KEBBI STATE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, ALIERO

Faculty of Education
DEPARTMENT OF LIBRARY & INFORMATION SCIENCE
GST 121: Use of Library, Study Skills and ICT
UG 1 ( 1st SEMESTER)
LECTURE MATERIAL

Brief History of Libraries

The history of libraries began with the first efforts to organize collections of documents.
Topics of interest include accessibility of the collection, acquisition of materials,
arrangement and finding tools, the book trade, the influence of the physical properties
of the different writing materials, language distribution, role in education, rates of
literacy, budgets, staffing, libraries for targeted audiences, architectural merit, patterns
of usage, and the role of libraries in a nation's cultural heritage, and the role of
government, church or private sponsorship. Computerization and digitization arose
from the 1960s, and changed many aspects of libraries.
The very earliest libraries are believed to have been built around five thousand years ago,
with the first human efforts to organize collections of documents. These took the form
of clay tablets in cuneiform script about an inch thick, in various shapes and sizes.
Mud-like clay was placed in the wooden frames, and the surface was smoothed for
writing and allowed to dry until damp. After being inscribed, the clay dried in the sun, or
for a harder finish, was baked in a kiln.
According to research, the word “library” originated in Latin, from the word Libraria,
meaning “place storing books” and the Latin liber, meaning “book,” whereas a Latinized
Greek word, bibliotheca, is the origin of the word for library in German, Russian, and the
Romance languages.
The First Libraries
It is believed that the first libraries appeared five thousand years ago in Southwest
Asia’s Fertile Crescent, an area that ran from Mesopotamia to the Nile. The world’s
oldest known library is believed to be The Library of Ashurbanipal. Which was founded
sometime in the 7th century B.C. for the “royal contemplation” of the Assyrian ruler
Ashurbanipal. Located in Nineveh in modern day Iraq, the site included a trove of some
30,000 cuneiform tablets organized according to subject matter. The library, named
after Ashurbanipal, in fact the last great king of the Assyrian Empire, is a collection of
more than 30,000 clay tablets and fragments containing contemporary texts of all kinds,
including a number in various languages.
The texts themselves–from both Babylonia and Assyria–include a wide variety of

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documents, both administrative (legal documents such as contracts), and literary,
including the famous Gilgamesh myth. Subject matter included Astronomy, Divinatory,
Epics (Gilgamesh, Anzu myth, the Epic of Creation, literary myths about Ashurbanipal
himself), Historical, Medicine, Lexical (syllabaries and archaic word lists, grammatical
texts) and Religion.
Definition of Library
Harrod’s Librarian’s Glossary and Reference Book defines ‘Library’ as:
(1) A collection of books and other literary material kept for reading, study and
consultation.
(2) A place, building, room or rooms set apart for the keeping and use of a collection of
books, etc.
(3) A number of books issued by one publisher under a comprehensive title as the ‘Loeb
Classical Library’, and usually having some general characteristic, such as, subject,
binding, or typography.
(4) A collection of films, photographs and other non-book materials, plastic or metal
tapes, disks and programs.
Dr. S. R. Ranganathan, father of library science in India, describes the library as a public
institution or establishment charged with the care of collection of books and the duty of
making them accessible to those who require to use them.
Therefore, it could be derived from the above definitions that a library is an organization
of records of human thought. These records are in a physical form, i.e., human thoughts
embodied in the form of useful manuscripts, books, periodicals, audio-visual records,
microfilms, graphs, charts, etc. These are arranged, stored and preserved in a physical
functional structure for effective utilization by the potential users in future.
Divisions in Library
Some Divisions found in Libraries
1. Reader Services Division
2. Reference Division
3. ICT Division
4. Processing Division
5. Serial Division
6. Administrative Division
7. Media Services Division
8. Human Resources Division
9. Collection Development Division
Library and Education:
Briefly speaking education aims at
(i) The imparting of knowledge and skills;
(ii) The inculcation of values; and
(iii) The imparting of vocational skills.
There is both formal and non-formal education. Formal education is the one that an

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individual attains by enrolling himself in an educational institution like a school or a
college or a university and through constant teacher-student contacts. In non-formal
education there is no such institutional base for education; you educate yourself
through courses offered by distance education mode, with the help of either other
methods of learning or through self-study.
1. Formal Education: Every institution of formal education, be it a school, a college or a
university, should have a library attached to it. It should have a collection of books
relevant to its courses of study. Students should be encouraged to read books and
imbibe the knowledge contained in them. At the earlier stages of education like the
school, this should be done to supplement classroom teaching. At later stages,
particularly in colleges and universities, the focal point of learning should gradually shift
from the classroom to the library. It is through the extensive reading of a variety of
books bearing on a subject that a student will be able to acquire in-depth knowledge of
the subject. By being able to analyze and compare different viewpoints as expounded in
different books, a student will be able to develop his capacity for analytical and critical
thinking. This will enable him to formulate independent viewpoints and opinions. The
role of the library in fostering the intellectual development of students cannot be over-
emphasized.
2. Non-Formal Education: In non-formal education where the help of the teacher is
minimal, it is the library that is the main resource. Students here have, by and large, to
acquire knowledge through self-study. Libraries of formal educational institutions as
well as public libraries have a significant role to play in this respect: The former should
throw open their facilities to students of non-formal education in such a manner that the
interests of their primary clientele are not adversely affected. Universities, as the bodies
that lay down academic standards and conduct examinations in the field of higher
education; have a special responsibility in this regard. They should try to make their
library services reach as wide a clientele as possible including students of non-formal
education. One way to make this possible is to establish branch libraries of the main
university library at different places within its jurisdiction and making them accessible
to the entire academic community in the area including students of non-formal
education.
But the main responsibility of supporting non-formal education rests with the public
library system. Everyone should have access as a matter of right to the public library. A
public library should try to discharge this responsibility by acquiring books and journals
suited to the needs of the students of non-formal education in its area. The
development of a sound public library system is an essential pre-requisite for the
successful implementation of all non-formal educational programmes.
3. Education of Illiterates: If one is an illiterate person, do you think that he/she is
unable to get the benefits of education? Not at all. Literacy is only a means of education,
not education -itself. It is, no doubt, the most important means, and not having it is a
serious handicap. But we have today many other effective means that modern

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technology has brought into existence. The audio-visual media, especially the video tape,
have made it possible for education to be brought to your doorstep. It is a special
responsibility of the public library to work for the education of the illiterate people in its
community through. such media: It should also organise learning clubs and other
programmes of oral communication for educating its illiterate clientele.
4. Education of Working Groups: The library has an educational role in another sense
also. It should stock books relevant to the needs of people engaged in different
vocations in its area. By reading such books they will become better informed and
educated in their areas of work and will be able to increase their work efficiency. This
will lead to greater productivity. The public library has to play a contributory role here
also.

Education of Physically Handicapped: The establishment of educational institutions for

physically handicapped persons is a special and mandatory responsibility of society and
the government. Appropriate learning and teaching materials are acquired by these
types of institutions, such as books and other types of learning kits for the blind, in
addition to other physical facilities. Libraries attached to these institutions have the
responsibility of stocking these types of library material and help these unfortunate
persons use them and thus get them educated and rehabilitated in society.

Types of Library:
According to the mode of services rendered to the readers; libraries are broadly divided
into four types:
1. Academic Library,
2. Special Library,
3. Public Library, and
4. National Library.
1. Academic Library:
Academic library is the library which is attached to academic institutions like schools,
colleges and universities. An academic library serves more specifically the students,
research scholars, teachers and staff of the academic institution. Main objective of an
academic library is to give maximum learning materials to its clientele so that they may
be fully educated in their respective level. Academic libraries are categorized into school
libraries, college libraries and university libraries.
A. School Library: A school library is a learning laboratory, providing a variety of
instructional media, essential for optimum support of the education programme. The
purpose of the school library is to attain the objectives of the educational programme. It
concerns with the development of effective methods of thinking, inculcation of social
attitudes, acquisition of important information and promoting growth and development
among the children. The function of the school library is to help the students in the
process of their self-discovery, to adopt high ideals in life, improve scholastic efficiency

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through self-study and to develop the capacity for critical thinking.
B. College Library: College performs an important function in educational process. A
college without a library is like a tree with no roots. The status of every college is
measured through the position of the library that it maintains. Hence every college
library should become a teaching instrument in itself. A college library is expected to
support the objectives of the college. Thus, the basic function of a college library is to
assist its parent body to carry out its programmes.
C. University Library: A library is more important in a University, because a library can do
without a University where as a university cannot function without a library. A university
library is an integral part of the institution. It is primarily maintained for the benefit of
students, officers, faculty members and for those who are engaged in research work. It
plays a very important role in the national life of the community by acquiring material for
educational use for the benefit of students and teaching departments.
2. Special Library:
Special library became popular since the beginning of 20th century. A special library is
one which serves a particular group of people, such as the employees of a firm of
government department, or the staff and members of a professional or research
organization. Such a library deals essentially in information (Krishan Kumar; 1987; 72)
3. Public Library:
A public library (also called circulating library) is a library which is accessible by the
public and is generally funded from public sources (such as tax money) and may be
operated by the civil servants. Taxing bodies for public libraries may be at any level from
local to national central government level. The public library is an excellent model of
government at its best. A locally controlled public good, it serves every individual freely,
in as much or as little depth as he or she wants. (Wikipedia)
4. National Library:
A national library is a library specifically established by the government of a country to
serve as the preeminent repository of information for that country. Unlike public libraries,
these rarely allow citizens to borrow books. Often, they include numerous rare, valuable,
or significant works. A National Library is that library which has the duty of collecting
and preserving the literature of the nation within and outside the country, Thus, National
Library are those libraries whose community is the nation at large.
Reference Services
When you visit a hospital, bank, or any other public place you feel happy and
comfortable when somebody is readily available to help or guide you. You can avail of
the services easily and satisfactorily. Similarly reference services are provided in
libraries to help the readers in making use of library facilities. For example the readers
visiting a library may not know the location of different sections of the library, how to
consult an OPAC and retrieve information from it, whether a particular journal or
database is subscribed by the library or not. In such a situation, it is the duty of the
library staff to help the readers by providing the relevant information. So, reference

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service is providing relevant and timely information to help the readers.
1. Service provided by libraries whereby patrons are assisted in the location and
retrieval of information relevant to their information needs. Learn more in: Leveraging
Libraries to Support Academic Technology
2. It’s a kind of library service to assist the users to find the information they
need. Learn more in: Using Social Network Sites for Library Services in Public Libraries:
Possibilities and Challenges
3. Refer to the provision o f information to people entering a library and requesting
assistance from the library staff or in short personal assistance provided to library
users seeking for information. Learn more in: Reference Services in Digital Environment
Ranganathan has defined reference service as a personal service to each reader in
helping her/him to find the document, answering the particular query, pin pointedly,
exhaustively and expeditiously. Ranganathan has also emphasised that the reference
service aims at “providing the right book to the right reader at the right time.” He further
said that the questions or queries which are answered by the library staff can be
categorized as:
 Reference Service
 Library Services
 Ready reference queries
 Short range queries
 Long range queries

LIBRARY MATERIAL
The library materials are records of human knowledge on paper or any other form for
easy physical handling, storing, use and preservation over the years. The information
contained in the documents, represents the thought content and knowledge.
Documents are available in various forms, namely, the print and the non-print form. In
order to develop a library’s collection, we must know about these reading materials,
their types, form, use and characteristics. The collection is maintained by the library for
use. In the more traditional sense, a library is a collection of books.
The role and functions of a library are as follows
 Provide free knowledge and access to literature to the user community;
 Increase academic wealth by building library collection;
 Search and research for information that users want to know;
 Find books for purpose of reference work; and
 Manage and access to electronic information resources.
In view of above, the primary goal and job of a library is to aid all users in their quest for
knowledge. An excellent collection of documents is a prerequisite to all library services
rendered by a library. These are available in a variety of forms which includes both, the
print and the non-print material.

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PRINT MATERIAL historically, libraries have been dependent on printed material to build
collection. In a library we find a variety of printed material in various forms, which are:
 Books
 Periodicals
 Newspapers
 Reference books
 Dissertations and theses
 Standards
 Patents
 Maps
 Reports etc.
NON-PRINT MATERIAL
Non-print material are defined as any material pertaining to, or consisting of other than
the printed matter. These are rapidly becoming important information and learning
resource materials for the modern libraries. Non print materials differ from printed
materials in several ways. One of the main differences is that a machine must serve as
a mediator between the information and the user of non print material. Also, great
variety of formats and machines there exist a which may confuse the users. Non-print
materials are important as well as popular sources of information around the world due
to their unmatchable merits.
These are:
i. Economy of space
ii. Portability and easy transportation
iii. Monotonous topics made interesting and easy to understand
iv. Condensation of text helps in quick transmission, thereby saving time in learning
v. Quick and easy to grasp and remember In order to use the non-print materials,
the following equipment is required in the libraries:
a) Computer systems and related equipment and furniture
b) Projectors – film projectors, overhead projectors, slide projectors
c) Audio and video equipment – CD players, Digital recorders, Digital video recorders,
Tape recorders, headphones, speakers, etc.
d) Cameras and related equipment
e) Miscellaneous equipment – Screens, cords, adaptors, microphones and microphone
stands, etc. The non-print materials are available in two categories, namely, the
audiovisual materials and the electronic materials.
i. Using library resources including e-learning, e-materials, etc
ii. Understanding library catalogues (card, OPAC, etc) and classification

Types of Physical form of Library catalogue.

There are four major physical forms of library catalogue.
 Card Catalogue or card form: A catalogue, the entries of which are made on

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 cards of uniform size and quality, and stored in any desired order on their edges
in drawers or other form of container, each card being restricted to a single entry
and with details of class number or call number to enable the item to be found.
 Book catalogue or book form: A catalogue produced in book form, also used as
a synonym for Printed catalogue. Sometimes used synonymously for Page
catalogue and ‘Book form catalogue’.
 Guard Book catalogue or guard book form: One in which only a few entries are
made on a page at first, with spaces left for the insertion of subsequent entries in
correct order.
 Shelf catalogue or shelf form: It is an variation of Guard Book catalogue.
Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC)
The ALA GLOSSARY defines Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) as follows: “A
computer-based and supported library catalogue (bibliographic database) designed to
be accessed via terminal so that library users may directly effectively search for retrieve
bibliographic records without the assistance of a human intermediary such as a
specially trained member of the library staff’.
Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science (ODLIS) defines as: “An acronym
for online public access catalogue a database composed of bibliographic records
describing the books and other material owned by a library or library system, accessible
via public terminals or workstations usually concentrated near the reference desk to
make it easy for user to request the assistance of a trained reference librarian. Most
online catalogs are searchable by author, title subject and keywords and allow users to
print, download or export records to an e-mail account”.

Types of Catalogue Entries

Author entry (Main entry)
An author is generally a person or a corporate body who is responsible for the thought
contents of the document brought out under the name. Listing of personal names of
authors varies greatly because of the cultural traditions in the naming of persons in
different regions of the world. For example, names of persons in western countries,
Indic names, and Muslim names, Chinese and Japanese names have their own
traditions, which part of the names should be taken as the lead in a catalogue has been
set by cataloguing codes and there are established practices.
Name Catalogue
In other words, a name catalogue is a mixed type of catalogue which combines the
author and subject entries (the subject entries representing the author as a subject) into
one alphabetical sequence. In this type of catalogue, biographies and other critical
studies of an author, are arranged along with his original works. The author entries
include: • corporate authors, both as an author as well as a subject • name series • place
name forming part of an author heading.
Title Catalogue

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In a title catalogue, the titles of documents occupy at the leading section of entries,
which are arranged in an alphabetical order. Queries of readers who remember only the
exact title of the book can be answered with the help of a title catalogue. However, it is
noticed that many of the readers do not spell out a title exactly the way it appears on the
title page, particularly non-fiction titles. To fulfil title approach of readers, entries can he
selectively provided in catalogues of public libraries for fiction and for those that are
well-known by their titles.
Subject Catalogue
In an alphabetical subject catalogue, entries are made under the name of the specific
subjects of documents. Irrespective of their affiliations, specific subject entries are
strictly arranged in an alphabetical order. The fundamental rule of entry in an
alphabetical specific subject catalogue is to enter a work under its specific subject. For
example, a book on `Roses' will be entered under `Roses' and not under `flowers' or
`Botany', which are broader than `Roses'. Ranganathan defines a specific subject of a
document as that division of knowledge whose intension and extension are equal to its
thought contents. According to him, the specific subject of `Teaching chemistry in
secondary schools in Delhi' would be `DELHI, CHEMISTRY, TEACHING 'TECHNIQUE,
SECONDARY SCHOOLS, EDUCATION' and not the way it is given in the heading.
Classified Catalogue
A classified catalogue is a form of subject catalogue, in which the entries are arranged
by the class number which representing the subject of document, according to the
classification scheme chosen for a library. Let us examine a few formal definitions of a
classified catalogue.
a) A catalogue in which some entries are number entries and some are word entries
(Ranganathan).
b) A classified catalogue is a subject catalogue in which the entries are arranged by
some recognized system of classification; the notation or classification symbol
furnishes the method of arrangements (Margaret Mann).
c) A classified catalogue arranges its entries in a systematic order of subjects, the order
usually being that of the classification scheme used for the arrangement of books on
the shelves (Henry Sharp).
Dictionary catalogue
A dictionary catalogue gives information about documents available in a library with
reference to their authors, titles, subjects, etc. All the entries getting arranged in a single
alphabetical order. It resembles arrangement of entries as in a natural language
dictionary in which all words, irrespective of their origin, parts of speech (nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, etc.), usage, etc. are arranged in one single alphabetical order. A
more formal definition of a dictionary catalogue is that it is `a catalogue usually on
cards, in which all entries - author, title, subjects, series, etc.,- and their relatives are
arranged together in one general alphabet" (Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules II) As
mentioned above, a dictionary catalogue consists of four different groups of entries,

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each containing different types of bibliographical elements
There may be many more physical forms of library catalogue such as in the form of
magnetic tape, microfilm, computerized form etc., but the above mentioned four forms
are most popular and traditional.

Copyright and its implications

A copyright is an exclusive right given to the originator of creative work to reproduce the
work for a limited period. Copyright protects the work of authors, artists, songwriters,
music publishers and composers, photographers and other creatives. The primary
copyright law in Nigeria is the Copyright Act Cap C28 LFN 2004 (the Act).
The copyright is governed by the Copyright Act Cap C28 LFN 2004 (the Act). The
governing body or government agency in charge of copyright is the Nigerian Copyright
Commission (NCC). The Commission is responsible for the following:
 all matters affecting copyright in Nigeria as provided for in this Act
 monitoring and supervising Nigeria’s position in relation to international
convention and advise Government thereon
 advising and regulating conditions for the conclusion of bilateral and multilateral
agreements between Nigeria and any other country;
 enlightening and informing the public on matters relating to copyright;
 maintaining an effective data bank on authors and their works;
Under the Act, Section 1 provides that the works that are eligible for copyright
protection are as follows:
 Literary works
 Musical works
 Artistic works
 Cinematograph works
 Sound recording
Section 11 provides that the owner of a copyright has the following rights:
 To claim authorship of his work
 To object and seek relief in connection with any distortion, mutilation or any other
modification of his work.
It should be noted that the law also recognizes an “author” to include a person’s heir
and successors in title. Where work with subsisting copyright is published, printed,
produced or manufactured, there should be kept a register showing the name of the
author, the title, the year of production and the quantity of work produced.
A copyright is infringed by any person who without the license or authorization of the
owner of the copyright uses or causes the copyrighted work to be used. A copyright
holder whose right has been infringed is entitled to damages or injunctions.
The copyright law in Nigeria provides for has several categories and the duration of
rights. The First Schedule of the Copyright Act provides that:

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  In the case of literary, musical or artistic works (photographs are not included),
copyright will be given for a period of 70 years after the end of the year in which
the author dies. Where the work is created by a body corporate then the copyright
will last for 70 years after the end of the year in which the work was first
published.
 In the case of cinematography, films, and photographs, the copyright will last for
a period of 50 years after the end of the year in which the work was first
published
 In the case of sound recordings, the copyright is given for a period of 50 years
after the end of the year in which the recording was first made.
Where it is a broadcast, the copyright will last 50 years after the end of the year in which
the broadcast first took place
Implications and possible consequences?
 The implication is that although material is copyrighted it does not necessarily
mean it cannot be used. Having said that, users need to pay attention to the laws
and be aware of their actions.
 If a user is caught violating a copyright law deliberately they can be fined certain
amount for each violation. If a user disregards the policies regarding copyright
they may lose legal support from the country. There are also ethical implications
involved because breaking copyright laws is a form of stealing, and as a role
model and mentor teachers should always try to behave in an ethical manner.
 The same goes for students dealing with plagiarism. Plagiarism is a serious
offense and although each school has its own rules, the general consequences
range from a reduced grade to being kicked out of school.
Database resources
i. E-journals: Electronic journals
ii. E-books: Electronic books
iii. Science direct
iv. AGORA: Access to Global Online Research in Agriculture
v. DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals
vi. EMERALD
vii. HINARI: Health InterNetwork Access to Research Initiative
viii. EBSCOHOST: Elton B Stephans Company
ix. OARE: Online access to research in the environment
x. JSTOR: Journal Storage
xi. TEEAL: Essential Electronic Agricultural Library

Bibliographic citations and referencing.

APA Style
There are two parts to referencing: the citations within the text of your paper and the
reference list at the end of your paper.

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The APA referencing style is an "author-date" style, so the citation in the text consists of
the author(s) and the year of publication given wholly or partly in round brackets.
Use only the surname of the author(s) followed by a comma and the year of publication.
Include page, chapter or section numbers if you need to be specific, for example if you
are quoting, paraphrasing or summarising:

What Is MLA Style?

Building confidence in the information and ideas we share with one another is perhaps
more important today than ever before, and for nearly a century it has been the driving
principle behind MLA style, a set of standards for writing and documentation used by
writers to find and evaluate information, alert their audience to the trustworthiness of
their findings through citation, and shape the expression of their ideas in conversation
with others.

Chicago-Style of Referencing
There are two parts to referencing: the citations within the text of your paper and the
reference list at the end of your paper.

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Chicago style is an "author-date" style, so the citation in the text consists of the author(s)
name and year of publication given wholly or partly in round brackets.
Use only the surname of the author(s) and the year of publication. Include page, chapter
or section numbers, preceded by a comma, if you need to be specific:

When citing in the text, no distinction is made between books, journal articles, internet
documents or other formats, except for electronic documents that do not provide page
numbers. In this case, use the paragraph number, if available, with the abbreviation para.
The full details of the source are given in a reference list at the end of the documents

Basic Format: Surname, Forename. Title. Publisher. Year of Publication. Example: Clark,
Stuart. Vanities of the Eye: Vision in Early Modern European Culture. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2007.
Examples
1. In-text Citation single author with page no (Viner 2010, 151-152)
Reference list
Viner, Bradley. 2010. Success in Veterinary Practice: Maximising Clinical Outcomes and
Personal Well-being. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
2. In-text Citation more than 4 authors (Millon et al. 2000)
Reference list
Millon, Theodore, Roger Davis, Carrie Millon, Luis Escovar, and Sarah Meagher.
2000. Personality Disorders in Modern Life. New York: Wiley

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Development of modern ICT
Information and communications technology (ICT) is:extended form for information
technology (IT)
The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audio-visual and telephone
networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system.
But is a more specific term that stresses the role of unified communications and the
integration Such as:
 telecommunications
 software
 Storage
 and audio-visual systems
which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information.
The phrase Information and Communication Technology has been used by academic
researchers since the 1980s,
But the term ICT became popular after it was used in a report to the UK government
by Dennis Stevenson in 1997 and in the revised National Curriculum for England, Wales
and Northern Ireland in 2000.
Computer revolution
• 1936 – modern computer theory begins
• 1945 – first general-purpose electronic computer
• 1947 – invention of the transistor
• 1970s – arrival of microprocessors
Satellites
• 1957 – launch of world’s first satellite
• 1960 – launch of communication satellites
• 1962 – first satellite to transmit live transatlantic television signals & phone calls
Communications
• 1960 – first fully phone system
• 1973 – first call made from a handheld phone
• 1979 – first automated cellular service
Internet & World Wide Web
• 1969 – creation of a packet-switched network of computers
• 1971 – first email sent
• 1990 – World Wide Web made freely available
Revolution of ICT
• The first revolution: It was said to be comprised of films, radio, television and
satellite broadcasting
• while the Second revolution to comprise telecommunications and
microcomputers in mathematics instruction (Paisley, 1985).
Revolution of ICT

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 • The integration of telecommunications and microelectronic technology in
computing was termed a “third revolution”
• and came to be what is called Information Technology (IT). The current trend in
ICT has brought a phenomenon which can be termed a “fourth revolution” in IT.
Definitions Computer:
A computer is basically defined as a tool or machine used for processing data to give
required information. It is capable of:
 taking input data through the keyboard (input unit),
 storing the input data in a diskette, hard disk or other medium,
 processing it in the central processing unit (CPU) and
 giving out the result (output) on the screen or the Visual Display Unit (VDU)
i. Hardware technology
The System Unit The system unit is the main unit of a PC. It is the computer itself while
other units attached to it are regarded as peripherals. It could be viewed as the master
conductor orchestrating your PC’s operation. It is made up of several components like
the motherboard, processor, buses, memory, power supply unit, etc. This unit (the
system unit) has been confused over the years by novices as the CPU. This is not true.
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) or simply processor is a component within the
system unit and is not the only thing that makes up the system unit. Hence, it will be
wrong to equate the system unit with the CPU.
ii. Software technology;
The physical components of the computer are called the hardware while all the other
resources or parts of the computer that are not hardware, are referred to as the
software. The software is the set of programs that make the computer system active. In
essence, the software is the set of programs that run on the computer.
Then, what is a program? A program is a series of coded instructions showing the
logical steps the computer follows to solve a given problem.
Classification of Computer Software:
The computer software could be divided into two major groups, namely system
software (programs), and application software (programs).

System Software:
This refers to the suits of programs that facilitate the optimal use of the hardware
systems and/or provide a suitable environment for the writing, editing, debugging,
testing and running of user programs. Usually, every computer system comes with a
collection of these suits of programs which are provided by the hardware manufacturer.
Operating Systems
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to
provide an environment in which a user may execute programs.

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The operating system is the first component of the systems programs that interest us
here. Systems programs are programs written for direct execution on computer
hardware in order to make the power of the computer fully and efficiently accessible to
applications programmers and other computer users. Systems programming is
different from application programming because the former requires an intimate
knowledge of the computer hardware as well as the end users’ needs. Moreover,
systems programs are often large and more complex than application programs,
although that is not always the case. Since systems programs provide the foundation
upon which application programs are built, it is most important that systems programs
are reliable, efficient and correct.
In a computer system the hardware provides the basic computing resources. The
applications programs define the way in which these resources are used to solve the
computing problems of the user. The operating system controls and coordinates the
use of the hardware among the various systems programs and application programs
for the various users.
The basic resources of a computer system are provided by its hardware, software and
data. The operating system provides the means for the proper use of these resources in
the operation of the computer system. It simply provides an environment within which
other programs can do useful work.

Types of Operating Systems

Modern computer operating systems may be classified into three groups, which are
distinguished by the nature of interaction that takes place between the computer user
and his or her program during its processing. The three groups are called batch, time-
shared and real time operating systems.
Batch Processing Operating System:
In a batch processing operating system environment users submit jobs to a central
place where these jobs are collected into a batch, and subsequently placed on an input
queue at the computer where they will be run. In this case, the user has no interaction
with the job during its processing, and the computer’s response time is the turnaround
time - the time from submission of the job until execution is complete, and the results
are ready for return to the person who submitted the job.
Time Sharing Operating System
Another mode for delivering computing services is provided by time sharing operating
systems. In this environment a computer provides computing services to several or
many users concurrently on-line. Here, the various users are sharing the central
processor, the memory, and other resources of the computer system in a manner
facilitated, controlled, and monitored by the operating system. The user, in this
environment, has nearly full interaction with the program during its execution, and the
computer’s response time may be expected to be no more than a few seconds.

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Real Time Operating System
The third class of operating systems, the real time operating systems, are designed to
service those applications where response time is of the essence in order to prevent
error, misrepresentation or even disaster. Examples of real time operating systems are
those which handle airlines reservations, machine tool control, and monitoring of a
nuclear power station. The systems, in this case, are designed to be interrupted by
external signal that require the immediate attention of the computer system.
In fact, many computer operating systems are hybrids, providing for more than one of
these types of computing service simultaneously. It is especially common to have a
background batch system running in conjunction with one of the other two on the same
computer.
A number of other definitions are important towards gaining an understanding of
operating systems:
Multiprogramming Operating System
A multiprogramming operating system is a system that allows more than one active
user program (or part of user program) to be stored in main memory simultaneously.
Thus, it is evident that a time-sharing system is a multiprogramming system, but note
that a multiprogramming system is not necessarily a time-sharing system. A batch or
real time operating system could, and indeed usually does, have more than one active
user program simultaneously in main storage. Another important, and all too similar,
term is ‘multiprocessing’.
Distributed Operating System:
A distributed operating system, in contrast, is one that appears to its users as a
traditional uniprocessor system, even though it is actually composed of multiple
processors. In a true distributed system, users should not be aware of where their
programs are being run or where their files are located; that should all be handled
automatically and efficiently by the operating system.
Network Operating Systems:
Network operating systems are not fundamentally different from single processor
operating systems. They obviously need a network interface controller and some low-
level software to drive it, as well as programs to achieve remote login and remote files
access, but these additions do not change the essential structure of the operating
systems. True distributed operating systems require more than just adding a little code
to a uniprocessor operating system, because distributed and centralised systems differ
in critical ways. Distributed systems, for example, often allow programs to run on
several processors at the same time, thus requiring more complex processor
scheduling algorithms in order to optimize the amount of parallelism achieved.
Operating System Components
Process Management
A process is the unit of work in a system. Such a system consists of a collection of
processes, some of which are operating system processes, those that execute system

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code, and the rest being user processes, those that execute user code. All of those
processes can potentially execute concurrently.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with
processes managed:
 The creation and deletion of both user and system processes
 The suspension and resumption of processes.
 The provision of mechanisms for process synchronisation
 The provision of mechanisms for deadlock handling.
Memory Management
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with
memory management:
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
 Deciding which processes are to be loaded into memory when memory space
becomes available.
 Allocating and de-allocating memory space as needed.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk
management:
 Free space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling.
I/O System
One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of specific
hardware devices from the user. For example, in Unix, the peculiarities of I/O devices
are hidden from the bulk of the operating system itself by the I/O system. The I/O
system consists of:
 A buffer caching system
 A general device driver code
 Drivers for specific hardware devices
Only the device driver knows the peculiarities of a specific device.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file
management:
 The creation and deletion of files
 The creation and deletion of directory
 The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
 The mapping of files onto disk storage.
 Backup of files on stable (non-volatile) storage.
Protection System
The various processes in an operating system must be protected from each other’s
activities. For that purpose, various mechanisms are used to ensure that the files,
memory segment, CPU and other resources can be operated on only by those
processes that have gained proper authorisation from the operating system.

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For example, memory addressing hardware ensures that a process can only execute
within its own address space. The timer ensures that no process can gain control of the
CPU without relinquishing it. Finally, no process is allowed to do its own I/O, to protect
the integrity of the various peripheral devices.
Networking
A distributed system is a collection of processors that do not share memory or a clock.
Instead, each processor has its own local memory, and the processors communicate
with each other through various communication lines, such as high speed buses or
telephone lines. Distributed systems vary in size and function. They may involve
microprocessors, workstations, minicomputers, and large general purpose computer
systems.
Command Interpreter
System one of the most important components of an operating system is its command
interpreter. The command interpreter is the primary interface between the user and the
rest of the system.
Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements. When a new
job is started in a batch system or when a user logs in to a time-shared system, a
program which reads and interprets control statements is automatically executed. This
program is variously called (1) the control card interpreter, (2) the command line
interpreter, (3) the shell (in UNIX), and so on. Its function is quite simple: get the next
command statement, and execute it.
The command statement themselves deal with process management, I/O handling,
secondary storage management, main memory management, file system access,
protection, and networking
SYSTEM SOFWARES
Language Translators
A programming language is a set of notations in which we express our instructions to
the computer. At the initial stage of computer development, programs were written in
machine language conducting the binary system i.e. 0 and 1. Such programs were hard
to write, read, debug and maintain. In an attempt to solve these problems, other
computer languages were developed. However, computers can run programs written
only in machine language. There is therefore the need to translate programs written in
these other languages to machine language. The suites of languages that translate
other languages to machine language are called language translators. The initial
program written in a language different from machine language is called the source
program and its equivalent in machine language is called object program. Three
examples of classes of language translators are assemblers, interpreters and
compilers.
Utility Software
This is a set of commonly used programs in data processing departments, also called
service or general-purpose programs. They perform the following operations.

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 File Conversion: This covers data transfer from any medium to another, making an
exact copy or simultaneously editing and validating. For example, copying from a hard
disk to a diskette.
 File Copy: It makes an exact copy of a file from one medium to another or from an
area of a medium to another area of the same medium.
 Housekeeping Operations: These include programs to clear areas of storage, writing
file labels and updating common data. They are not involved in solving the problem in
hand. They are operations that must be performed before and after actual processing
Application Software
Application software is a set of programs designed to solve problems of a specific
nature. It could either be supplied by the computer manufacturer, or in some cases, the
users produce their own application program called user programs. Hence, application
software could be subdivided into two classes, namely; generalized software and user-
defined software. Under generalised software, we have as examples: Word Processing
Programs e.g. Word Perfect, Word Star, Microsoft Word. Also included are Desktop
Publishing e.g. Ventura, PageMaker, CorelDraw, likewise the Spreadsheet program e.g.
LOTUS 1,2,3, Excel, Super-Q. Under the user-defined, software, we could have some user
-defined packages for a particular company or organisation, for accounting, payroll or
some other specialised purposes.
User Programs
This is a suite of programs written by programmers for computer users. They are
required for the operation of their individual business or tasks. An example is a payroll
package developed for the salary operation of a particular company

Input devices
The Computer Keyboard
A computer keyboard is identical to the conventional typewriter keyboard. However, it
has more keys than the typewriter keyboard. A computer keyboard can be a dummy
type or intelligent type. A computer keyboard is considered to be intelligent if, in addition
to performing the routine functions characteristic of a typewriter keyboard, it can initiate
a series of actions for a computer to carry out by mere pressing a key or combination of
two or more keys. Thus, an intelligent computer keyboard has a set of keys which, when
one of them is pressed, the computer can be made to carry out a specific function. For
example, the pressing of a key may cause the computer to display a menu list from
which the user may be prompted to select one. The intelligent computer keyboard has
four major divisions, namely: Function keys, Alphanumeric keys, Numeric keys and
Control keys.
The Mouse and Joystick
A mouse looks like the electrical clipper in a barber’s shop. It consists of a pointing
device very sensitive to movements. It has a roller ball and two or more buttons which

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can be pressed to make a selection. By moving the mouse on a flat smooth surface and
clicking one or a combination of two buttons on its upper surface, a computer to which
it is connected can be sensitised and commanded to carry out some specific tasks.
A mouse can be used to draw diagrams on the computer screen more effectively and
efficiently than the computer keyboard. Generally, the keyboard and the mouse do
complement each other. For example, the mouse can be used to highlight an item in a
menu list while the keyboard Enter Key can be pressed to activate or evoke the
command associated with the highlighted item.
A mouse is the primary input device for modern computers that feature operating
systems with a graphical user interface, such as Windows 98 or Windows XP. While
keyboards obviously excel at entering text, numbers, and symbols, your mouse is the
tool you'll use to tell your computer what to do with all the data you've entered.
Joysticks are almost exclusively used with game software and help the user more
effectively control the actions of computer-simulated airplanes or arcade-style games.
All modern PC operating systems (Windows 98, Windows XP, and the Macintosh) rely
on an on-screen pointer to select and execute commands. A mouse is simply an input
device built to help the user control this on-screen pointer in as natural and efficient a
manner as possible.
The pointer on the screen mimics the movements of your mouse. As you move your
mouse, a ball encased in the bottom of your mouse rolls on the desk and in turn sends
signals to the computer as to which direction to move the pointer on the screen. Move
the mouse side to side, or up and down, and the on-screen pointer moves in a similar
manner.
Once you have the mouse positioned to select the command or data you want to act on,
you use the mouse buttons to execute the command. The mouse controls the on-
screen pointer and lets you select program icons, manipulate property sheets, and
access data.

Storage Devices
Those devices which are used to store data, information and programs permanently.
Types Of Storage Devices:-
i. Hard Disk
ii. Floppy Disk
iii. Optical Disc
iv. Flash Memory Drive
v. Cloud Storage
Hard Disk
Hard Disk is a primary Storage device in a computer to store the programs and data
permanently. It is also known as hard disk drives(HDD) or hard drive(HD). It is a type of
magnetic Disk.
Floppy Disk

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  Floppy disk is also called diskette.
 It consists of a thin plastic disk coated with magnetic material.
 The disk is enclosed in a plastic jacket.
 Floppy disk can only store a small amount of data.
 It is inexpensive storage media.
Optical Disc
Optical disc is a form of removeable storage. It includes CDs, DVDs and Blue-ray discs.
Optical Drives use a laser to read and write data on optical disc.
Categories of Optical Discs:- 
CD: CD stands for Compact Disc. It is mainly used to store photos, audio and computer
software. The contents of CD can be read by CD drive. There are three types of CDs
which are as follow : CD-ROM, CD-R & CD-RW
DVD: DVD stands for Digital Video Disc. It is similar to CD except that it uses a laser
beam with shorter wavelength. The storage of DVD is much greater than CD. It Can be
up to 17 GB of data. Different types of DVDs are as follow: DVD-ROM, DVD-R & DVD-RW
Blu-Ray Disc: Blu-Ray disc is a new and more expensive DVD format. It has higher
capacity and better quality than DVDs especially for high –definition video. It can store
up to 100GB data.
Flash Memory Storage: Flash memory is a nonvolatile memory. It consists of solid
chips with no moving parts. That is why it is more durable and fast.
Types Of Flash Memory Storage: Solid State Drives The solid-state drives(SSD) are
storage devices that typically use flash memory to store data and programs. The term
solid-state means that they have no moving parts. The storage capacity of SSDs can be
up to 1TB or more. External SSDs are also available.
USB Flash: Drives USB flash drive is a flash memory storage device that is connected to
a USB port in computer or mobile device. It is also called thumb drive, key drives, or
jump drives. USB flash is very easy to use because of its light weight and small size.
The storage capacity of USB drive can be up to 256 GB or more.
Memory Cards: A memory card is a removable flash memory to store data. Most of
these cards are very small and can retain data without power. A memory card can be
inserted in to a slot on computer or mobile device. However, a card reader can be
attached to computer if it does not have a slot.
Cloud Storage Cloud storage is defined as "the storage of data online in the cloud“.
Cloud storage can provide the benefits of greater accessibility and reliability; rapid
deployment; strong protection for data backup.
Types Of Cloud Storage are: Personal Cloud Storage, Public Cloud Storage, Private
Cloud Storage and Hybrid Cloud Storage

Output devices
Printers

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A printer is the computer component that lets you create copies of the information
stored in your computer on paper. The printed material is often called the hard copy, to
differentiate it from the data stored on a disk, or held in the computer's memory. There
are three basic types of printers available for use with personal computers: Laser
Printers: These combine a magnetic roller with powdered ink called toner to transfer
high-quality characters or images onto a page.
Monitors
The monitor does not do any processing itself. It only displays the information that the
video card tells it to display.
Scanners
Scanners are peripheral devices used to digitise (convert to electronic format) artwork,
photographs, text, or other items from hard copy. In a sense, a scanner works as a pair
of eyes for your PC. Your eyes see an image and translate the image into electrical
impulses that travel to and are interpreted by your brain. Similarly, a scanner captures
images and converts them to digital data that travel to and are interpreted by the
computer.
Speakers and Sound
The built-in speakers in most PC cases are used just for making system sounds, such
as warning beeps and action indicators. To play more sophisticated sounds on your PC,
you need a set of external speakers. Usually speakers come in pairs, and there is a plug
that connects them to your sound card. Arrange the speakers with one on the left and
one on the right of your desk or work area to get a stereo effect

Communication and Internet services

What Is Communications?
A process in which two or more computers or devices transfer data, instructions, and
information
 Sometimes called telecommunication
 Electronic mail (e-mail)
 Voice mail
 Fax (facsimile)
 Telecommuting
 Online services
 Videoconferencing
 Internet
 World Wide Web
Communications Networks
 Local Area Networks (LAN)
 Covers limited geographical area
 Server manages resources
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)

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  Covers large geographical area
 Can consist of several LANs
Home Networks
 Connects multiple computers in your home
 Share Internet access
 Share peripherals
 Can be wired or wireless
The Benefits of Computer Networks in Education
 Sharing of computer hardware, software, and data resources
 Unlimited educational resources
 Communicate with other educators and students
What Is the Internet?
 Worldwide group of connected networks that allow public access to information
and services
 No single organization owns or controls
 Estimated over one billion users
 Variety of users
History of the Internet
 Started as a network of four computers at the University of California at Los
Angeles in 1969
 Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) - ARPANET
 More than 350 million computers today
 Backbone first provided by National Science Foundation (NSF) - NSFnet
 Backbone now provided by variety of corporations
 Various organizations help define standards
Internet – Internet means a network of several interconnected networks. There is no
single thing called The Internet. The Internet provides several different basic tools
for data sharing. These are: Email, Chat, Instant Messaging (IM), File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), World Wide Web, Blog, Social
Media and Telnet (remote login).

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