists of cells, tissues
(ANS) is that part of the peripheral
or organs whose cells synthesize
nervous system that regulates and
and secrete a substance. These are
controls the functions of visceral three types in vertebrate animals –
organs. Some of it is made up of (I) Exocrine Glands: These are duct
cranial nerves and some of spinal glands.
nerves. Secreted materials from it flow
Autonomic Nervous System can into the ducts and are released on
be divided into two parts - the surface of the corresponding
1. Sympathetic Nervous System epithelial layer. Example- Milk
gland, sweat gland, lacrimal gland,
2. Parasympathetic Nervous
mucous gland, salivary gland, etc.
System
(II) Endocrine Glands: These are
Respiratory System ductless glands.
Secreted substances or hormones
Combustion of glucose with
from it released into the tissue
oxygen releases energy, water
material reach the blood cells and
and carbon dioxide. The process
circulate throughout the body,
of inhalation of oxygen and
such as pituitary gland, thyroid,
exhalation of carbon dioxide is
parathyroid, adrenal, pineal and
called respiration.
thymus gland.
The respiratory system consists (III) Mixed Glands: It includes both
of all the organs through which exocrine and endocrine types
air passes in and out are nose and of tissue or cells—for example,
nasal passages, pharynx, larynx pancreas.
234
Major endocrine glands and in the development of secondary
hormones secreted from them: sexual traits of the female.
Pituitary Gland: (b) Progesterone: It induces the
It is located in the sella turcica in development of symptoms
the sphenoid bone of the cranium. necessary for pregnancy.
It weighs between 0.5 and 1 gram. (c) Relaxin: In pregnancy, these are
Many of its hormones control secreted from corpus luteum and
other endocrine glands. It is thus
placenta. This hormone softens
known as the Master Gland.
the pubic symphysis of the pelvic
Thyroxine Deficiency Disease:
girdle, making the cervix wider
a. Myxoedema: This disease occurs
and facilitating childbirth.
in adults due to low secretion of
thyroid. It dramatically reduces 2. Testes:
the metabolic rate, i.e., BMR. Cells of Leydig secrete male
Hence, appearing the symptoms hormones, Androgens from testes.
of premature ageing. The primary androgen is
b. Cretinism: This disease is caused testosterone. It is called the
due to hyposecretion of thyroid Growth Hormone.
in the embryonic stage or even in It promotes the development of
childhood. male sexual characteristics and
c. Common Goitre or Simple sexual behaviour.
Goitre: Thyroid gland enlargement Nutrients
is called goitre disease; a lack of
iodine in food causes this disease.1. Vitamins:
d. Hashimoto's Disease: This Funk discovered vitamins.
disease occurs due to excessive Vitamins are complex organic
compounds.
hyposecretion or damage to the
Vitamins control the actions of
thyroid gland due to ageing,
catalysts in metabolic reactions in
injury, infection, surgery, etc.
the body.
D. Gonads:
About 20 vitamins have been
1. Ovary: It secretes the following
known so far. These are in two
hormones – categories - (i) Water-soluble
(a) Estrogen: It is called female (Vitamin B,C) and (ii) Fat-soluble
growth hormone. It is helpful (Vitamin A,D,E,K).
235
 Vitamin Disease due to Deficiency Sources
Vitamin A Nightblindness, Carrots, Green Vegetables,
(Retinol) xerophthalmia, infection, Milk, Butter, Egg, Liver, etc.
inchanges
Vitamin B1 Beri-Beri, growth retardation Cereals, Legumes, Soybeans,
(Thiamine) Milk, etc.
Vitamin B2 Cheilosis Paneer, Egg, Green Vegetables,
(Riboflavin) Milk, Meat, Yeast, etc.
Vitamin B3 Pellagra Yeast, Meat, Fish, Egg, Milk,
(Niacin) Legumes, etc.
Vitamin B5 Skin disease retarded growth, Egg, Milk, Meat, Groundnut, etc.
(Pantothenic Acid) white hair
Vitamin B6 Anaemia, skin diseases, muscle Milk, Yeast, Cereals, Meat, etc.
(Pyridoxine) cramps
Vitamin B7 skin diseases, hair fall Wheat, Egg, Vegetables/Meat,
(Biotin) Fruits, etc.
Vitamin B9 Anemia, retarded growth Vegetables, Pulses, Yeast, Meat,
(Folic Acid) Egg, etc.
Vitamin B12 Pernicious Anaemia, Nervous Milk, Meat, Fish, Egg, Intestinal
(Cynocobalamin) system disturbances Bacteria, etc
Vitamin C Scurvy C i t r u s F r u i t s , To m a t o e s ,
(Ascorbic Acid) Almond, Vegetables, etc.
Vitamin D R i c k e t s ( i n C h i l d r e n ) Butter, Cod Liver Oil, Egg, etc.
(Calciferol) Osteomalacia (in Adults) and Sunlight.
Vitamin E Lack of reproductive capacity, O i l , C e r e a l s , E g g - y o l k ,
(Tocopherol) weak genitalia and muscles Soybean, etc.
Vitamin K Impaired Blood Clotting Green Leafy Vegetables, Egg,
(Naphthoquinone Soybean, Intestinal Bacteria,
or Phylloquinone) etc.

Know This Also

Nutrients are compounds in foods essential to life and health providing us with
energy, the building blocks for repair and growth and substances necessary to
regulate chemical processes.
There are six major nutrients- Carbohydrates, Lipids (Fats), Proteins, Vitamins,
Minerals, Water.
236
 Diseases Caused by Bacteria
Disease Carrier Bacteria Affected Limb
Tetanus Clostridium Tetani Nervous System
Typhoid Salmonella Typhi Intestine
Cholera Vibrio Cholerae Intestine
Pneumonia Streptococcus Lungs
Pneumonae
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Tuber- Lungs
culosis
Plague Yersinia Pestis Lungs, between both
Legs
Gonorrhoea Neisseria Gonorrhoeae Urinary Tract
Diphtheria Corynebacterium Diph- Trachea
theriae
Hooping cough (Pertussis) Bordetella Pertussis Respiratory System
Leprosy Mycobacterium Leprae Nervous System,
Skin
Syphilis Treponema Pallidum Reproductive Organ

Diseases Caused by Virus

Disease Carrier Virus Affected Limb
AIDS HIV Immune System
Polio Poliovirus Neck, Spine and Ner-
vous System
Influenza Orthomyxo viruses Respiratory Tract
Smallpox Variola Virus Whole-body (skin)
Chickenpox Varicella Virus Whole-body (skin)
Measles Paramyxovirus Whole-body (skin)
Rabies Rhabdo Virus Nervous System
Herpes Herpes Virus Skin
Hepatitis B hepatitis B Virus Liver
*AIDS: Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
237
 The cause of amoebiasis or Penicillin is the first antibiotic.
diarrhoea is a protozoan called Penicillin was discovered by
Entamoeba Histolytica. Alexander Fleming.
The cause of sleeping sickness Sir Ronald Ross discovered that
Malaria is caused by unicellular
is a protozoan parasite called
protozoan 'Plasmodium' and
Trypanosoma which is generated
female anopheles mosquito
by the bite of Tse-Tse fly.
functions as a Carrier of
Glaucoma or trachoma is the Plasmodium.
disease of eye. Laveran discovered the malaria
Chemotherapy is used to treat parasite 'Plasmodium' in the blood
cancer. of a person affected by malaria.
Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) Due to malaria, red blood cells
is associated with diarrhoea (RBC) are destroyed and blood
therapy. deficiency occurs.
SARS is an acronym for Severe The female anopheles mosquito
Acute Respiratory Syndrome. is the carrier of malaria.

Diseases Caused by Protozoa

Disease Protozoa Affected Limb
Malaria Plasmodium RBC and Spleen
Pyorrhoea Entamoeba gingivalis Gum
Sleeping sickness Trypanosoma Gambiense Brain
Amoebiasis (Dysentery) Entamoeba Histolytica Intestine
Kala-azar Leishmania Donovani Bone Marrow
Diarrhoea Giardia Intestinalis Small Intestine

Diseases Caused by Fungus

Disease Fungus
Asthma Aspergillus Fumigatus
Athlete's foot Tinea Pedis and Trichophyton
Baldness Tinea Capitis
Ringworm Trichophyton and Microsporum

238
 The organ affected by malaria is which bones become weak and
Spleen. brittle.
Chloroquine, Camoquin, etc. are Food poisoning is caused by the
used in the treatment of malaria. bacteria 'Salmonella Bacilli'.
Dengue is a viral disease caused by In osteoporosis disease, the Bone
Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus Mineral Density decreases and
and Culex fatigue mosquitoes. the micro-structure of the bone is
Dengue causes severe pain in destroyed.
bones and joints, along with a high Poisoning from the bacterium
fever. 'Clostridium Botulinum' is called
Dengue is also known as botulism.
Breakbone fever. Itai-Itai disease is caused by
The number of platelets in the cadmium poisoning.
blood of a patient suffering from Phenylketonuria is a type of
dengue decreases. hereditary disease. The body of a
Plasmodium vivax is a digenetic person affected by phenylketonuria
animal. is not able to break down the
The life cycle of Plasmodium amino acid 'Phenylalanine'.
vivax is completed in two hosts - In phenylketonuria, phenylalanine
human and female anopheles. accumulates in the blood.
Plasmodium vivax causes In phenylketonuria, the human
malaria. brain is damaged and a state of
mental insensitivity occurs.
It lives as an endoparasite in red
Diphtheria, pertussis (whooping
blood cells and liver cells. cough) and tetanus disease caused
The BMD test is used to by Corynebacterium Diphtheriae,
identify Osteoporosis Disease. Bordetella Pertussis, and
Osteoporosis is a bone disease in Clostridium Tetani, respectively.

Disease and Related Vaccines

Disease Vaccines
Diphtheria, Whooping Cough (Pertussis) and Tetanus DPT
Diphtheria and Tetanus DT
Dog Bite Rabies Vaccine
TB B.C.G. Vaccine
Polio OPV
Smallpox Smallpox Vaccine
239
 The B.C.G. vaccine is applied Minimata disease is caused by an
immediately after childbirth to excess of mercury (Hg) in the
prevent Tuberculosis. body.
Golden Hour HIV:
Arsenic-74 is used in detecting AIDS is a viral disease.
tumours, Sodium-24 in detecting HIV virus is the cause of AIDS
blood clots in the circulatory disease which affects white blood
system, Cobalt-60 and Gold- cells.
198 in the treatment of cancer, In AIDS, the body's immunity is
Iodine-131 in the treatment of reduced.
thyroid disorders and Carbon-14 is AIDS is transmitted through sex,
used to detect residues of organisms through unsafe intercourse and
(Plants & animals). from an infected mother to infants
Radioactive phosphorus (P 32 ) through breast-feeding.
and cobalt 60 are used for the Japanese Encephalitis:
treatment of Leukemia. Domestic pigs and wild sparrows
Leukaemia is a cancer of the are carriers of the virus of Japanese
body's blood-forming tissues. encephalitis.
The presence of albumin in the Infection of this virus is done by
urine and its effect is expected to Culex mosquito in humans and
cause kidney failure. animals.
Jaundice:
Other Diseases
The liver is affected by jaundice.
In jaundice, yellow coloured
Haemophilia:
bilirubins spreads throughout
Haemophilia is a sex-linked the body by staying in the blood,
genetic disease. causing the skin and eyes to turn
Haemophilia is also known as yellow.
Bleeder's Disease. Smallpox:
In patients with haemophilia, Smallpox is caused by the variola
blood does not clot on the injury virus.
for a long time. Smallpox is a highly contagious
disease.
Haemophilia is also known as
Smallpox spreads through the
"Royal Disease" due to its origin patient's skin, sputum, air, cloth,
from Queen Victoria. etc.
Minamata: Smallpox vaccine was invented by
Minimata is a neurological disease. Edward Jenner.
240
 8 Science & Technology
D. Variable Energy Cyclotron
Indian Nuclear Research Centre (VECC):
Tarapur plant in Maharashtra
The Atomic Energy Commission commissioned in 1969 with the
was established by the Government help of America. This is the first
of India in 1948. nuclear power plant of India.
Dr. Homi J. Bhabha was the first Rawatbhata Nuclear Power
chairman of the commission. Station located in Rajasthan was
established in 1975 with the help
The Prime Minister is the ex-officio
of Kanada.
chairperson of the commission.
Other key Units of the Department
Main Centres of Nuclear Research
of Atomic Energy –
and Development :
Institute Name Place
A. Atomic Research Centre (BARC) :
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Atomic Minerals Hyderabad
Directorate for Exploratio
is located in Trombay (Mumbai). and Research
Dr. Bhabha founded the Atomic
Guru Jal Board Mumbai
Energy Foundation centre, in
1954 and after his death in 1966, Nuclear Fuel Complex Hyderabad
the centre is now known as Uranium Corporation of Jaduguda
BHABHA Atomic Research India Limited
Centre. Indian Rare Earth Mumbai
B. Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Limited
Research (IGCAR) Nuclear Power Mumbai
This centre was established in 1971 Corporation of India
at Kalpakkam in TamilNadu. Limited
The Fast Breeder Reactor was # Note - Apsara-U, Apsara, Cirus,
being installed at this centre using Dhruva, Kamini, Purnima-I,
mixed MOX (PuO2 + UO2) fuel of
Purnima-II, Purnima-III, Zerlina,
Plutonium and Uranium.
C. Kalpakkam Mini-Reactor: are the names of BARC nuclear
It is also called KAMINI using reactors.
the acronym. Nuclear Test :
KAMINI Thorium is the first India conducted its first nuclear
reactor in the world to use test on 18th May, 1974 at Pokhran
Uranium-233 fuel cycle. (Jaisalmer, Rajasthan).
241
 The bomb had a capacity of 12 kg Trishul
TNT. It is a surface-to-air missile.
This test was named Smiling Its firing range is 9 kms.
Buddha. In 2008, the Trishul Missile
development program was
A second nuclear test was
conducted in Pokhran on 11 and launched.
13 May 1998 which was named Nag:
Shakti-98. It is an anti-tank guided missile.
The firepower of this missile is 4
Indian Defence km.
Technology It works on the Fire and Forget
Principle, once fired, it does not
Defence Research and need to be redirected.
Development Organization BrahMos:
It has been developed under a joint
(DRDO) was established in 1958.
project between India and Russia.
Prithvi
Its firing range is 290 km which
It is a surface-to-surface ballistic has been increased to 450-500 km
missile. Prithvi-I and Prithvi-II in its later version.
have a firing range of 150 kms and It moves at almost thrice the speed
250 kms respectively. of sound.
Prithvi missiles are based on fluid Other Defence Armaments &
propellants. Equipment:
Dhanush : Battle Tank Arjun :
It is Prithvi-II missile's naval This battle tank has been developed
orientation. by D.R.D.O.
Its firing range is 350 kms. It can also work in the dark.
It is a surface-to-surface missile.
Its maximum speed is 70 kms per
Akash:
hour.
It is a medium-range surface-to- T-90 Bhishma Tank :
air missile.
It is a missile launcher with a firing
Its firing range is about 30 kms.
range of 4 kms.
Agni :
It can also protect itself from
It is a surface-to-surface medium-
landmines laid.
range ballistic missile. Tejas:
There are five categories of Agni Tejas is the first indigenously
missile - Agni-I, Agni-II, Agni-III, built light combat aircraft of 4th
Agni. - IV and Agni-V. generation.
242
 It has been developed by Hindustan
z The Earth rotates from west to
Aeronautics Limited (HAL). east. In order to take advantage
Dhruv :
of rotation in this direction,
It is an advanced light helicopter
with twin engines. artificial satellites are launched
It has been developed by Hindustan from the west direction to the
Aeronautics Limited. east.
Pinaka : z Polygraph machine is used as
It is a multi-barrel rocket a lie detector machine.
launcher.
z The Council of Scientific and
It is named after Lord Shankara’s
bow ‘Pinaka’. Industrial Research (CSIR)
It has 12 rockets in its tubes which was established in 1942. Its
can be fired within a gap of 44 headquarter is located at New
seconds with a payload of 100 kg. Delhi.
Ballistic Missiles :
z The Prime Minister of India is
Ballistic missiles are applied
the ex-officio President of the
with the necessary force during
CSIR.
launching but are dropped by
gravity to hit the target.
Indian Space Program
Other Important Points
The world entered into the space
z Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam is said age with the successful launch of
to be the father of Indian Missile the Sputnik-1 satellite (USSR) in
Technology. 1957.
z Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam is the The Indian National Committee
first President of India who flew for Space Research (INCOSPAR)
for 30 minutes in Sukhoi fighter was formed in India in 1962.
aircraft of the Indian Air Force. The chairman of this committee
z The first nuclear explosion was was a famous space scientist Dr.
conducted by the United States Vikram Sarabhai.
in July 1945 which name was He is called the Father of Indian
Space Program.
'Trinity'.
The Indian Space Research
z Aryabhatta was the first Organization (ISRO) was
satellite launched by India. established on 15th August, 1969,
z Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre after restructuring.
(Thumba village) was established Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre,
in Thiruvananthapuram because Thiruvanan-thapuram (VSSC):
The centre is responsible for the
it is located on the geomagnetic rocket research and launch vehicle
equator. development projects.
243
UR Rao Satellite Centre, Bengaluru Cartosat-1 is India's first remote
(URSC) : sensing satellite, capable of
URSC carries out the design and providing orbital stereoscopic
development of satellite projects images.
at this centre.
SHAR Centre, Sriharikota: Important Facts
It is also known as Satish Dhawan Sputnik-I was the first satellite
Space Centre. launched in the space by the
This centre is responsible former Soviet Union.
for providing launch Base Sputnik-II was the first satellite
Infrastructure for the Indian Space to take living dog 'Lyca' into
Programme. space.
Yuri Gagarin of the former
Master Control Facility, Hassan
Soviet Union was the first man
(MCF): to enter space.
This centre is located at Hassan Yuri Gagarin orbit the Earth on
district of Karnataka. 12 th April, 1961, in a vehicle
The centre monitors and controls called Vostok.
all the activities of the satellite in Valentina Tereshkova of the
the orbit. former Soviet Union became the
Major Indian Satellites: first female cosmonaut.
Aryabhata is the first Indian Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to
satellite built with indigenous land on the lunar surface.
technology. The first experimental spacecraft
was Soyuz 4.
It was launched from the
Neil Armstrong was the first
'KOSMOS-3M' launch vehicle on human to step on the moon.
19th April, 1975 from the Kapustin On 20th July, 1969, Neil Armstrong
Yar Space Centre of the former got this achievement when he
SOVIET Union. reached to moon by Apollo II
Geo-Synchronous Satellite: Spacecraft.
It is also called stationary. Neil Armstrong was followed by
These satellites revolve in a his co-astronaut Buzz Aldrin who
circular orbit. also stepped on the moon.
At an altitude of 36000 km, they On 3rd April, 1984, the first Indian
revolve around the Earth once in to go into space, was Squadron
24 hours. Leader Rakesh Sharma. He
The Earth revolves on its axis in 24
hours, so geostationary satellites along with two Soviet cosmonauts
appear to be stationary relative to went on a space trip in a Soyuz
the Earth. T-11 spacecraft.
INSAT and GSAT series satellites
are placed in the Geo-Synchronous Smt. Indira Gandhi asked
Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma
Satellite category.
244
 at Soviet Space Centre, "How With this achievement, India
became the first country to reach
does India look from space?" Mars in its first attempt.
Then Rakesh Sharma replied that Chandrayaan-II :
“Saare Jahaan Se Achcha” or India's Chandrayaan-II mission
“Better than the Whole World”. was successfully launched by
Kalpana Chawla, a woman GSLV Mark III M1 rocket from the
astronaut of Indian origin, was the second launch pad of Satish Dhawan
first woman to enter space. She Space Centre at Sriharikota, SHAR
on 22nd July, 2019.
died in an accident on February
This was the first operational
1, 2003, when her spacecraft flight of GSLV Mark-III rocket.
'Columbia' (Mission STS107) Chandrayaan-II is the first mission
was destroyed shortly after the directed to reach the south pole of
entry into atmosphere on return. the moon for research.
Different Names of Astronauts Chandrayaan-II mission consists
of an Orbiter, Lander and a Rover.
The Lander was named as
America Russia China India "Vikram" after Vikram Sarabhai,
the father of the Indian Space
(Astronaut) (Cosmonaut) (Taikonaut) (Vyomanaut)
Program, while the Rover was
Chandrayaan-I : named 'Pragyan'.
Chandrayaan-I is India’s first the lander lost contact with ISRO
mission to the moon. on 7th of September 2019.
Satellite Launch Vehicle, SLV-3 :
On 22nd October, 2008, the Moon
On 18th July, 1980, the SLV-3 was
mission was launched by the successfully tested.
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle With this achievement, India
(PSLV-C11). became the sixth member country
After America, Russia, China, the of the Space Club after Russia,
European Union and Japan, India America, France, Japan and China.
is the sixth country that has been It was a four-stage simple-calibre
successful in sending a vehicle to launch vehicle.
the moon. Solid fuel (propellant) is used in it.
Mangalyaan: Augmented Satellite Launch
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle-ASLV :
It is an augmented form of SLV-3.
Vehicle PSLV-25 has successfully It is constructed for carrying
launched the vehicle from the satellites up to the weight of 150
Satish Dhawan Space Centre in kg and placing them in the Earth's
Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh on lower orbit.
5th November, 2013. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle -
PSLV :
On 24th September, 2014, at 8 am,
it (fully indigenous) entered into It is a four-stage polar launch
the orbit of Mars. vehicle.
245
 In PSLV, solid propellants are used from the Greek language meaning
in the first and third stages and production of materials at
liquid propellants are used in the minimum temperature.
Temperature below 0 to - 150 ° C
second and fourth stages.
are called cryogenic temperature.
GeoStationary or GeoSynchronous
Hydrogen (at –253°C) and Oxygen
Satellite Launch Vehicle-GSLV :
(at –183°C) is used as fuel in
It is a Geosynchronous or cryogenic engines. Since fuel
Geostationary Satellite Launch is used in an optimum state, it is
Vehicle. It is a three-stage called a cryogenic engine.
satellite launch vehicle using Cryogenic engines generate a large
solid propellants in the first stage, amount of energy.
the liquid propellant in the second In a cryogenic engine, the fuel
phase and cryogenic engine in the ignition rate can be controlled.
third phase. In this engine, much force is
produced per unit load of the
Cryogenic technology uses liquid
propellant due to which the vehicle
Hydrogen (-253 ° C) and liquid gets more thrust.
Oxygen (-183 ° C) as propellants After America, Japan, France,
at extremely low temperatures. China and Russia, India is the
Cryogenic Technology: sixth country that has successfully
The word cryogenic is derived tested cryogenic technology.

Important for Exam Point of View

z GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation-GAGAN: ISRO and Airports
Authority of India (AAI) have launched GPS for Indian Airspace. The
supporting land promotion guidelines have implemented the GAGAN
project as a satellite-based augmentation mechanism.
z ‘Bhuvan’ is a software developed by the Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO).
z It will allow the terrain of India to be seen on Internet in the form of three-
dimensional (3D) images.
z Like Google Earth and Wikimapia, heights of different terrain can be viewed
through varied heights.
z Cassini is a robotic spacecraft launched by NASA to study Saturn and its
satellites.
z Challenger, Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavor, etc. are
NASA’s retired space shuttles.
z The Galileo Project is a multi-satellite operation project of the European
Space Agency (ESA) and the European Union (EU), like the Global
Positioning System, GPS of the US and GLONASS of Russia.

246
 Specific Facts Related Space Missions
Fact Related INfo
Sputnik-I First satellite in the space by Soviet
Union
Sputnik-II First satellite to take living dog
'Laika'
Yuri Gagarin (USSR) First human to enter space
He used the vehicle called Vostok.

Valentina Tereshkova (USSR) First Female cosmonaut

Neil Armstrong First Human to step on the moon in
July 1969
Rakesh Sharma First Indian to go to space

Kalpana Chawla First Indian Origin Woman to enter

space
SLV-3 India's first indigenous satellite
launch vehicle
Bhuvan A web based 3D satellite imagery
tool which is the Indian incarnation
of Google Earth
Antrix It deals with the Commercialization
of space products developed by
ISRO
Mars Mission of India India is the only one country who
has reached to the Mars in its first
attempt

Different Names of Astronauts

America Russia China India

Astronaut Cosmonaut Taikonaut Vyomanaut

247
 9 Computer
An electronic machine that signs that are used to convey
calculates a large scale of data is language and meaning are called
called Computer. Character, i.e. a, b, c, d, 0, 1, 2,
Programme – The instructions on 3, #, $ 1 < >, etc.
which the computer works are Types of Computer
called Programme. Micro Computer :
Microprocessors are used in
Input Data
microcomputer.
Microcomputer is also called P.C.
Data Processing (Personal Computer)
PC is divided into following
Output Information categories.
(i) Desktop Computer
Data : Data is a set of raw (ii) Laptop Computer
facts, figures and statistics from (iii) Palmtop Computer
which meaningful information is (iv) Note Book Computer
obtained after processing. (v) Tablet Computer
Processing : The collection, Mini-Computer :
manipulation and processing of Mini-computers are used for
collected data for the required use payroll, accounting and scientific
experiments, etc.
is known as data processing.
Mainframe Computer :
Bit : Bit is the smallest unit of
Mainframe computers are used
computer memory.
for server computers in large
In the bit memory, the data is
companies and offices.
stored in the binary form 0 or 1.
On the mainframe computer,
Byte : A byte is a standard unit
multiple users can log in
of computer memory.
simultaneously.
A byte consists of 8 bits to store
Supercomputer :
any letter in the memory. Supercomputer is a well-connected
Character : In addition to number group of high-quality computers
248
 mounted on high steel shelves in Parts of Computer
which several microprocessors 1. C.P.U. : The term Central
work together. Processing Unit has its acronym as
Supercomputers can solve C.P.U. This is the main hardware
any problem of the computer of the computer.
immediately. C.P.U. is also called the brain of
Units such as gigaflops, teraflops the computer.
and petaflops are used to Memory Unit : A memory or
describe the performance of the memory unit is that part of a
supercomputer. computer through which the
In a Supercomputer, billions storage and instructions and
and trillions of calculations are retrieval of data are carried out.
processed within seconds. Memory Capacity is measured in
Supercomputers are used in byte, megabyte, kilobyte, gigabyte
meteorological research, nuclear or terabyte.
weapons, quantum physics and (A) RAM (Random Access Memory)
study of chemicals, etc. It is the main memory of the
Digital Computer : computer.
A digital computer converts data No sequence is followed by RAM
and program into binary form in accessing information.
0 and 1 and converts them into RAM is a volatile memory.
electronic form. The capacity or size of RAM is
Analog Computer : 256 MB, 512 MB, 1 GB, 2 GB,
Analog computers continue to etc.
receive information in the form (B) ROM- (Read Only Memory)
of signal that is converted and ROM memory can only be read.
displayed as data.
ROM is a permanent memory.
Quantum Computer :
A computer that is based on Motherboard - The motherboard
quantum mechanics is called is the main Printed Circuit Board
Quantum Computer. (PCB) where each plug of
Quantum bits or Q bits can encode computer is plugged.
more information than traditional CPU, RAM, etc. are organised
bits. inside the Motherboard.
249
Input Devices : The image displayed on the monitor
All devices which are used to is made up of thousands of small
enter data and instructions into coloured dots (.) which are called
the computer are called Input Pixels.
Devices. There are three types of monitors-
A. Keyboard : A keyboard is the (1) CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
main and the most important input (2) LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
device. (3) LED (Light Emitting Diode)
A keyboard is a device that has B. Printer : The result obtained from
keys similar to a typewriter. computer is printed on paper and
Text, number symbol, etc. are used given to the user permanently.
as input into a computer through There are many types of printers
the keyboard. such as impact printer, DOT
B. Mouse : A computer mouse is matrix printer, inkjet printer, and
used to select text, icons, files and laser printer.
folders in the graphical interface Computer Hardware : Hardware
by controlling the cursor. is that part of computer that we
C. Scanner : Through this, the shape can touch or see.
or written information on a page Computer Software : Software
can be scanned and processed as is an information, command or
input directly into the computer. method on which a computer's
A hard copy can be converted to hardware functions.
soft copy through a scanner. System Software :
D. OMR (Optical Mark Reader) - Programs in the computer run
OMR scanner checks the presence with the help of the operating
system such as Linux, Windows
of pencil and pen marks on the
7, Windows 8, Windows 10.
OMR sheet.
Optical Fibre : Optical Fibre is
Output Devices:
a very thin fibre made of glass,
These hardware devices are used plastic or silica.
to display, project or physically Optical fibre works on the principle
produce computer information. of complete internal reflection of
light.
A. Monitor - The monitor is also
Optical fibre is suitable for long
called as Visual Display Unit. distance communication.
250
 Wi-Fi, Wireless Fidelity : Wi-Fi Web Page : A Web Page contains
is a wireless technology of Local a repository of information in the
Area Network. form of text, picture, video, audio
Modem : and animation.
A Modem is an abbreviation of Web Browser : It is a client
Modulator and Demodulator. program in which all types of
The computer generates a digital websites and web pages are
signal while only an analog signal available and can be opened at
can be sent over telephone. www.
Video Streaming : By video Home Page : The first page of any
streaming, video and audio can website is called Home Page.
be seen and listened to instantly World Wide Web : The World
on internt. Wide Web is a web of information
Through the downloading process, sources. It is also known as www
various softwares and games can or web. This application was
be downloaded via internet. invented by Tim Berners Lee.
In online shopping, we can E-mail : Currently, E-mail is the
purchase or sell items through fastest medium of exchanging
internet while sitting at home. information.
Major Internet Glossaries : Important Facts Related to
Website : It is a group of related Computer:
web pages. Charles Babbage made the first
To view a website, an internet computer in 1837.
address is required which is called Charles Babbage is called the
URL (Uniform Resource Locator). Father of Computer.
URL (Uniform Resource The inventor of the electronic
Locator) : A unique address computer is Dr. Alan M. Turing.
expressing the name of the server
Computer literacy means being
on the internet is called a unique
able to use a computer.
address URL.
The electronic path that sends
URL means searching the
signals from one part of the
whereabouts of a service,
organization or server on the computer to another is called Bus.
internet like http:// www. bing. Computer literacy day is observed
com/in is a URL. on 2nd December every year.
251
The first computer, called The Words Related to Computer
TIFRAC, was manufactured in
z ALU - Arithmetic Logic Unit
India.
z ALGOL - Algorithmic Language
Bengluru is called the Silicon
z ASCII - American Standard Code
Valley of India.
The world's first electronic for Information Interchange

digital computer is named z BASIC - Beginner's All-Purpose

ENIAC. Symbolic Instruction Code
A byte is made up of eight bits. z CPU - Central Processing Unit
1024 bytes equals to 1 kilobyte z CAD - Computer-Aided Design
(1KB) z C-DOT - Centre for Development
1024 KB equals to 1 Megabyte of Telematics
(1MB)
z DTS - Desk Top System
1024 MB equals to 1 Gegabyte (1
z DTP - Desk Top Publishing
GB)
z FAX - Far Away Xerox
1024 GB equals to 1 Terabyte (1
TB) z Flops - Floating Operations Per
Sanskrit is the easiest language for Second
computerization. z HLL - High-Level Language
COBOL is a high-level language
z HTML - Hypertext Markup
(HLL).
PROLOG is a computer language Language
of the fifth generation. z LAN - Local Area Network
In the 2G, 3G and 4G spectrum, z MODEM - Modulator
the word 'G' is used for word Demodulator
Generation.
z RAM - Random Access Memory
Unknown/known person entering
z ROM - Read-Only Memory
the computer system through
z VDU - Visual Display Unit
the network without his consent
z WAN - Wide Area Network
interfering with confidential data
z WWW - World Wide Web
or information is called hacking.
252
 10 Sports - Player
International Olympic Committee.
Olympic Games
± Sir Dorabji Tata was the first
Ancient Olympic Games : Indian to be appointed as a
± According to the Greek Calendar member of the IOC.
'Olympiad', the first Olympic Olympic Flag and Sign :
Games were held in 776 B.C in ± The Olympic flag was designed
Olympia, Greece. at the suggestion of Baron de
± Ancient Olympic Games were Coubertin.
held in honour of the Greek God ± It was first hoisted at the Antwerp
'Zeus'. Olympics (1920).
Modern Olympic Games : ± The Olympic flag, made of white
± The Modern Olympic Games cloth, depicts five coloured
began in Athens, Greece in 1896. interlocking rings as one of the
emblems of the Olympic symbol.
± It is held every 4 years.
± These five rings symbolize fair
International Olympic Committee
and free competition within five
(IOC) :
continents.
± The efforts of Coubertin led to the
Blue - Europe Yellow- Asia
establishment of the International
Black- Africa Green - Australia
Olympic Committee (IOC) at the
and Oceania
Conference of 12 Countries in Paris
Red - North and South America
on 23rd June, 1894. Olympic's Motto :
± It is headquartered in Lausanne, ± The Olympic's motto was of three
Switzerland. words Citius, Altius, Fortius, in
± Neeta Ambani is the first Latin it means- “faster, higher,
Indian woman member of the stronger.”
253
± This motto was adopted in 1894, Golden Shark, won a total of 8

at the time when IOC constituted golds in various swimming events

and presented the motto very first at the Beijing Olympics (2008).
in Paris Olympic 1924. ± Michael Phelps also holds the
± This motto was composed by record for winning the most
Father Henri Didon. Olympic medals overall.
± On 20th of July, 2021, International ± Latynina won the most gold
Olympic Committee approved the medals at the then Olympic Games
change in motto - The motto was (Women).
updated to Citius, Altius, Fortius ± She won a total of 9 gold medals
- community (Faster, Higher, in gymnastics.
Stronger - Together). ± America holds the record for the
Olympic Torch : most Olympic gold medals won
± The tradition of lighting the torch by a country in an Olympics.
in the Modern Olympic Games ± Most times (4) the Olympic
started in 1936 from the Berlin Games had been organized by
Olympics. America (1904,1932,1984 and
± The mascot tradition began at 1996).

the Olympic Games in Mexico ± The city that hosts the Olympic
Games most is London.
Olympics (1968).
Olympics and India :
± Women also started participating
± O f f i c i a l l y, I n d i a s t a r t e d
in Olympic Games from the Paris
participating in Olympics at the
Olympics (1990).
1928 Amsterdam Olympics under
Most in the Olympic Games :
± USA’s swimmer Michael Phelps the Indian Olympic Association
holds the record of winning the (IOA).
most gold medals in a single ± Officially, Indian women first
Olympics. participated in the Helsinki
± Phelps, popularly known as Olympics (1952). These 4 women
254
 were - Mary D’Souza (Athletics), first gold medal in an individual
Neelima Ghosh (Athletics), Dolly event.
Nazir (Swimming) and Aarti ± Sushil Kumar is the first player
Saha (Swimming). from India who had won medals in
± Excluding Norman Pritchard, the two consecutive Olympics (2008
first Indian who won a medal in the Beijing, Bronze and 2012 London,
individual event of the Olympics
Silver).
is K.D. Jadhav (Wrestling
± From 1928 to 1956, India had won
Bronze-1952 Helsinki).
the gold medals 6 times in a row
± The first Indian woman who won
in hockey.
an Olympic Medal was Karnam
± India has won a total of 8 gold
Malleswari (Weightlifting Bronze-
medals in hockey so far. India
2000, Sydney).
won its last gold medal in hockey
± The first Indian female boxer
in the 1980 Moscow Olympics.
Olympic medalist is M.C. Mary
± The 32 nd Summer Olympic
Kom (Bronze - 2012, London).
G a m e s , k n o w n a s To k y o
± The first Indian female badminton
Olympics 2020 was held from
player who won an Olympic Medal
July 23 to August 08, 2021, in
is Saina Nehwal (Bronze-2012,
Tokyo, Japan.
London).
± The first Indian woman wrestler ± The theme of the opening

who won the Olympic medal is ceremony of the 32nd Summer

Sakshi Malik (Bronze - 2016, Olympic Games was "Moving

Rio-de-Janerio). Forward" - "United by Emotion"
± In the 2008 Beijing Olympics , the while the theme of the closing
gold medal was won by Abhinav ceremony was "Moving Forward"
Bindra in Air Rifle 10 m is India’s – “World We Share".
255
Rank Country G S B T
48 India 1 2 4 7
1 United States 39 41 33 113
2 China 38 32 18 88
3 Japan 27 14 17 58
4 Great Britain 22 21 22 65
5 ROC* 20 28 23 71
6 Australia 17 7 22 46
7 Netherlands 10 12 14 36
8 France 10 12 11 33
9 Germany 10 11 16 37
10 Italy 10 10 20 40
* Athletes from the Russian Federation participated in the Tokyo Olympics,
2020 under the banner of ROC

India's medal winners at Tokyo Olympics-2020

Medal Name Sport Event
Silver Mirabai Chanu Weightlifting Women's 49 kg
Bronze PV Sindhu Badminton Women's singles
Bronze Lovlina Boxing Women's welter-weight
Borgohain
Silver Ravi Kumar Dahiya Wrestling Men's freestyle 57 kg
Bronze Men's hockey team Field hockey Men's tournament
Gold Neeraj Chopra Athletics throw Men's javelin
Bronze Bajrang Punia Wrestling Men's freestyle 65 kg

Top 5 countries in Paralympics-2020 and India

Rank Country Gold Silver Bronze Total
1 People’s Republic of China 96 60 51 207
2 Great Britain 41 38 45 124
3 United States of America 37 36 31 104
4 RPC* 36 33 49 118
5 Netherlands 25 17 17 59
24 India 5 8 6 19
* Russian athletes participated in the Paralympics-2020 under the banner of RPC.
256
 India in Tokyo Paralympics-2020
Name Sport Event Medal Name
Sumit Antil Athletics M e n ' s J a v e l i n GOLD Sport Class: F64
Throw - F64
Pramod Bhagat Badminton Men's Singles SL3 GOLD Sport Class: SL3
Krishna Nagar Badminton M e n ' s S i n g l e s GOLD Sports Class: SH6
SH6
Manish Narwal Shooting P4 - Mixed 50m GOLD Sport Class: SH1
Pistol SH1
Avani Lekhara Shooting R 2 - Wo m e n ' s GOLD Sport Class: SH1
10m Air Rifle
Standing SH1
Yogesh Kathuniya Athletics M e n ' s D i s c u s SILVER Sport Class: F56
Throw - F56
Nishad Kumar Athletics Men's High Jump SILVER Sport Class: T47
- T47
Mariyappan Than- Athletics Men's High Jump SILVER Sport Class: T42
gavelu - T63
Praveen Kumar Athletics Men's High Jump SILVER Sport Class: T44
- T64
Devendra Jhajh- Athletics M e n ' s J a v e l i n SILVER Sport Class: F46
aria Throw - F46
Suhas Yathiraj Badminton Men's Singles SL4 SILVER Sport Class: SL4
Singhraj Adhana Shooting P4 - Mixed 50m SILVER Sport Class: SH1
Pistol SH1
Bhavina Patel Table Tennis Women's Singles SILVER Sport Class: 4
- Class 4
Harvinder Singh Archery Men's Individual BRONZE Sport Class: ST
Recurve - Open
Sharad Kumar Athletics Men's High Jump BRONZE Sport Class: T42
- T63
S u n d a r S i n g h Athletics M e n ' s J a v e l i n BRONZE Sport Class: F46
Gurjar Throw - F46
Manoj Sarkar Badminton Men's Singles SL3 BRONZE Sport Class: SL3
Singhraj Adhana Shooting P1 - Men's 10m BRONZE Sport Class: SH1
Air Pistol SH1
Avani Lekhara Shooting R 8 - Wo m e n ' s BRONZE Sport Class: SH
50m Rifle 3 Po-
sitions SH1

257
 ± Manika Batra bagged a gold
Commonwealth Games
medal for the first time in the table
Introduction : tennis Singles for India.
± Commonwealth Games are the ± Neeraj Chopra had won a gold
medal for India for the first time
second-largest grand sporting
in Javelin Throw competition with
event in the world after the
a throw of 86.47 meters.
Olympic Games.
Asian Games
± In the same sequence with the
efforts of MM Bobby Robinson, ± The first Asian Games were held
a Canadian athlete, the ‘First in New Delhi in 1951 with the

British Empire Games’ were held efforts of Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru and
Antony De Mello.
in Hamilton, Canada in the mid-
± ‘Shining Sun’ was declared the
1930s amongst the British Empire symbol of the Asian Games by the
Countries. Asian Games Association.
± Finally, from the year 1978, ± The rules of these games are
its name was shortened to supervised by the Olympic
"Commonwealth Games". Council of Asia(OCA) under the

± Currently, the Commonwealth has International Olympic Council

54 member countries. (IOC).
± The 22nd Commonwealth Games ± The headquarter of OCA is located
(2022) will be held in Birmingham in Kuwait City, Kuwait.
(England). ± The next Asian Games will be held
in the year 2022 at Hangzhou city
Commonwealth Games and India : of China.
± India had participated for the first
Cricket
time in the Second Commonwealth
Games held in London in 1934. ± England is considered the father
of Cricket.
± Mary Kom became the first ± The first Cricket Test Match was
Indian woman boxer to win a played between Australia and
gold medal at the Commonwealth England in Melbourne, Australia,
Games. from 15th-19th March 1877.
258
± On 5th January 1971, the first One B. Vijay Hazare Trophy:
Day Cricket Match was played ± The competition is named after
between Australia and England in Vijay Hazare, the former captain
Melbourne, Australia. of the Indian cricket team. It is
± E n g l a n d ’s W. G . G r a c e i s also known as Ranji ODI Trophy.
considered the Father of Modern ± It started in 2002-03.
Cricket.
± The first Vijay Hazare Trophy-
± In 1909 “Imperial Cricket
winning team is Tamil Nadu (5
Conference” was established by
Australia, England and South times).
Africa. C. Duleep Trophy :
± In 1965, it was changed ± This is a four day National
into ‘International Cricket First Class Domestic Cricket
Conference’. In 1989, it renamed Competition.
again as “International Cricket ± It started in 1961-62.
Council” (ICC).
± Its runner-up is awarded ‘Devicha
± Initially, its headquarter was
Trophy’.
located in Lords, England.
D. Deodhar Trophy :
± O n 1 st A u g u s t 2 0 0 5 , t h e
headquarter was shifted to ± This is a Limited Over Domestic
Dubai (UAE). List A category cricket
± On 27 th November 2015, the competition.
first day-night Test Match was ± It started in 1973-74.
played between Australia and E. Irani Cup :
New Zealand with Pink Ball in ± It is a first-class five-day domestic
Adelaide (Australia). cricket competition played
A. Ranji Trophy between the present Ranji Trophy
± It is the oldest domestic cricket winner and the Rest of India.
competition in India. ± It started from 1959 to 1960.
± Ranji Trophy started in 1934-35.
± “Rest of India” has won the Irani
± This trophy was named after
Cup the most 28 times.
India’s first international cricketer
Board of Control for Cricket in
Ranjit Singh Ji. India (BCCI):
± Mumbai won the Ranji Trophy ± The Board of Control for Cricket
most of the (41) times. in India (BCCI) was established
259
 in Mumbai in the year 1928 under ± The length of the bat (maximum)
the Chairmanship of R.E. Grant is 38 inches (96.52 cm), width
Govan. (maximum): 4.25 inches (10.8
± Since then, the BCCI has been cm).
affiliated with the International ± The length of the stump is 28
Cricket Council (ICC). inches (71.12 cm).
Components of Cricket: General Terms of Cricket:
± Pitch, popping crease, return
± Length of the pitch - 22 yards crease, wicket, throw, maiden,
(20.12 m) wide, four, six, batsman, bowler,
± Weight of the ball – not less than chinaman, wicketkeeper, slip,
gully , cover, point, fielder, mid-
5.5 ounces / 155.9 grams and not
on, mid-wicket, mid-off, long-off,
to exceed 5.75 ounces / 163 grams. long-on, third man, bouncer, short-
± The circumference of the ball is pitch, run out, LBW (Leg Before
not less than - 8.81 inches or 22.4 Wicket), over the wicket, round the
cm and should not exceed 9 inches wicket, stroke, swing, off-Spinner,
or 22.9 cm. leg-spinner, follow-on, etc.
T-20 Cricket World Cup
Year Organizing Winner Runner-up
Country
2007 South Africa India Pakistan
2009 England Pakistan Sri Lanka
2010 West Indies England Australia
2012 Sri Lanka West Indies Sri Lanka
2014 Bangladesh Sri Lanka India
2016 India West Indies England
2021 UAE, Oman Australia New Zealand
2022 Australia
established in England as an
Hockey
organized club.
± The First Hockey Association was
± The modern form of Hockey was
developed mainly in schools of established in the U.K (United
England in mid-18th century. Kingdom) in 1876.
± Firstly, in 1861, ‘Blackheath International Hockey Federation
Rugby and Hockey Club’ was (FIH):
260
± O n 7 t h J a n u a r y, 1 9 2 4 , t h e 2-15 minutes (5 minutes timeout)
International Hockey Federation -15-2-15 minutes].
(Federation Internationale de ± The “Penalty Stroke” is given
Hockey: FIH) was established by for breaking the rules in a men’s
the efforts of Paul Léautey in Paris match.
(France). ± The “Penalty Bully” is given for
breaking the rules in women’s
± It is the international administrative
matches.
body related to the game of Hockey
(HQ-Lausanne, Switzerland).
± The weight of the ball can be
between 156-163 grams.
± The International Women’s ± The circumference of the ball may
Hockey Association was be 2.81 inches to 2.94 inches.
established in 1927.
Some Terminologies used in Hockey:
± The first Hockey World Cup was Passback, Goal, Bully, Offside,
held in Barcelona, Spain, in 1971. Free-hit, Corner hit, Penalty
Hockey in India: Stroke, Penalty Corner, Penalty
± Hockey is considered the National Bully, Dribbling, Jab and Lounge,
Sport of India. D, Astroturf, Right back, Left-
± The first Hockey Association in back Scoop, Sideline, Tie Breaker,
India was the Bengal Hockey Rolling, Push in, Half volley,
Association. Full back, Undercutting, Sudden
± On 28th April 2008, the Indian Death, Infringement, Flick,
Hockey Federation was Reverse Flick, Shooting Circle,
disbanded by the Indian Olympic etc.
Association.
Football
± On 20th May 2009, Hockey India a
new organization was established.
Other Key Facts: ± England owes the credit for
developing the modern form of
± The shape of the Hockey field is
football.
rectangular.
± Each team consists of 11–11 ± In 1857, the first football club in
players. the world was “Sheffield Football
± Each team can replace 3 players Club” that was established in
during the game. England.
± Once replaced, the player cannot ± Federation Internationale de
participate in that game again. Football Association (FIFA) was
± As per the new rules (effective from formed in Paris on 21st May, 1904.
1st January, 2019), the duration of ± Its headquarter is located in
the game will be 60 minutes [15- Zurich (Switzerland).
261
± The first President of FIFA was Volley, Send Off, Bars, Tiebreaker,
Mr. Robert Guerin (France). Sudden Death, Fist, Net, Lob,
± Women’s football was officially Through Ball , Total , Center,
included in 1996. Penalty , Handball foul, Hattrick,
Other Important Facts: Center, Penalty, Strike, etc.
± International football grounds for Badminton
adults can be 100 to 110 meters
in length and 64 to 75 meters in ± The 'Net' was introduced to the
width. game in 1860.
± The football matches are played ± In 1893, the Badminton
in two-time formats of 45–45 Association of England (BAE)
minutes duration. was formed.
Football in India: ± International Badminton
± Dalhousie Club was the first Federation (IBF) is the Supreme
football club in India. institution of sports of badminton.
± All India Football Federation ± It was established in the year 1934.
(AIFF) has the administrative ± India and America were associated
responsibility of football in India. with IBF in the year 1936 and
± ‘ S a n t o s h Tr o p h y ’ i s t h e 1938 respectively.
symbol of the National Football
± Sir George Allen Thomas of
Championship.
England was its first President.
± Santosh Trophy was started in the
± In September 2006, a meeting
year 1941.
was held in Madrid accepted its
± ‘Begum Hazrat Mahal Trophy’
is a symbol of National Women’s new name Badminton World
Football Championship. Federation (BWF).
± 'Durand Cup' is the oldest ± In December 2004, it decided
football championship in India. to shift its headquarter from
± It started in 1888. Cheltenham (England) to Kuala
Lumpur (Malaysia).
± Kolkata is called the ‘Home of
Other Badminton Competitions
Indian Football’. A. Thomas Cup:
Football Glossaries/Vocabularies : ± This is the Men’s International
± Pass, Back Pass, Corner, Dribble, Team Event.
Linesman, Caesars Kick, Banana ± The first Thomas Cup was
Kick, Winger, Sweeper, Back, organized in Priston in 1948–49.
262
B. Uber Cup : Tennis Grand Slam:
± It is a Women’s International ± F o u r m a j o r L a w n Te n n i s
Team Event. Competitions Australian Open,
± The first Uber Cup was held in French Open, Wimbledon and
1956-57. American Open are jointly
± Badminton Association of called Grand Slam (Grand Slam
India is the regulatory body of Tournament) of Tennis.
badminton in India. ± The term Grand Slam for Tennis
± It was established in 1934. was used firstly in 1933 by
Badminton Court Dimensions an American journalist John
± The length of the Badminton court Kieran.
is 44 feet and the width is 20 feet. Other Tennis Competitions :
± The height of the net is 5 feet. ± Davis Cup is the Men’s Tennis
± The weight of the shuttle is 4.74 team competition.
to 5.51 grams. ± The Fed Cup is the Women’s team
± The weight of the racket is 85-140 competition.
grams. ± Hopman Cup is an international
± Key Glossaries/Vocabularies: mixed team competition.
Court, Long Service, Fault, Dimensions of a Tennis Court:
Service, Rally, Backhand Smash,
Love, Deuce, Lob, Let, Love ± The height of the net is 3 feet.
all, Drop, Lift, Pen hand Push, ± The weight of the tennis ball is
Linesman, etc. are the terms 56.0 grams - 59.4 grams.
related to Badminton. Glossaries/Vocabularies :
Tennis ± Service, Game, Love, Deuce,
Fault, Return, Back Hand Drive,
± In the modern context, the game Serve, Seeding, Volley, Half
was developed in England. Volley, Late, Tiebreaker, Change,
± Modern Tennis is known as ‘Lawn In, Out, etc.
Tennis’. Chess
± International Tennis Federation:
(ITF) is the apex body of Tennis.
± India is considered the Father of
Tennis in India :
Chess.
± The All India Lawn Tennis
Association (AILTA) was formed ± The game of chess is played on a
in Lahore (now in Pakistan) in chess-board of which 32 houses
March, 1920. are black and 32 houses are white.
± In 1980, its name was changed ± This board consists of 64 squares
to All India Tennis Association with 8 vertical and 8 horizontal
(AITA). rows.
263
Glossaries/Vocabularies : ± A Basket ball match is played in
± Stalemate, Gambit, Check, two halves of 20 minutes each.
Checkmate, Bishop, Grandmaster, ± The Federation International De
Fide, Knight, Acquit, Adjournment, Basketball Association (FIBA)
Back-Rank, Blocked, Doubled was established in 1932.
Pounce, Hanging, Hole, Norms, ± Indian Basketball Association
Swedel, Tabia, X-ray attack, (BFI) was established in 1950
Castle, Elo rating, Knight, Piece, (Mumbai).
etc.
Polo
Athletics
± The modern polo game is believed
± In the year 1912, the International
to have originated from Manipur,
Amateur Athletics Federation
India.
(IAAF) was established by 17
± Kolkata Polo Club was established
National Athletics Federations at
in 1862.
its first Congress (Sweden).
± Its headquarter is located in ± A group of 4-4 players from each
Monaco. team participate in this game.
± I n 2 0 0 1 , t h e o rg a n i z a t i o n Golf
was renamed ‘International
Association of Athletics ± Golf is originated from the east
Federations’ (IAAF). coast of Scotland during the 15th
Table Tennis century.
± In 1990, Olympics (Paris), Golf
was included in the Olympic
± Table Tennis was invented in Games.
England in the early days of the ± Its headquarter is located in
20th century and was originally Lausanne, Switzerland.
called Ping-Pang.
± International Table Tennis Baseball
Federation (ITTF) was formed
in Berlin in the year 1926. ± This game was developed in the
± Its headquarter is located at US in the mid-19th century.
Lausanne, Switzerland. ± In 1845, Alexander Cartwright
formulated the rules of the game.
Basketball ± He is considered as the Father of
Modern Baseball.
± In 1891 the game was introduced ± Key Glossaries/Vocabularies :
in America by James Smith. Home, Diamond, Pitcher, Batter,
± A group of 5-5 players from each Home Run, Baseman, Aight,
team participated in this game. Strike Ant-Rubber, etc.
264
 ± The first international Water
Billiards Polo match was played between
England and Scotland in 1890.
± Billiards is originated in the 15th Dimension:
century. ± Water polo played in a rectangular
± Snooker is originated from pool.
Billiards. ± The pool is 20-30 meters in length
± ‘World Professional Billiards and 10-20 meters in width.
and Snooker Association’
(WPBSA) was established in Swimming
1968.
± Its headquarter is located in ± The first swimming championship
Bristol, UK. was organized in 1845 AD, in
± Major Trophies of Billiards: Sydney (Australia).
Golf Flak Trophy, Arthur Walker Events in Swimming :
Trophy. A. Back Stroke:
B. Freestyle:
Wrestling
C. Front Crawl:
D. Butterfly
± The credit for bringing Wrestling
E. Breast Stroke:
into the mainstream of the sport
goes to the ancient Greek Olympic F. Medley Events:
Games. Swimming Glossaries:
± Professional Wrestling began in ± Springboard, Twist, Zen, Stroke,
France in 1830. etc.
± The world regulatory body
for Wrestling “Federation
Boxing
Internationale des Luttes
Associees’ - FILA was established ± It received its official entry for
in 1912. the first time at the 1908 London
± In 2014, its name was changed Olympics.
to ‘United World Wrestling’ ± Officially, the emergence of
(UWW). Women's Boxing for the first time
± Its headquarter is located in was in 1993.
Lausanne, Switzerland.
± Women’s Boxing was included
Dimensions :
o ff i c i a l l y i n 2 0 1 2 L o n d o n
Water Polo Olympics.
Major Boxing Glossaries:
± It is an aquatic version of ‘Rugby’. ± Uppercut, Hook, Belt, Block,
± This game was started in England Blow, Punch, Jab, Knock- down,
in 1860. Knock out, Bell, Bounce, etc.
265
 and 3 additional (Substitute)
Shooting players.
Dimensions of Kho-Kho:
± There are three main shooting ± The playing arena is rectangular
events - A. Rifle Shooting, B. in shape.
Rapid Fire Pistol Shooting, C. ± The total area including lobbies is
Free Pistol Shooting. 33m × 21 m.
A. Rifle Shooting: Key Glossaries of Kho-Kho :
B. Rapid Fire Pistol Shooting: ± The players sitting in the square
C. Free Pistol Shooting: are called the Chaser.
Major Shooting Glossaries: ± The chaser's opponent is called the
± Bull's eye, Bag, Marks-Manship, Runner.
Shooting, Trench, Bird, Skeet
Handball
Shooting, Target, Muzzle flash, etc.
Volleyball ± The term 'Penalty Throw' is related
to Handball and Water Polo.
± The number of players in the team ± The total number of players in
is 6. each team in Handball is 14, with
± The line dividing the volleyball
court is called Centerline. 6 players in court, one goalkeeper
± According to the rules of FIVB, and 7 substitutes.
the ceiling of the indoor sports Sports Award
complex is 12.50 meters for any
international sports competition Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna
in volleyball. Award :
Kabaddi ± Formerly known as the Rajiv
Gandhi Khel Ratna, it is India’s
± There are 7 players in Water Polo highest sporting honour.
it was established in 1991-1992.
and Kabaddi.
Arjuna Award :
Key Glossaries of Kabaddi:
± The award is given to outstanding
± In Kabaddi game, the terms, international performers in last
Seating Block, End Line, Bonus three years.
Line, Baulk Line, Center Line, ± Under this, a prize money of Rs 15
Sideline, Lobby etc. are used. lakh and a bronze statue of Arjuna
is given.
Kho Kho Dronacharya Award :
± It was started in 1985.
± A kho-kho team consists of 12 ± The award is given to coaches for
players with 9 players in the field their excellent training.
266
11 Miscellaneous
March
National and 3 March World Wildlife Day
1
International Days 8 March International
Women's Day
January 15 March World Consumer
4 January World Braille Day Rights Day
9 January Pravasi Bharatiya 21 March World Poetry Day
Divas 22 March World Water Day
10 January World Hindi Day 23 March (Bhagat Singh,
12 January National Youth Sukhdev, Rajguru)
Days (Swami Martyrs' Day
Vivekanand's April
Birthday)
14 April Ambedkar Jayanti
24 January International Day
18 April World Heritage
of Education
Day
25 January National Voters
21 April National Civil
Day
Services Day
26 January Republic Day
22 April World Earth Day
26 January International
Customs Day 24 April National Panchayati
Raj Day
30 January Martyrs' Day
25 April World Malaria Day
February
May
2 February World Wetlands
1 May International
Day
Labour Day or
4 February World Cancer Day May Day
13 February World Radio Day 3 May World Press
21 February International Freedom Day
Mother Language 22 May International Day
Day for Biological
28 February National Science Diversity
Day 23 May World Turtle Day
267
31 May World No Tobacco 8 September International
Day Literacy Day
June 14 September Hindi Diwas
5 June World Environment October
Day 2 October Lal Bahadur Shastri
7 June World Food Safety Jayanti
Day 2 October Mahatma Gandhi
21 June International Yoga Jayanti
Day 2 October International Day
23 June United Nation of
Public Service Day Non-Violence Day
July 31 October Indira Gandhi's
1 July National Doctors' Death
Day
Anniversary
(Dr. Vidhan Chandra
November
Rai Birthday)
7 November National Cancer
11 July World Population
Day Awareness Day
17 July World Day For 14 November Children’s Day
International 26 November National Law Day
Justice The Constituent
26 July Kargil Vijay Diwas Assembly adopted
29 July World Tiger Day
the constitution on
August this day)
12 August International Youth
December
Day
15 August National 1 December World AIDS Day
Independence Day 3 December International Day
19 August World of Persons with
Humanitarian Day Disabilities
20 August Indian Renewable 5 December World Soil Day
Energy Day 7 December Armed Forces Flag
29 August National Sports Day
Day 9 December International Anti-
(On Birthday of Corruption
Dhyanchand) Day
September 10 December International
5 September Teachers' Day Human Rights Day
(Birthday of 25 December National Good
S. Radhakrishnan) Governance Day
268
 UNESCO World Heritage Sites : Indian Cultural and Natural Sites
Place State Year
Tajmahal Uttar Pradesh 1983
Agra Fort Uttar Pradesh 1983
Ellora Caves Maharashtra 1983
Ajanta Caves Maharashtra 1983
Konark Sun Temple Odisha 1984
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram Tamil Nadu 1984
Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan 1985
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Assam 1985
Kaziranga National Park Assam 1985
Khajuraho Group of Monuments Madhya Pradesh 1986
Churches and Convents of Old Goa Goa 1986
Group of Monuments at Hampi Karnataka 1986
Fatehpur Sikri Uttar Pradesh 1986
Sunderbans National Park West Bengal 1987
Elephanta Caves Maharashtra 1987
Group of Monuments at Pattadakal Karnataka 1987
Great Chola Temple Tamil Nadu 1987, 2004
Nanda Devi & Valley of Flowers National Park Uttarakhand 1988, 2005
Sanchi Stupa
Sanchi Buddhist Monument Madhya Pradesh 1989
Qutb Minar and Its Monuments Delhi 1993
Humayun's Tomb Delhi 1993
Mountain Railways of India West Bengal/Tamil 1999-2005
Nadu
Darjeeling Railway /Nilgiri/Kalka- Shimla Railway Himachal Pradesh 2008
Red Fort Delhi 2007
Mahabodhi Temple (Bodh Gaya) Bihar 2002
Bhimbetka Rock Shelters Madhya Pradesh 2003
Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus (Victoria Terminus) Maharashtra 2004
Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park Gujarat 2004
Jantar Mantar (Jaipur) Rajasthan 2010
Western Ghats Karnataka, Kerala, 2012
Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Goa & Gujarat

269
Hill Forts of Rajasthan Rajasthan 2013
A. Gagron Fort Jhalawar (Rajasthan) 2013
B. Chittorgarh Fort Rajasthan 2013
C. Amber Fort Jaipur (Rajasthan) 2013
D. Kumbhalgarh Fort Rajsamand 2013
E. Jaisalmer Fort Jaisalmer 2013
F. Ranthambhore Fort Sawai Madhopur 2013
(Rajasthan)
Great Himalayan National Park Himachal Pradesh 2014
Rani ki Vav Patan (Gujarat) 2014
The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, An Out Chandigarh 2016
Standing Contribution to Modern Movement
Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara Bihar 2016
Khangchendzonga National Park Sikkim 2016
Historical City of Ahmedabad Gujarat 2017
Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Maharashtra 2018
Mumbai
Jaipur City Rajasthan 2019
Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Temple Telangana 2021
Dholavira: A Harappan city Gujarat 2021
Note - In November, 2021 UNESCO has included Srinagar in the prestigious list of Creative
Cities Network in the category of 'Folk Art and Culture and Craft'.

Major Cultural Institutions of India and Their Year of Establishment

Establishment Year Institutions
1985 East Zone Cultural Centre (Kolkata)
1985 North Central Zone Cultural Centre (NCZCC Prayagraj)
1945 Anthropological Survey of India (Kolkata)
1948 National Library (Kolkata)
1952 Sangeet Natak Akademi (Inaugurated in 1953)
1954 Lalit Kala Academy
1959 National School of Drama (NSD)
1861 Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
1784 Asiatic Society
1987 Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts
1891 National Archives of India
1891 Central Secretariat Library
270
 State's Folk Dances
State Folk Dance
Andhra Pradesh Chaddi, Siddhi Madhuri, Kuchipudi (Classical), Mohiniattam
(Classical), Ghantamardala, Kummi, etc.
Assam Bagurumba, Bihu, Nettle, Khel Gopal, Natpuja, Maharas, Ka-
ligopal, Jhumura Hobjanai, etc.
Arunachal Pradesh Buiya, Chalo, Wancho, Ponung, Popir, Mask Dance, etc.
Uttar Pradesh Nautanki, Raslila, Jhula, Jadda, Kajree, Jaita, Chachri, Jangar,
Jhora, Dhola, Charakula, etc.
Uttarakhand Garhwali, Kumayuni, Jhora, Kajree, Chappeli, Raslila, etc.
Gujarat Dandiya Raas, Garba, Bhavai, Tippani, Padhar, Panihari, Nr-
itya, etc
Odisha Odishi (Classical), Paika, Chhau, Chaitighoda, Ghoomara, etc.
Bihar Jhijhiya, Jat-Jatin, Kajari, Sohar-Khilouna, Holi, Jhumri, etc.
Nagaland Rangma, Bamboo Dance, Noorlim, Chong, Khaiva, Kuminaga, etc.
Goa Dekhni, Dhalo, Mando, Fugdi, Jagar, Koli, Tarangmail, Dhangar
Dance, etc.
Karnataka Karga, Yakshgana, Kunitha, Veeragase, Lambi, etc.
Kerala Mohiniattam (Classical), Kathakali (Classical), Kaikotti kali,
Thulal, Padayani, Kondattam etc..
Chhattisgarh Jhoomar, Karma, Gendi Pandavani, Navarani, Diwari, Tapali,
Panthi, Gaur Maria, Raut Nach, etc.
Jammu & Kashmir Damali, Hekat, Kud Dandinach, Mendajas, Rauf, etc.
Jharkhand Alkap, Karya Munda, Paika, Jat-Jatin, Danga, Karama, Sirhul,
Chhau, Domchak, Fagua, etc.
Tamil Nadu Kavadi, Kumi, Kolattam, Bharatanatyam (Classical), etc.
West Bengal Jatra, Dhali, Bowl, Kirtan, Marasia, Gambhira, Mahal, Kathi, etc.
Punjab Bhand, Naqual, Dhaman, Bhangra, Daff, Giddha, etc.
Madhya Pradesh Swang, Matki, Gangaur, Badhai, Baredi, Naurata, Ahirai,
Bhagoria, Pandavani, etc.
Mizoram Chailam, Jagtalam, Cheraw, Khullam, Thanglam, etc.
Meghalaya Ka Shad Suk Mynsiem, Nongkrem, Laho, etc.
Manipur Thangata, Khamba, Thoibi, Maharas, Rankhat, Manipuri (Clas-
sical), Rakhal, Nataras, Pung Chulom, Nupa, etc.
Maharashtra Dahikala Dashavatar, Powada, Mauji, Lejim, Koli, Nakata,
Lavani, Tamasha, Kavita, Bohada, Gafa, Gauricha, etc.
Rajasthan Chakri, Kalbeliya, Panihari, Gangaur, Neja, Fundi, Jhuma,
Ghapal, etc.
Himachal Pradesh Jhamkada, Losar Shona Chuksam, Dandanach, Chapeli, Dha-
man, Jhanta, Mahathu, Jhali, Nati, Dangi, Cham, Lahauli, etc.

271
 Graveyards of Great Men
Persons Places Life Span
Mahatma Gandhi Rajghat (New Delhi) 1869-1948
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Mahaprayan Ghat (Patna) 1884-1963
Jawaharlal Nehru Shanti Van (New delhi) 1889-1964
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Chaitya Bhumi (Mumbai) 1891-1956
Lal Bahadur Sashtri Vijay Ghat (New Delhi) 1904-1966
Indira Gandhi Shakti Sthal (New Delhi) 1917-1984
Rajiv Gandhi Vir Bhumi (New Delhi) 1944-1991
Atal Bihari Vajpayee Sadaiv Atal (New Delhi) 1924-2018

Renowned Personalities and Their Nicknames

Persons Nicknames
Bhagat Singh Shaheed - E - Azam
Subhash Chandra Bose Netaji

Mahatma Gandhi Rashtrapita, Bapu

Rajendra Prasad Deshratna, Ajatshatru
Rabindranath Thakur World Poet, Kaviguru, Gurudev, Frontier
Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan Frontier Gandhi
Muhammad Ali Jinnah Quaid-e-Azam
Dadabhai Naoroji Grand old man of India
Raja Rammohan Rai The father of Indian Renaissance
Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel Iron Man
Lal Bahadur Shastri Man of Peace
Lala Lajpat Rai Punjab Kesari
Vallabhbhai Patel Sardar
Sheikh Mujiburrahman Bangabandhu
Chittaranjan Das Deshbandhu
Bal Gangadhar Tilak Lokmanya
Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya Mahamana
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari Rajaji
Shri Chandrashekhar Yuva Turk
P.T Usha Udanpari
272
Amir Khusro Tota-e-Hind
Lata Mangeshkar Swar Kokila
(died in February, 2022)
Sarojini Naidu Bharat Kokila
M.S. Golwalkar Guruji
Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lal, Bal, Pal
and Vipin Chandra Pal
Samudragupta Indian Napoleon

Major Research Institutes of India

Name of the Institutes Location
National Sugar Institute of India Kanpur (UP)
Indian Pulses Research Institute Kanpur (UP)
Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi
Indian Meteorological Department New Delhi
Indian Institute of Soil Sciences Bhopal (M.P.)
National Institute of Immunology New Delhi
All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) New Delhi
National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow (UP)
Central Jute Research Institute of Technology Kolkata (W. Bengal)
Archaeological Survey of India New Delhi
Indian Institute of Petroleum Dehradun (U.K)
National Vision Disability Empowerment Dehradun (U.K)
Indian Institute of Survey, Dehradun (U.K)
Indian Institute of Chemical & Bio-sciences Kolkata (W. Bengal)
National Geophysical Research Institute Hyderabad
National Brain Research Institute Gurugram
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Nagpur (M.H.)
(NEERI)
Central Rice Research Institute Cuttack (Odisha)
Centre for DNA and Finger Printing Hyderabad

Cellular and Molecular Biology, Science Center Hyderabad

Central Water and Power Research Center Pune (M.H.)
High Latitude Research Laboratory Gulmarg (J.K.)
Plasma Research Institute Ahmedabad (G.J.)

273
Central Mining & Fuel Research Institute Dhanbad (J.H.)
Central Institute of Horticulture Lucknow (U.P.)
Institute of Microbial Technology Chandigarh (H.R.)
Institute of Ecology Bangaluru (K.A.)
National Institute of Oceanography Panaji (Goa)
Indian Geomagnetic Institute Mumbai (M.H.)
Central Potato Research Institute Shimla (H.P.)

Central Planting Crop Research Institute Kasargod (Kerala)

Central Salt & Marine Chemical Research Institute Bhavnagar (Gujarat)

Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute Durgapur (W. Bengal)
Central Electrical Chemistry Research Institute Koraikudi (T.N.)
Central Building Research Institute Roorkee (U.K.)
Central Food Technology Research Institute India Mysore (Karnataka)
Security Press Nashik (M.H.)
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Mumbai (M.H.)
Bhabha Atomic Research Center Trombay Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Textiles Industry Research Institute Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
National Metallurgical Laboratory Jamshedpur (Jharkhand)
Central Agmark Laboratory Nagpur (Maharashtra)
Indian Sugarcane Research Institute Lucknow (U.P.)
Raman Research Institute Bangaluru (Karnataka)
Central Leather Research Institute Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
National Dairy Research Institute Karnal (Haryana)

National Occupational Health Institute Ahmedabad (Gujarat)

CPR Environmental Education Centre Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
Central Tobacco Research Institute Rajahmundry (Andhra Pradesh)
Central Sugarcane Research Institute Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)
Central Forest Research Institute Dehradun (Uttarakhand)
Ramakrishna Mission Culture Institute Kolkata (West Bengal)
Liquid Crystal Research Centre Bangaluru (Karnataka)

274
 Major Classical Dances and Dance Artists
Dance Artist
1. Kathak Sukhdev Maharaj, Lachhu Maharaj, Birju Maharaj,Gopi
Krishna, Shovana Narayan, Sitara Devi, Chandralekha,
Malavika Sarkar, Manjari Chaturvedi, Gauri Jog, Achchan
Maharaj, Bindadin Maharaj, Narayan Prasad, Saswati Sen, etc.
2. Odissi Kelucharan Mohapatra, Mohan Goswami, Pankaj Charandas,
Harekrishna Behera, Mayadhar Rawat, Sonal Mansingh,
Kiran Sehgal, Samyukta Panigrahi, Rani Karna, Madhavi
Mudgal, Indrani Rahman, Kalicharan Patnaik, Kumkum
Mohanty, Sujata Mahapatra, Sharon Lowen (US), etc.
3. Kuchipudi Shobha Naidu, Raja Reddy, Radha Reddy, Yamini
Krishnamurthy, Lakshmi Narayan Shastri, Swapna Sundari,
Vedantam Satyanarayana Sharma, Vempati Chinna Satyam,
Payal Ramchandani, Arunima kumar, Pratiksa Kashi, Uma
Rama Rao, etc.
4. Kathakali Krishnan Nair, Uday Shankar, Ballaltol Narayan Menon,
Mrinalini Sarabhai, Shanta Rao, Krishnan Kutty, Anand
Sivaraman, Gopi, Kanak Rale, Keshavan Namboodiri, Ruby
Mishra, etc.
5. Bharatanatyam Rukmani Devi Arundel, Yamini Krishnamurthy, Sonal
Mansingh, Padma Subrahmanyam, T. Bala Saraswati,
Ramgopal, S.K. Saroj, Mrinalini Sarabhai, Leela Samson,
Malavika Sarkar, Vyjayanthi Mala Bali, Priyadarshini Govind,
Nalini Prakas, Priya Murle, Kumari Kavita Ramu etc.
6. Mohiniattam Ragini Devi, Bharti Shivaji, Kalyani Kutti Amma, Sridevi,
Shanta Rao, Hema Malini, Tara Nidigadi, Geeta Singer,
Sunandya Nair, Gopika Verma, Vijayalakshmi, Radha Dutta,
Pallavi Krishnan, etc.

7. Manipuri Nal Kumar Singh, Atamb Singh, Guru Amli Singh, Jhaveri
Sisters (Darshana, Nayana, Suvarna and Ranjana Jhaveri),
Kalavati Devi, Savita Mehta, Charu Mathur, Rema Srikanth,
Bimbavati, Gopal Singh, Guru Vipin Singh, Rajkumar
Singhjeet Singh, Guru Nileswar Mukherjee, Sohini Ray, etc.

275
Commands and Headquarters of Indian Army, Navy and Air Force
Army Commands Headquarters
Northern Command Udhampur
Southern Command Pune
Western Command Chandimandir (Panchkula)
Eastern Command Kolkata
Southern - Western Command Jaipur
Central Command Lucknow
Training Command Shimla
Naval Command Headquarters
Western Command Mumbai
Eastern Command Visakhapatnam
Southern Command Kochi
Andaman and Nicobar Port Blair
Airforce Commands Headquarters
Western Command New Delhi
Eastern Command Shillong
Southern Command Thiruvananthapuram
Central Command Prayagraj
South-Western Command Gandhinagar
Training Command Bengaluru
Maintenance Command Nagpur

Posts of Commissioned Officers in Indian Forces

Army Airforce Naval
General Air Chief Marshal Admiral
Lieutenant General Air Marshal Vice-Admiral
Major General Air Vice-Marshal Rear-Admiral
Brigadier Air Commodore Commodor
Colonel Group Captain Captain
Lieutenant Colonel Wing Commander Commander
Major Squadron Leader Lieutenant Commander
Captain Flight Lieutenant Lieutenant
Lieutenant Flying Officer Sub - Lieutenant
276
 Indian Naval Training Institutes
Indian Naval Training Institutes
INS Shivaji Lonavala
INS Chilika Khurda
Indian Naval Academy Kannur
Indian Air Force Training Institute
Air Force Academy Hyderabad
Air Force Technical College Bengaluru
Air Force Administrative College Coimbatore
Paratroopers Training School Agra
Elementary Flying School Bidar
Indian Army Training Institute
Indian Military Academy Dehradun
National Defence College New Delhi
National Defence Academy Khadakwasla
Defence Service Staff College Willington
Artillery School Deolali
Infantry School Mhow*
Armored Corps Center Ahmednagar
* Madhya Pradesh Government in 2003 has renamed the city as
Dr. Ambedkar Nagar.

Its headquarter is located in Delhi.

Indian Internal Its task is to defend the country's
2 borders.
Security System
Assam Rifles:
Assam Rifles is the oldest
National Cadet Corps (NCC):
paramilitary force in India. It was
National Cadet Corps was
established in 1835 in the name in
established in 1948. 'Cachar Levy'.
Its headquarter is located in New Its headquarter is located in
Delhi. Shillong.
The motto of the National Cadet Central Reserve Police Force -
Corps is 'Unity and Discipline'. (CRPF):
Border Security Force (BSF): On July 27, 1939, the Central
Border Security Force was Reserve Police Force was
established in 1965. established.
277
 At the time of establishment, it of dynamite, with interest from
was called 'Crown Representative Permanent Fund of 10 Lakh Pound
Police' and later it was renamed - 5 different fields - (1) Literature,
CRPF on 28 December 1949. (2) Medical Science, (3) Physics,
Its headquarter is located in Delhi. (4) Chemistry and (5) Peace, is
Sashastra Seema Bal : given in this field with special and
Special Service Bureau was notable contributions.
formed in 1963. The first prize in economics was
It was renamed as 'Sashastra Seema
conferred in 1969.
Bal' (SSB) on 15 December, 2003.
The first Nobel Prize in Peace,
Indo - Tibetan Boarder Police
(ITBP): Literature, Medicine, Chemistry
Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) and Physics was awarded in 1901.
was formed in October, 1962. In 1974, it was made a rule that
Its headquarter is located is in New Nobel Prize would not be awarded
Delhi. posthumously.
The motto of ITBP is - Shaurya - The Red Cross has been awarded
Dridhata - Karma Nishtha.
the Nobel Peace Prize three times
Central Industrial Security Force
(1917, 1944 and 1963).
(CISF):
Lawrence Bragg (25 years old
Central Industrial Security Force
'was formed in 1969 to protect male) and Malala Yusufzai (17
the industrial complexes of the years old female) are the youngest
Central Government. Nobel Prize recipients.
Its headquarter is located in New John Goodenough (97 years) is
Delhi. the oldest person to revceive the
National Security Guards (NSG): Nobel Prize.
National Security Guards (NSG) Two Times Nobel Prize Winners
was formed in 1984 to face the 1. Marie Curie Nobel Prize in
challenges of terrorism in India. Physics in 1903
Its headquarter is located in New and in Chemistry
Delhi.
1911.
Its motto is 'Sarvatra Sarvottam
Suraksha'. 2. Linus Pauling Chemistry in
1954 and Peace
Prize in 1962.
International Awards
3 3. John Bardeen Nobel Prize in
& Honours Noble Prize Physics in 1956
and 1972.
The Nobel Prize is set up by Alfred 4. Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize for
Bernard Nobel, a world-renowned Chemistry in
Swedish scientist and inventor 1958 and 1980.
278
 Nobel Laureates (Scholars of India Satyajit Ray was the first
and Indian Origin) in 1980 Indian to receive the Lifetime
Abhijeet Banerjee (born 1961) Achievement Time Award of
Indian-American Abhijeet Oscar (Honorary Awards) in 1992
Banerjee received the 2019 Nobel for his achievements.
Prize for Economics. Pulitzer Prize:
Pulitzer Prize was started in 1917.
Kailash Satyarthi (born 1954): The award is given in the name
In 2014, Kailash Satyarthi was of American publisher Joseph
awarded a Nobel Peace Prize. Pulitzer for his outstanding
Amartya Sen (born 1933): Prof. contribution in the field of
Amartya Sen was awarded Nobel journalism.
Prize for Economics in 1998. It is awarded by Columbia
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar University, USA.
(1910-1995): Dr. Subrahmanyan Grammy Awards :
Chandrasekhar, an astrophysicist, Grammy Awards are given
was awarded Nobel Prize for annually by National Academy
Physics in 1983. of Recording Arts and Sciences.
Mother Teresa (1910–1997): This award is given for
Mother Teresa received the Nobel unprecedented achievements in
Peace Prize in 1979. the field of music.
Hargobind Khurana (1922- Booker Prize:
2011): Hargobind Khurana was Man Booker Prize was started in
awarded Nobel Prize for research 1969.
in the field of Medicine in 1968. This award is given to the narrators
of Commonwealth countries only
Oscar Awards
for a single story.
The Oscar Awards started in 1929.
The Oscar Awards are presented Ramon Magsaysay Award:
by the US National Academy It was established in April 1957.
of Motion Picture Arts and It is called 'Asia's Nobel Prize’,
Sciences. Asia's most prestigious award.
George Bernard Shaw and famous Under this award, a Gold medal
American singer and songwriter and 50 thousand dollars are
Bob Dillon have received both the awarded to the winner.
Oscar Award and the Nobel Prize In, 2019 Renowned Journalist of
(for Literature). India, Ravish Kumar awarded for
The Oscar Awards nominee for Ramon Magsaysay Award.
the Best Foreign Language Indian Kalinga Award:
Film (first) was Mehboob Khan's Kalinga Award was instituted in
'Mother India' (1958). 1952.
Bhanu Athaiya is the first Indian The award is given by UNESCO
woman to receive an Oscar Award for its extraordinary effort to
(for 'Gandhi'). popularize science.
279
 gallantry awards i.e Paramvir
National Awards Chakra, Mahavir Chakra and
4 Vir Chakra were instituted by
and Honours
the Government of India on 26
Bharat Ratna: January, 1950.
Bharat Ratna Award was instituted Paramveer Chakra:
in 1954. It is the highest award for bravery.
The first award was given to the Its medal consists of four replicas
famous scientist Chandrasekhar of 'Indra's Vajra' with bronze built,
Venkataraman. spherical and embossed state
Former Prime Minister Indira emblem at center.
Gandhi is the first woman to be Mahavir Chakra is the second
awarded Bharat Ratna. highest military decoration in India.
Lal Bahadur Shastri was awarded Veer Chakra
Bharat Ratna posthumously in Veer Chakra is written in Hindi and
1966. English with two Lotus flowers in
The first foreigner awarded Bharat the back.
Ratna was Abdul Ghaffar Khan. Its lace is half blue and half orange
Padma Awards: in colour.
One of the highest civilian awards International Gandhi Peace Prize:
of the country, Padma Award is This award is being given since
given in three categories - Padma 1995 by the Government of
Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and India to a person who played a
Padma Shri. significant role in World Peace.
Gallantry Awards: One crore and a citation are
After Independence, three provided under this award.

Noble Prize recipient of Indian Origin / Indian

Person Year Area
Ravindra Nath Tagore 1913 Literature
C.V. Raman 1930 Physics
Hargovind Khurana 1968 Medicine
Mother Teresa 1979 Peace
Subrahmanyam Chandrashekhar 1983 Physics
Amartya Sen 1998 Economics
V.S. Naipaul 2001 Literature
Venkataraman Ramakrishnan 2009 Chemistry
Kailash Satyarthi 2014 Peace
Abhijeet Banerjee 2019 Economics
280
 Important Awards: Field and Prize Money
Awards Field and Prize Money
1. Jnanpith Award in the field of literature (Rs 11 lakh)
2. Dadasaheb Phalke Award in the field of film (Golden Lotus and Rs
10 lakh)
3. Saraswati Samman in field of literature (Rs. 15 Lakh)
4. Vachaspati Award for outstanding contribution to Sanskrit
Literature (Rs. 1 Lakh)
5. Vyas Samman in the field of literature (Rs. 3.50 Lakh).
6. Kabir Award for Social Harmony (Rs. 1.50 Lakh)
7. Major Dhyanchand Khel for Meritorious Performance in Sports
Ratna Award Games (25 Lakhs Rs.)
8. Arjuna Award in the field of Sports (Rs. 15 Lakh)
9. Dhyan Chand Award for Lifetime Achievements in Sports (Rs.
10 Lakh)
10. Dronacharya Award in the field of Sports training (15 lakh
rupees)
11. Dhanvantari Award in the field of Medicine
12. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar in the field of Science (Rs. 5 lakh)
Prize
13. Borlaug Award in the field of environment and
agriculture.

Renowned Bharat Ratna

Person Year
1. Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 1954
and Chandrasekhar Venkataraman
2. Dr. Bhagwan Das, Dr. Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya and 1955
Jawaharlal Nehru
3. Dr. Rajendra Prasad 1962
4. Dr. Zakir Hussain and Dr. Pandurang Vaman Kane 1963
5. Lal Bahadur Shastri 1966
6. Indira Gandhi 1971
7. Mother Teresa 1980

281
8. Acharya Vinoba Bhave 1983
9. Khan Abul Gaffar Khan 1987
10. Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and Nelson Mandela 1990
11. Rajiv Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Morarji Desai 1991
12. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, JRD Tata and Satyajit Ray 1992
13. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, Gulzarilal Nanda and Aruna Asaf Ali 1997
14. Lata Mangeshkar, Ustad Bismillah Khan 2001
15. Bhimsen Joshi 2009
16. Sachin Tendulkar and Chintamani Nagesh Ramchandra Rao 2014
(CNR Rao)
17. Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Madan Mohan Malviya 2015
18. Pranab Mukherjee, Bhupen Hazarika and Nanaji Deshmukh 2019

Major Indian Writers and Their Books

Writers Books
Asvaghosha Buddhachritam
Banabhatta Kadambari
Firdausi Shahnamah
Shudrak Mrichakatikam
Vatsyayana Kamasutra
Gulbadan Begum Humayun-nama
Bhrartruhari Neeti- Shatak
Vishnu Sharma Panchatantra
Raskhan Premavatika
Ravindra Nath Tagore Chitrangada, Geetanjali, Visarjan, The Gardener, The
Hungry Stones, Gora, Chandalika
Amrita Pritam Kagaz Te Canvas, Pinjar, Rasidi Ticket
Khushwant Singh Indira Gandhi Returns, The Company of Women, Delhi,
Train to Pakistan.
Indira Gandhi Eternal India
Jaishankar Prasad Kamayani, Aansu, Lahar, Kankal, Titali
Arvind Ghosh The Life Divine, Essays on Geeta, Letters on Yoga
Suryakant Tripathi Anamika, Parimal, Kukurmuta
'Nirala'
282
Mahadevi Varma Yama, Neehar,Neerja, Atit Ke Chalchitra, Smriti ki
Rekhayein
Nayantara Sehgal A Vice for Freedom, Rich Like Us
V.S. Naipaul An Area of Darkness, In a Free State, A Bend in the River
Visakhadatta Mudrarakshaas
Panini Ashtadhyayi
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan Indian Philosophy
Kalhan Rajatarangini
Chanakya Arthashastra
Kalidas Kumarasambhavam, Raghuvansham, Abhigyan
Shakuntalam
Malik Mo. Jayasi Padmavat
Abul Fazl Aine Akbari, Akbarnama
Kabirdas Bijak, Ramani, Sabad
Alberuni Kitab-ul-Hind
Mulk Raj Anand Quli, Confession of a Lover, Untouchable
Prem Chand Godan, Gaban Karmabhoomi, Rangbhumi, Sevasadan,
Nirmala
Agyey Kitni Navon men Kitni baar, Shekhar : Ek Jivani, Apne-
ApneAjnabi, Nadi Ke Dweep, Hari ghas par Kshan Bhar,
Are yayawar Rahega Yad?
Sarojini Naidu The Golden Threshold, The Broken Wing
Yashpal Dada Comrade, Jhutha Sach, Meri Teri Uski Baat
Sumitranandan Pant Kala Aur Budha Chand, Gramya, Pallav, Chidambara
Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar' Kurukshetra, Urvashi

Latest Famous Books and Its Authors

Books Authors
Amazing Ayodhya Neena Roy
Resolved : Uniting Nations in a Divided World Ban-Ki-Moon
Cooking to save your life Abhijit Banerjee
Lal Salaam Smriti Irani
Actually I Met them : A Memoir Gulzar
Hit Refresh Satya Nadella
A Century Is Not Enough Sourav Ganguly
Unstoppable:My Life So For Maria Sharapova
Exam Warriors Narendra Modi
283
India Positive, Half Girlfriend, 2 States, Five Points Someone Chetan Bhagat
Meluha’s Mritunjay, Sita Mithila's Warrior, Naga's Secret Amish Tripathi
The Accidental Prime Minister Sanjay Baru
We Are Displaced Malala Yousafzai
Half a Life V.S. Naipal
Straight From the Heart Kapil Dev
A New World Amit Chaudhary
Somnath: The Many Vices of a History Romila Thapar
The Namesake, Interpreter of Maladies Jhumpa Lahiri
Burial at Sea Khushwant Singh
Let's Kill Gandhi Tushar A. Gandhi
Ignited Minds A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
Heads and Tales Maneka Gandhi
Towards a Hunger-Free World M.S. Swaminathan
Seshan: An Antiment Story K. Govindan Kutty
Sansad Meen Teen Dashak Atal Bihari Vajpayee
Blind Man Of Hindustan General K. Sundarji
The God Of Small Things Arundhati Roy
Kargil From Surprise to Victory General V.P. Malik
Mother Teresa Naveen Chawla
Netaji and Gandhi Shashi Ahluwalia
India Towards Anarchy N.S. Saxena
The Golden Gate, A Suitable Boy Vikram Seth
The Insider P.V. Narasimha Rao
Indian Controversies: Essays on Religion in Politics Arun Shourie
The Brief History of Time Stephen Hawking
Mission to India Stanley Kalpage
Doctor of the East Benazir Bhutto
First Person Vladimir Putin
Lajja Tasleema Nasreen
Mother Teresa Down Memory Lane Derek O'Brien, Sunil
K. Dutt
Long Walk to Freedom Nelson Mandela
Satanic Varseg, Midnight Children Salman Rushdie
The Invisible Man H.G. Wales
284
 Elects temporary members of the
International Security Council for two years
5
Organizations by its two-thirds majority by the
General Assembly.
United Nations : United Nations Economic and Social
Establishment of the United Council:
Nations including 51 Countries of The current number of members of
the world took place on October the Economic and Social Council
24, 1945. is 54.
Therefore, on 24 October every The members of the Economic and
year, United Nations Day is Social Council have a tenure of 3
celebrated across the world. years.
Currently, the number of member The Economic Social Council
countries of the United Nations is 193. caters to various standing
South Sudan is the 193rd member committees, special institutions
of the United Nations. and commissions such as the
United Nations headquarter is Population and Traffic Commission,
located on Manhattan Island in the Economic Employment
New York City. Commission and the United
There are 6 parts of the United Nations Children's Crisis Fund.
Nations - General Assembly, Secretariat:
Security Council, Economic and The Chief of the United Nations
Social Council, Trust Council, Secretariat is General Secretary.
International Court of Justice and The Secretary-General is appointed
Secretariat. for 5 years on the recommendation
General Assembly: of the Security Council. Any person
United Nations General Assembly can be appointed to the post of
is also called the world's parliament. Secretary General more than once.
United Nations Security Council International Court of Justice:
(UNSC): International Court was established
The Security Council is the main in 1945.
It is the principal judicial body of
organ of the United Nations.
the United Nations.
The main function of the Security Its headquarter is located in The
Council is to maintain international Hague (Netherlands).
peace and security. The number of judges in the
Security Council consists of 5 International Court of Justice is 15.
permanent and 10 temporary But no member country has more
members i.e 15 members in total. than one judge.
America, Britain, China, Russia Judges are appointed for 9 years
and France are permanent and 5 judges retire after every 3
members of the Security Council. years.
285
 International Organizations, Headquarters and Years of Establishment
Organization Headquarter Year
International Labor Organization (ILO) Geneva (Switzerland) 1919
World Health Organization (WHO) World Mete- Geneva (Switzerland) 1948
orological
Organization (WMO) Geneva (Switzerland) 1950
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Geneva (Switzerland) 1967
World Trade Organization (WTO) Geneva (Switzerland) 1995
International Monetary Fund (IMF) Washington D.C. (USA) 1945
World Bank Washington D.C. (USA) 1945
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Vienna (Austria) 1957
United Nations Industrial Development Organi- Vienna (Austria) 1966
zation (UNIDO)
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organi- Vienna (Austria) 1996
zation (CTBTO)
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) Madrid (Spain) 1975
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Montreal (Canada) 1944
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organiza- Rome (Italy) 1945
tion (FAO)
International Agricultural Development Fund Rome (Italy) 1977
(IFAD)
UNESCO Paris (France) 1946
International Maritime Organization (IMO) London (UK) 1958
Chemical Weapons Prohibition Organization The Hague (Netherlands) 1997
(OPCW)
International Maritime Organization (IMO) London (UK) 1958
Chemical Weapons Prohibition Organization The Hague (Netherlands) 1997
(OPCW)
United Nations (UN) New York (USA) 1945
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) New York (USA) 1946
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) New York (USA) 1969
United Nations Trade and Development Confer- Geneva (Switzerland) 1964
ence (UNCTAD)
International Committee of the Red Cross : Geneva (Switzerland) 1863
ICRC)
286
International Organization for Standardization Geneva (Switzerland) 1947
(ISO)
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Paris (France) 1961
Development (OECD
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Vienna (Austria)
(OPEC) 1960
Amnesty International (AI) London (UK) 1961
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Brussels (Belgium) 1949
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) Abu Dhabi (U.A.E.) 2009
South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation Kathmandu (Nepal) 1985
Organization (SAARC)
Association Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Jakarta (Indonesia) 1967
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum Singapore 1989
(APEC)
Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) Jeddah (Saudi Arabia) 1969
Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Co- Eben (Mauritius) 1997
operation (IOR- ARC)
International Olympic Committee (IOC). Lausanne (Switzerland) 1894
World Economic Forum (WEF) Geneva (Switzerland) 1971
Federation Internationale de Football Association Zurich (Switzerland) 1904
(FIFA)
International Cricket Council (ICC) Dubai (UAE) 1909
International Hockey Federation (FIH) Lausanne (Switzerland) 1924
World Chess Federation (FIDE) Athens (Greece) 1924
International Nature Conservation Union (IUCN) Gland(Switzerland) 1948
Assigned Names and Numbers Internet Corpo- Los Angeles, (USA) 1998
ration (ICANN)
Doctors Without Borders (MSF) Geneva (Switzerland) 1971
International Shooting Sports Federation (ISSF) Munich (Germany) 1907
New Development Bank (NDB) Shanghai (China) 2014
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) (Kenya) Nairobi 1972
Asian Development Bank (ADB) Manila (Philippines) 1966
United Nations Refugee High Commission (IOM) Geneva (Switzerland) 1951
World Wildlife Conservation Fund(WWF) Gland (Switzerland) 1961
Greenepeace Amsterdam (Netherlands) 1971

287
 The main objective of the Red
World's Major Cross is to help those who were
6 affected by war or disaster.
Organizations
Association of South - East Asian
Nations - (ASEAN):
T h e N o r t h A t l a n t i c Tr e a t y 'Association of Southeast Asian
Organization - (NATO): Nations' (ASEAN) was established
NATO was established on April 4, on 8 August 1967.
1949. Central Secretariat of ASEAN is
C u r r e n t l y, N AT O h a s 3 0 located in Jakarta, Indonesia.
independent member countries. Currently, there are 10 countries
North Macedonia is the 30 th involved in ASEAN.
member country of NATO. Asian Development Bank (ADB):
NATO headquarter is located in Asian Development Bank was
Brussels (Belgium). established in 1966.
European Union: The Asian Development Bank's
Establishment of the European headquarter is located in Manila,
Union on 1 November 1993 in Philippines.
The South Asian Association for
Maastricht (Netherlands).
Regional Cooperation (SAARC):
Headquarter of the European South Asian Association for
Union is located in Brussels Regional Cooperation was
(Belgium). established in December 1985.
The total number of member countries Its headquarter is located in
in the European Union is 27. Kathmandu, Nepal.
Organization of Petroleum SAARC has 8 member countries
Exporting Countries - OPEC: - Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka,
OPEC was established in 1960 in Maldives, India, Bangladesh,
Baghdad. Pakistan and Afghanistan.
OPEC has its headquarter in G-7 (Group. 7):
Vienna, Austria. G-7 was founded by France in 1975.
(Non-Aligned Movement - NAM): The countries included in the G-7
In 1961, the first Conference of are - America, Canada, the United
Non-Aligned Countries was held Kingdom, France, Italy, Germany
and Japan.
in Belgrade. Brazil, Russia, India, China and
The Non-Aligned Movement South Africa -(BRICS):
headquarter is located in Jakarta, Brazil, Russia, India and China
Indonesia. established a new economic
Red Cross: organization (BRIC) in 2009.
The Red Cross was founded in South Africa was included in this
1863 by Henry Dunant. organisation on 14 April, 2011 at
Its headquarter is located in the 3rd BRIC Summit held in China
Geneva (Switzerland). and named 'BRICS'.
288