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Unit: 2:-SOLUTIONS
TOPIC: TYPE OF SOLUTION & CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
Type of Solution Solute Solvent Common Examples
Gaseous Gas Gas Mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases
Solutions
Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas
Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas
Liquid Solutions Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolved in water
Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water
Solid Liquid Glucose dissolved in water
Solid Solutions Gas Solid Solution of hydrogen in palladium
Liquid Solid Amalgam of mercury with sodium
Solid Solid Copper dissolved in gold
Mass of solute
1. Mass per cent (w/w)=  100 ,
Mass of solution
If a solution is described by 10% glucose in water by mass, it means that 10 g of glucose is
dissolved in 90 g ofwater resulting in a 100 g solution
Volume of the component
2. Volume percentage (v/v):  100 ,
Total volume of solution
For example, 10% ethanol solution in water means that 10 mL of ethanol is dissolved in water
such that the total volume of the solution is 100 ml.
3. Mass by volume percentage (w/v): It is the mass of solute dissolved in 100 mL of the solution.
4. Parts per million (ppm). It is defined as the amount of substance in grams in 106 of solution.
e.g., 10 ppm of SO2 means 10 cm3 of SO2 present in 106 cm3 of air.
Mass of solute
ppm=  106
Mass of solution
5. Mole-fraction (x). It is ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total number
of moles of all the components.
No. of moles of solute
Mole-fraction of solute(B) =
No. of moles of solute + No. of moles of solvent
WB
nB MB
xB = =
nA + nB WA WB
+
MA WB

No. of moles of solvent

Mole-fraction of solvent (A)=
No. of moles of solute + No. of moles of solvent
WA
nA MA
Thus xB + xA = 1
xA = =
nA + nB WA WB
+
MA WB

6. Molarity (M). It is expressed as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution..
No. of moles of solute Wsolute 1000
Molarity (M)= = 
Litres of solution Msolute Volume of solution (ml).

Wsolute 1000 x density of Solution

M = 
Msolute Mass of solution .

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7. Molality (m). It is defined as number of moles of solute per 1000 g or 1 kg of solvent.
No. of moles of solute Wsolute 1000
(m) = = 
Kg. of solvent Msolute WSolvent in grams.
TOPIC : SOLUBILITY OF A GAS IN A LIQUID, HENRY LAW & APPLICATIONS
1. Henry’s law.(Statements)
➢ The law states that at a constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the pressure of the gas.
➢ The mole fraction of gas in the solution is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
over the solution.
➢ “the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of
the gas (x) in the solution
➢ Partial pressure of the gas in solution = KH  mole fraction of gas in solution where KH is
Henry’s law constant. or p=KH . x where ‘x’ is mole fraction of gas in solution.

➢ It is obvious that higher the value of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility of the
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gas in the liquid . i.e Gas solubility 
KH
➢ The solubility of gases increases with decrease of temperature. It is due to this reason that
aquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in warm waters
➢ Effect of Temperature : Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature As
dissolution is an exothermic process, the solubility should decrease with increase of temperature.
2. Applications of Henry’s law
➢ In the production of carbonated beverages: To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks
and soda water, the bottle is sealed under high pressure.
➢ In the deep sea diving: Scuba divers must cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases
while breathing air at high pressure underwater. Increased pressure increases the solubility
of atmospheric gases in blood. When the divers come towards surface, the pressure
gradually decreases. This releases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of bubbles
of nitrogen in the blood. This blocks capillaries and creates a medical condition known as
bends, which are painful and dangerous to life. To avoid bends, as well as, the toxic effects
of high concentrations of nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled
with air diluted with helium (11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen).
➢ At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level. This
leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high
altitudes or climbers. Low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to
think clearly, symptoms of a condition known as anoxia.

TOPIC : VAPOUR PRESSURE OF LIQUID- LIQUID SOLUTIONS, VAPOUR PRESSURE OF SOLUTIONS

OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS, IDEAL SOLUTIONS, NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS, AZEOTROPES
1. Vapour Pressure of Liquid- Liquid Solutions (Raoult’s law for a solution of volatile liquids):
“In solution of volatile liquids the partial vapour pressure of each component in the solution
is directly proportional to its mole fraction.”
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PA   A PA = PA  A PA is vapour pressure of pure component ‘A’.

PB   B PB = PB  B PB is vapour pressure of pure component ‘B’

Ptotal = PA + PB  Ptotal = PA  A + PB  B

2. Mole Fraction in Vapour Phase: PA=yA Ptotal & PB= yB Ptotal
3. Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids:

4. Ideal Solutions :

5. Non-Ideal Solutions Showing Positive Deviation & Negative Deviation from Rault’s Law:

6. Azeotropes are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase
and boil at a constant temperature. In such cases, it is not possible to separate the
components by fractional distillation.
7. Types of azeotropes : (i)Minimum boiling azeotrope : The solutions which show a large positive
deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope For example, an azeotropic mixture of
96% (or 95.6%) ethanol and 4% water . Example: 95% ethanol and 5% water (by volume) Ethanol
= 351.3 K , Water = 373 K, Azeotrope = 351.1 K
(ii)Maximum boiling azeotrope. : The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult’s
law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition. For example, Nitric acid and water
is an example of this class of azeotrope..Example : 68% Nitric acid and 32% water (by mass) Nitric
acid = 359 K, water = 373 K, Azeotrope = 393.5 K
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TOPIC: COLLIGATIVE PROPERTY, RELATIVE LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE
1. Colligative properties. Those properties which depend on the number of solute particles
(molecule or ions) but not on the nature of solute, e.g., (i) relative lowering of vapour
pressure, (ii) the elevation in boiling point, (iii) the depression in freezing point, and (iv) the
osmotic pressure.
2. Raoult’s Law for solution of Non-volatile Solute. The relative lowering of vapour pressure for
a solution is equal t the mole-fraction of solute when solvent alone is volatile.

PSolvent − PSolution

= X Solute
PSolvent

PSolvent − PSolution nSolute
3. Relative lowering of vapour pressure. 
= ,In case of dilute
PSolvent n Solute + nSolvent

PSolvent − PSolution Wsolute M Solvent
solution n Solvent >> nSolute 
= 
PSolvent Msolute WSolvent .

TOPIC:ELEVATION IN BOILING POINT

Elevation in Boiling point: The temperature, at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to
atmospheric pressure, is called boiling point.It has been found that the boiling point of a solution
is always higher than that of the boiling point of the pure solvent. The difference in boiling point of
solution and pure solvent is called elevation of boiling point. (ΔTb = Tb − Tob )
Reason for Elevation in Boiling point vapour pressure of the solution is
lower than that of the pure solvent & vapour pressure increases with
increase in temperature ,hence solution has to be heated more to make
the vapour pressure equal to atmospheric pressure
Experiments shows that for dilute solutions the
elevation of boiling point (ΔTb) is directly
proportional to the molal concentration of the
solute in a solution.  Tb = Kb  m
Wsolute 1000
Tb = K b  
Msolute WSolvent in grams.

Tob be the boiling point of pure solvent and Tb be

the boiling point of solution. The increase in the
boiling point
ΔTb = Tb − Tob is known as elevation of boiling
point.

Kb is Boiling Point Elevation Constant or Ebullioscopic Constant or Molal Boiling Point Constant.
TOPIC: DEPRESSION OF FREEZING POINT
DEPRESSION OF FREEZING POINT:The temperature at which solid and liquid are in equilibrium,
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i.e., they have same vapour pressure. It has been found that the freezing point of a solution is
always lower than that of the freezing point of the pure solvent. The difference between
freezing point of pure
solvent and freezing point of solution is called depression in freezing point (  Tf ). (ΔTf = Tof − Tf
)
Reason for Depression of Freezing point Vapour pressure of the solution is
lower than that of the pure solvent .As freezing point is the temperature at
which vapour pressure of the liquid and the solid phase are
equal,therefore for this solution this will occur at lower temperature
(Because vapour pressure lowers with decrease in temperature)
Experiments shows that for dilute solutions
Depression of Freezing point (ΔTf) is directly
proportional to the molal concentration of
the solute in a solution.  Tf = Kf  m
Wsolute 1000
T f = K f    Tof
Msolute WSolvent in grams.
be the freezing point of pure solvent and Tf
be the freezing point of solution. The
decrease in the freezing point ΔTf = Tof − Tf is
known as Depression of Freezing point.
where Kf is called Freezing point depression
constant or molal depression constant or
cryoscopic constant

TOPIC:OSMOSIS AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE

1. SEMIPERMEABLE MEMBRANES (SPM): These membranes appear to be continuous sheets or
films, yet they contain a network of submicroscopic holes or pores.Small solvent molecules, like
water, can pass through these holes but the passage of bigger molecules like solute is hindered.
Membranes having this kind of properties are known as semipermeable membranes
(SPM).These membranes can be ofanimal or vegetable originand these occur naturally such as
pig’s bladder orparchment or can be synthetic such as cellophane.
2. Osmosis. The process of flow of solvent molecules from solvent to the solution through SPM is
called osmosis.
The flow of solvent from dilute solution to the concentrated solution across a semipermeable
membrane is due to osmosis. The important point to be kept in mind is that solvent molecules
always flow from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution.

3. Osmotic pressure:The osmotic pressure of a solution is the excess pressure that must be
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applied to a solution to prevent osmosis, i.e., to stop the passage of solvent molecules through
a semipermeable membrane into the solution.
4. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as it depends on the numberof solute molecules and
not on their identity.For dilute solutions, it has been foundexperimentally that osmotic
pressure is proportional to the molarity, C of the solution at a given temperature T
Wsolute 1000
5. Osmotic pressure.  = CRT where ‘C’ is molarity  =  RT,
Msolute Volume of solution (ml).
R = 0.0821 L atm K-1 Mol-1 T is temperature in Kelvin.
6. Measurement of osmotic pressure provides another method of determining molar masses of
solutes. This method is widely used to determine molar masses of proteins, polymers and other
macromolecules.
7. The osmotic pressure method has the advantage over other methods as pressure
measurement is around the room temperature and the molarity of the solution is used instead
of molality.
8. As compared to other colligative properties, its magnitude is large even for very dilute
solutions. Th technique of osmotic pressure for determination of molar mass of solutes is
particularly useful for biomolecules as they are generally not stable at higher temperatures and
polymers have poor solubility.
9. Isotonic solution. Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are
called isotonic solutions.They have same molar concentration. i.e. 1 = 2 When such solutions
are separated by semipermeable membrane no osmosis occurs between them.
10. All intraveinous injections must be isotonic with body fluids. The osmotic pressure associated
with the fluid inside the blood cell is equivalent to that of 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride
solution, called normal saline solution and it is safe to inject intravenously.
11. Hyper tonic If 1  2 Ist solution is hypertonic solution w.r.t. 2nd solution. The solution, whose
concentration is higher than the red blood corpuscles, is called hypertonic. When R.B.C. is
placed in the solution, R.B.C. is placed in the solution, R.B.C. shrinks due to plasmolysis.
12. If we place the cells in a solution containing more than 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride,
water will flow out of the cells and they would shrink. Such a solution is called hypertonic.
13. Hypotonic 2nd solution is hypotonic w.r.t. Ist solution. The solution, whose concentration is
lower than the red blood corpuscles, is called hypotonic. When R.B.C. is placed in this solution,
they swell and even burst due to inflow of water due to osmosis.
14. If the salt concentration is less than 0.9% (mass/volume), the solution is said to be hypotonic.
In this case, water will flow into the cells if placed in this solution and they would swell.
Some phenomena’s explained on the basis of osmosis
• A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses water via osmosis and shrivel into
pickle.
• Wiltedflowers revive when placed in fresh water. A carrot that has become limp because of
water loss into the atmosphere can be placed into the water making it firm once again.
Water will move into them through osmosis.
• When placed in water containing less than 0.9% (mass/volume) salt, blood cells collapse
due to loss of water by osmosis.
• People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in tissue cells and
intercellular spaces because of osmosis. The resulting puffiness or swelling is called edema.
• Water movement from soil into plant roots and subsequently into upper portion of the
plant is partly due to osmosis.
• The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar protects against bacterial

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action. Through the process of osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loses
water, shrivels and dies.
15. Plasmolysis. When the cell is placed in solution having osmotic pressure greater than that of
the cell sap, water passes out of the cell due to osmosis. Consequently, cell material shrinks
gradually. The gradual shrinking of cell material is called plasmolysis.
16. Reverse Osmosis: If the pressure applied on the solution side is more than osmotic pressure of
the solution then the solvent particles will move from solution to solvent side. This process is
reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea water. Cellulose acetate is
permeable to water but impermeable to impurities and ions present in sea water.
TOPIC : ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS AND VAN’T HOFF’S FACTOR
1. Abnormal Molecular Mass. When the molecular mass, calculated with the help of
colligative property, is different from theoretical molecular mass, it is called abnormal
molecular mass
2. Association. When the number of solute particles are less than the expected number then
molecules of solute are said to associate, e.g., benzoic acid molecules dimerise in benzene
and the molecular weight calculated from depression in freezing point in 244 which is
double of 122 (actual molecular weight). When i < 1, association occurs and theoretical
molecular mass is less than calculated from collgative property.
3. Dissociation. When the number of solute particles are more than the expected number,
then solute molecules are said to dissociate, e.g., KCl will dissociate in to K+ and Cl-. The
molecular mass calculated from depression of freezing point will be less than the true
value.When i > 1, dissociation occurs and theoretical molecular mass is more than
calculated from colligative property.
4. Van’t Hoff Factor (i). The ratio of experimental value of a colligative property to the
calculated value of colligative property is known as Van’t Hoff Factor.
Experimental determined value of the colligativ e property
i=
Calculated value of the same from the formula
Since colligative properties are inversely proportional to molecular mass of solute, therefore,
in terms of molecular mass
Theoretical molecular weight (from the formula)
i=
Molecular mass determined experiment
Normal Molecular weight
=
Observed molecular weight
5. Inclusion of van’t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative properties as follows:
PA - PA
(a) = i x B (b)  Tb = i Kb  m (c)  Tf = i Kf  m (d)  = iCRT
PA
i −1
6. Degree of dissociation  = ‘n’ is no. of ions produced per formula of the compound.
n −1
For dissociation of the solute AB(e.g. NaCl) type n=2 and for the solute AB2(e.g. CaCl2) or A2B
type (e.g. Na2SO4) n = 3
i −1
7. Degree of association  =
1
−1
n
For association when the molecules of solute forms dimer n=2

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UNIT: 2:-SOLUTIONS (PYQ & IMPORTANT QUESTIONS)
1. Give one example of solution having gas as solute & gas as solvent.
2. Give one example of solution having liquid as solute & gas as solvent
3. Give one example of solution having solid as solute & gas as solvent.
4. Give one example of solution having gas as solute & liquid as solvent.
5. Give one example of solution having liquid as solute & liquid as solvent
6. Give one example of solution having solid as solute & liquid as solvent.
7. Give one example of solution having gas as solute & solid as solvent.
8. Give one example of solution having liquid as solute & solid as solvent
9. Give one example of solution having solid as solute & solid as solvent
10. Amongst the following compounds, identify which are insoluble, partially soluble and highly
soluble in water?(i) phenol (ii) toluene (iii) formic acid(iv) ethylene glycol (v) chloroform (vi)
Pentanol.
11. Suggest the most important type of intermolecular attractive interaction in the following
pairs.(i) n-hexane and n-octane(ii) I2 and CCl4(iii) NaClO4 and water(iv) methanol and acetone (v)
Acetonitrile (CH3CN) and acetone (C3H6O).
12. Based on solute-solvent interactions, arrange the following in order of increasing solubility in n-
octane and explain. Cyclohexane, KCl, CH3OH, CH3CN.
13. Define: Molality, Molarity, Mass percentage, Volume percentage, Parts per million (ppm), Mole
fraction. Write their formulas also.
14. Which out of the Molality & Molarity is better way to express the concentration of solution and
why?
15. How does a change in temperature influence values of molarity and molality.
16. Concentration terms such as mass percentage, ppm, mole fraction and molality are independent
of temperature, however molarity is a function of temperature.Explain.
17. Under what conditions molarity and molality of a solution nearly the same.
18. A solution is heated from 25oC to 50oC.Will its molarity be same less or more. Comment.
19. What is the sum of the mole fractions of all the components in a three component system?
20. State Henry law with its mathematical expressions. Explain the significance of Henry’s law
constant. At same temperature, hydrogen is more soluble in water than helium .Which will
have larger value of KH
21. What is the significance of Henry’s Law constant KH?
22. Mention some of important applications Henry law.
23. Why do gases always tend to be less soluble in liquids as the temperature is raised?
24. What is the effect of rise in temperature on solubility of a gas?
25. Why do aquatic species remain more comfortable in lakes in winters than in summers?
26. Explain the following phenomena with the help of Henry’s law.(i) Painful condition known as
bends. (ii) Feeling of weakness and discomfort in breathing at high altitude.
27. Why soda water bottle kept at room temperature fizzes on opening?
28. State Raoults law for a solution of volatile liquids .Give its mathematical relationship.
29. How is the vapour pressure of a solvent affected when a non volatile solute is dissolved in it.
30. Why is vapour pressure of a solution of glucose in water lower than that of Water?
31. What is an ideal solution? What type of solutions are likely to behave as ideal solutions? Draw
the plot of vapour pressure and mole fraction of an ideal solution at constant temperature.
32. Explain along with diagrams the conditions for the Non ideal solutions exhibiting Positive
deviations. Write some examples of Non ideal solutions exhibiting Positive deviations.
33. Explain along with diagrams the conditions for the Non ideal solutions exhibiting Negative
deviations. Write some examples of Non ideal solutions exhibiting Negative deviations
34. Draw a diagram to iilustrate the relationship between vapour pressure and mole fraction of a
components in a solution to represent negative deviation.
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35. What role does the molecular interaction play in solution of alcohol and water?
36. When X and Y are mixed the solution becomes warmer and Y and Z are mixed the solution
becomes cooler? Which of these solutions will exhibit positive deviation and solutions will
exhibit negative deviation?
37. What type of non idealities are exhibited by cyclohexane –ethanol and acetone-chloroform
mixtures? Give reasons for your answer.
38. Why a mixture of carbondisulphide and acetone shows positive deviation from Raoults law? What
type of azeotropic mixture will be formed by this solution.
39. What are Azeotropes? Give one example each of minimum boiling and maximum boiling azeotropes.
40. In non ideal solution what type of deviation shows the formation of maximum boiling azeotrope.
41. In non ideal solution what type of deviation shows the formation of mimimum boiling azeotrope.
42. Components of a binary mixture of two liquids A and B were being separatedby distillation. After
some time separation of components stopped and composition of vapour phase became same as
that of liquid phase. Both the components started coming in the distillate. Explain why this
happened.
43. What general name is given to binary mixtures which show deviation from Raoult’slaw and whose
components cannot be separated by fractional distillation. How many types of such mixtures are
there?
44. Acetone (bp329K) and carbon disulphide (bp320K) are mixed in a definite composition so that the
mixture of two behaves like pure liquid and boils at 312 what name can be given to such a mixture?
45. 10cc of a liquid A is mixed with 10 cc of liquid B.The volume of resulting solution was found to be
19.9cc.what do you conclude.
46. What type of azeotropic mixture will be formed by the solution of acetone-chloroform
mixtures?Justify on the basis of strength of intermolecular interactions that develop in the solution.
47. Define colligative properties.
48. Show that Relative Lowering of vapour pressure is a colligative property.
49. Why does a solution containing no volatile solute have higher boiling point than pure solvent. Show
that Elevation of boiling point is a colligative property
50. How will you determine the molecular mass of a non volatile substance by study of Elevation of
boiling point of a solution?
51. Out of 1M glucose and 2M glucose which one has a higher boiling point and why.
52. What is molal elevation constant? What are its units? How is it related to enthalpy of vaporization of
solvent?
53. Why common salt is added to water used for boiling eggs to get hard boiled eggs?
54. 10 g of sucrose and 10 g of glucose are dissolved in same volume of water to prepare two solutions
X and Y .will they have same or different boiling points?
55. Show that depression of freezing point is a colligative property.
56. How will you determine the molecular mass of a non volatile substance by study of depression of
freezing point of a solution.
57. An aqueous solution of sodium chloride freezes below 273 K.Expalin the lowering in freezing point
of water with the help of a suitable diagram.
58. What is molal depression constant? What are its units? How is it related to enthalpy of fusion of
solvent?
59. How does sprinkling of salt help in clearing the snow covered roads in hilly areas? Explain the
phenomenon involved in the process.
60. What are antifreeze solutions? Which substance is commonly used as antifreeze?
61. What is osmotic pressure? Show that it is a colligative property.
62. Define (i)Semi permeable membrane(ii) osmosis (iii) isotonic (iv) Hypertonic (v) Hypotonic solution.
63. What is edema.
64. What is reverse osmosis? Give its application.
65. When kept in water, raisin swells in size. Name and explain the phenomenon involved with the help
of a diagram. Give three applications of the phenomenon.
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66. Discuss biological and industrial importance of osmosis.
67. How can you remove the hard calcium carbonate layer of the egg without damaging its
semiprermiable membrane? Can this egg be inserted into a bottle with a narrow neck without
distorting its shape? Explain the process involved
68. Give an example of a material used for making semipermeable membrane for carrying out
reverse osmosis
69. What care is generally taken during intravenous injection and why?
70. What happens when the external pressure applied becomes more than the osmotic pressure of
the solution.
71. How will you determine the molecular mass of a substance by study of osmotic pressure
72. Measurement of osmotic pressure method is preferred for the determination of molecular
masses of macromolecules such as proteins and polymers.Give two reasons.
73. What will happen if RBC are placed in (i)0.5% NaCl Solution (ii)1% NaCl Solution?
74. What happens when we place the blood cell in water (hypertonic solution).Give reason.
75. Give reason :
a) A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution shrivels into pickle.
b) Wilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water.
c) A carrot that has become limp placed into the water making it firm once again.
d) Water movement from soil into plant roots and subsequently into upper portion of the
plant
e) The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar protects against bacterial
action.
76. Define abnormal molecular mass.
77. What is Van’t Hoff’s factor? What is value of Van’t Hoff’s factor when the solute undergoes (a)
association (b) dissociation?
78. Write the modified equations of colligative properties when Van’t Hoff’s factor is introduced.
79. How is Van’t Hoff’s factor related to degree of dissociation & degree of association.Give
Expressions?
80. Why is the mass determined by measuring a colligative property in case of some solutes abnormal
? Discuss it with the help of Van’t Hoff factor.
81. Elevation of boiling point of 1M KCl solution is nearly doubled than that of 1 M sugar
solution.Explain.
82. The depression in freezing point of water observed for same amount of acetic acid, trichloroacetic
acid, and trifluoroacetic acid increases in the order given above .Explain briefly
83. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5 g of NaOH in 450ml solution.(ANS: 0.27M)
84. Concentrated nitric acid used in the laboratory work is 68% nitric acid by mass in aqueous solution.
What should be the molarity of such a sample of the acid if the density of the solution is 1.504
g/ml? (ANS: 16.23M)
85. Calculate the amount of benzoic acid required for preparing 250 ml of 0.15M solution in methanol.
(ANS:4.575g)
86. Calculate molality of 2.5g of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) in 75g of benzene. (ANS: 0.556 m)
87. Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2.5 Kg of 0.25 molal of aqueous
solution. (ANS: 37g)
88. Calculate the molarity of following :( a) 30g of Co(NO3)2.6H2O in 4.3L of solution (molar mass of
Co(NO3)2.6H2O= 291g/mol)(b) 30ml of 0.5H2SO4 diluted to 500ml. (ANS : (a):0.023M (b)0,03M
89. An antifreeze solution is prepared from 222.6g of ethylene glycol. C2H4 (OH) 2 and 200g of water.
Calculate molality of solution. If the density of the solution is 1.072 g/ml then what shall be the
molarity of the solution? (ANS :17.95 m. 9.11 M)
90. Calculate Molality, Molarity & Mole fraction of KI if the density of 20 %( mass/mass) aqueous KI is
1.202g/ml. (Molar mass of KI=166gm/mol) (ANS : 1.51 m , 1.45 M, 0.0263)
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91. A solution of glucose in water is labelled as 10% w/w. What should be the molality and mole
fraction of each component in the solution? If the density of solution is 1.2g/ml, then what shall be
the molarity of the solution? ( ANS :0.62 m, 0.011, 0.989, 0.67 M)
92. If the density of some lake water is 1.25 g/ml and contains 92g of Na+ ions per Kg of water,
calculate the molality and molarity of Na+ ions in the lake.( ANS :4m, 5M)
93. Calculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol. C2H4 (OH) 2 in a solution containing 20% of ethylene
glycol. C2H4 (OH) 2 by mass. (ANS :0.068 , 0.932)
94. Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30% by mass in carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4). (ANS :0.458)
95. A sample of drinking water was found to be contaminated with chloroform (CHCl3) supposed to be
carcinogen. The level of contamination was 15ppm (By mass). (i) Express this in percent by mass.
(ii)determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample. (ANS : (i)1.5 x 10-3% (ii)1.25x 10-4 m)
96. Calculate the mass percentage of aspirin (C9H8O4) in acetonitrile (CH3CN)when 6.5g of (C9H8O4) in
dissolved in 450g of (CH3CN). (ANS :1.42 %)
97. Calculate the mass percentage of benzene (C6H6) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)if 22g of benzene
is dissolved in 122g of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). (ANS :15.28 & 84.72%)
98. Calculate the percentage composition in terms of mass of a solution obtained by mixing 300g of a
25% and 400g of 40% solution by mass(ANS :33.5 & 66.5%)
99. If the solubility product of CuS is 6 X 10-16, calculate the maximum molarity of CuS in aqueous
solution. (ANS :2.45 × 10−8 mol L−1)
100. Nalorphene (C19H21NO3), similar to morphine is used to combat withdrawal symptoms in
narcotic users .Dose of Nalorphene, generally is 1.5 mg.Calculate the mass of 1.5 X 10-3 molal aq.
(ANS : 0.0032 kg or 3.2g)
101. If N2 gas is bubbled through water at 298 K, how many millimoles of N2 gas would dissolve in 1
litre of water .Assume that N2 exerts a partial pressure of 0.987 bar . Henry’s law constant for N2 at
293K is 76.48 bar. (ANS : 0.7×10−3=0.7 milimoles)
102. H2S a toxic gas with rotten egg like smell is used for the qualitative analysis. If the solubility of
H2S in water at STP is 0.195m, calculate Henry’s law constant . (ANS : 282 bar)
103. Henry’s law constant for CO2 in water is 1.67x 108Pa at 298 K .calculate the quantity of CO2 in
500ml of soda water when packed under 2.5 atm CO2 pressure at 298 K. (ANS : 1.848 g)
104. The partial pressure of ethane over a solution containing 6.56 x 10-3 g of ethane is 1 bar. If the
solution contains 5.00 x 10-2 g of ethane, then what shall be the partial pressure of the gas?
105. Henry’s law constant for the molality of methane in benzene at 298 K is 4.27 × 105 mm Hg.
Calculate the solubility of methane in benzene at 298 K under 760 mm Hg. (ANS : 1.78×10−3)
106. Vapour pressure of chloroform (CHCl3) and dichloroform (CH2Cl2) at 298 K are 200 mm Hg and
415 mm Hg respectively. (i) Calculate the vapour pressure of the solution prepared by mixing 25.5 g
of CHCl3 and 40.0 g of CH2Cl2 at 298 K and (ii) mole fractions of each component in vapour phase.
(ANS : 349.92, 0.688, 0.322)
107. The vapour pressure of pure liquids A and B are 450 and 700 mm Hg respectively at 350 K .Find
out the composition of the liquid mixture if total vapour pressure is 600 mm Hg .Also find the
composition of the vapour phase. ( ANS :xA=0.4, xB=0.6, YA=0.3, YB=0.7)
108. Heptane and Octane form ideal solution .At 373 K, the vapour pressures of the two liquid
components are 105.2kPa and 46.8kPa respectively. What will be the vapour pressure, in bar of a
mixture of 25.0g heptane and 35.0g of octane? ( ANS : 73.08 kPa)
109. Benzene and toluene (C7H8)from ideal solution over entire range of composition .The vapour
pressure of pure benzene and toluene at 300K are 50.71mmHg and 32.06 mmHg respectively
.Calculate mol fraction of benzene in vapour phase if 80 g of benzene is mixed with 100 g toluene.
( ANS : Mole fraction of benzene in vapour phase = 0.60)
110. 100 g of liquid A(molar mass 140g/mol) was dissolved in 1000g of liquid B(molar mass
180g/mol)the vapour pressure of pure B was found to be 500 torr.Calculate the vapour pressure of
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pure A and its vapour pressure in solution if total vapour pressure of a solution is recorded as 475
torr. ( ANS :280.7 torr)
111. Vapour pressure of water at 293K is 17.535 mm Hg .calculate vapour pressure of water at 293 K
when 25 g of glucose is dissolved in 450 g of water. (ANS : 17.44 mm of Hg.)
112. A solution is prepared by dissolving 10 g of non volatile solute in 200 g of water .It has a vapour
pressure of 31.84 mm of Hg at 308 K.Calculate the molar mass of the solute.(Vapour pressure of
pure water at 308K is 32 mm of Hg.) (ANS :180 g/mol)
113. At 250C the saturated vapour pressure of water is 3.165 k Pa (23.75 mm Hg).Find the saturated
vapour pressure of a 5% aqueous solution of urea at same temperature.(molar mass of urea =60.05
g/mol) (ANS :3.118 k Pa)
114. The vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain temperature is 0.850 bar. A non volatile, non
electrolyte solid weighing 0.5 g when added to 39.0 g benzene (molar mass 78g/mol).vapour
pressure of the solution ,then is 0.845 bar. what is the molar mass of the solid substance? (ANS
:170 g/mol)
115. Calculate the mass of a nonvolatile solute (molecular mass = 40) which should be dissolved in
114g octane to reduce its vapour pressure to 80%. (ANS :8 g)
116. A solution containing 30g of non-volatile solute exactly in 90g water has a vapour pressure of
2.8 kPa at 298K. Further 18g of water is then added to solution, the new vapour pressure becomes
2.9kpa at 298 K.Calculate (a) Molecular mass of solute (b) Vapour pressure of water at 298K (ANS
:23 g/mol ,3.53 kPa)
117. An aqueous solution of 2% nonvolatile solute exerts a pressure of 1.004 bar at the boiling point
of the solvent .what is the molecular mass of the solute? (Vapour pressure of pure water
=1atm=1.013 bar) (ANS : 41.35 g mol - 1.)
118. Vapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23.8 mmHg .50 g of urea (NH2CONH2)is dissolved in
850 g of water .calculate the vapour pressure of water for this solution and its relative lowering.(
ANS : vapour pressure is 23.4 mm of Hg and its relative lowering is 0.0173)
119. The vapour pressure of water is 12.3 kPa at 300 K. Calculate vapour pressure of 1 molal solution
of a non-volatile solute in it. .( ANS :12.08 kPa)
120. 18 g glucose C6H12O6 is dissolved in 1 kg of water in a saucepan. At what temperature will
solution boil ? Kb for water is 0.512 KKgmol-1. ( ANS :373.202 K)
121. Find the boiling point of a solution containing 0.520 g of glucose dissolved in 80.2 g of water. K b
for water is 0.52 KKgmol-1. (ANS :0.0018,100.00180C)
122. A solution of glycerol(C3H8O3) in water was prepared by dissolving some glycerol in 500 g of
water. This solution has a boiling point of 100.42°C. What mass of glycerol was dissolved to make
this solution? (Kb for water = 0.512 K kg mol–1) (ANS :37.73gram)
123. The boiling point of benzene is 353.23K.when 1.80 g of a non volatile solute was dissolved in 90
g of benzene, the boiling point is raised to 354.11K.Calculate the molar mass of the solute? Kb for
benzene is 2.53 KKgmol-1. (ANS :57.5 gram)
124. Boiling point of water at 750 mmHg is 99.630C.How much sucrose is to added to 500 g water
such that it boils at 100o C. (ANS : 121.67 g )
125. What would be the molar mass of a compound if 6.21 g of its dissolved in 24 g of chloroform to
form a solution that has a boiling point of 68.04 oC .The boiling point of pure chloroform is 61.7oC
and Kb for chloroform is 3.63 oC /m. (ANS : 148.1 g mol - 1.)
126. A solution of 3.800 g of sulphur in 100 g of CS2 (boiling point = 46.30° C) boils at 46.66° C. What
is the formula of sulphur molecule in this solution ? (Atomic mass of sulphur = 32 g mol-1 and Kb for
CS2 = 2.40 K kg mol-1)(ANS :S8)
127. A solution prepared by dissolving 1.25g of oil of wintergreen in 99.0g of benzene has a boiling
point of 80.310C .Determine the molar mass of this compound(B.P. of pure benzene = 80.100C and
Kb for benzene is 2.53 KKgmol-1.) (ANS : 152 g mol - 1.)
128. 1.00 g of non-electrolyte solute is dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowered the freezing point of
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-1
benzene by 0.40K.The freezing point depression constant of benzene is 5.12KKgmol .Find the
molar mass of the solute. (ANS : 256 g mol - 1.)
129. 45g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2)is mixed with 600g of water .calculate(a)Freezing point
depression (b)Freezing point of the solution. Kf for water = 1.86 K kg mol-1 (ANS : 2.25 K, 270.75 K)
130. Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) to be dissolved in 75g of acetic acid to lower its
melting point by 1.5oC. Kf for acetic acid = 3.9 K kg mol-1 (ANS : 5.08 g)
131. A solution containing 2.56 gm of sulphur in 100 g of carbon disulphide gave a freezing point
lowering of 0.383 K .Calculate the molecular formulae of Sulphur [ kf of carbon disulphide = 3.83 K
kg/mol Atomic mass of S =32 amu] (ANS :S8)
132. 15g of an unknown molecular substance was dissolved in 450g of water.The resulting solution
freezes at -0.340C.What is the molar mass of the substance. (ANS :182.17 g mol -1)
133. What mass of ethylene glycol(molar mass =62) must be added to 5.50kg of water to lower the
freezing point from 00C to -100C?( Kf for water = 1.86 K kg mol-1
134. Two elements A & B form compounds having molecular formula AB2 & AB4. When dissolved in
20g of C6H6, 1g AB2 lowers the freezing point by 2.3 & 1.0g AB4 lowers it by 1.3K.The molar
depression constant for benzene is 5.1Kg mol-1. Calculate atomic mass A & B. (ANS :Atomic mass A
= 25.59 u Atomic mass of B = 4.64 u.)
135. A 5% solution (by mass) of cane sugar in water has freezing point of 271.15 K. calculate the
freezing point of 5% glucose in water if freezing point of water is 273.15 K. (ANS :269.06 K)
136. A 4% solution (by mass) of sucrose in water has freezing point of 271 K. calculate the freezing
point of 5% glucose in water if freezing point of water is 273.15 K. (ANS :268.4 K)
137. Calculate the temperature at which a solution containing 54g of glucose in 250g of water will
freeze. Kf for water is 1.86 KKgmol-1.) (ANS : Freezing point of solution =273.15−2.23=270.92K
138. In a solution of urea, 3.0 g of its is dissolved in 100 ml of water. What will be the freezing point
of this solution ? State the approximation made if any. [Kf for water = 1.86 K kg mol-1, molar mass
of Urea = 60 g mol-1] (ANS :Freezing point of a solution is 272.07 K.)
139. Some ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is added to your cars cooling system along with 5 kg of water.If
the freezing point water-glycerol is -15oC ,what is the boiling point of the solution? (Kf=1.86 K kg
mol-1 & Kb=0.52 K kg mol-1 for water) (ANS : )
3
140. 200 cm of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1.26 g of the protein .The osmotic
pressure of such a solution at 300K is found to be2.57x10-3bar.calculate the molar mass of the
protein . (ANS :61,039 g mol-1)
141. 10.0 gm of an organic substance when dissolved in 2 litres of water gave an osmotic pressure of
0.60 atm. at 27 0C Calculate the molecular mass of substance. (ANS :194.6 g/mole)
142. Calculate the osmotic pressure in Pascals exerted by a solution prepared by dissolving 1.0 g of
polymer of molar mass 185,000 in 450ml of water at 37oC. (ANS : 30.95 Pa)
143. At 300 k, 36g of glucose present per litre in its solution has an osmotic pressure of 4.98 bar. If
the osmotic pressure of solution is 1.52 bars at the same temperature, what would be the
concentration? (ANS :0.061 mol)
144. A 5 % solution of canesugar is isotonic with 0.877% of substance X.Find the molecular weight of
X. (ANS :59.9 or 60 g mol-1)
145. 100 mg of a protein is dissolved in enough water to make 10ml of a solution. If this solution has
an osomotic pressure of 13.3 mm Hg at 250C,what is the molar mass of protein?(R=0.0821Latmmol-
1 -1
K and 760mmHg=1atm) (ANS :13963.42 g/mol)
146. A solution prepared by dissolving 8.95mg of a gene fragment in 35.0ml of water has an osmotic
pressure of 0.335 torr at 250C .Calculate its molar mass (ANS :14193.3 g/mol).
147. A 1m aqueous solution of trichloroacetic acid is heated to its boiling point .The solution has the
boiling point 100.18oC .Determine the vant Hoff factor for trichloroacetic acid. Kb for water is 0.512
KKgmol-1. (ANS : i=0.351)
148. Calculate the boiling points of solution when 2 gm of Na2SO4 (molecular mass 142 gm/mol) was
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dissolved in 50 gm of water assuming Na2SO4 undergoes complete ionization. Kb for water =
0.512 K Kg mol-1 (ANS : 0.439K , 373.589K)
149. Calculate the boiling point elevation for a solution prepared by adding 10 g of CaCl2 to 200 g of
water. Kb for water = 0.512 K Kg mol-1 & Molar mass of CaCl2= 111 g/mol. (ANS : 0.69 K)
150. Calculate the freezing point of an aqueous solution containing 10.5g of magnesium bromide in
200g of water assuming complete dissociation of magnesium bromide .(Molar mass of magnesium
bromide= 184 g/mol & Kf for water is 1.86 KKgmol-1.) (ANS :1.59 K,271.56K)
151. Calculate the boiling point of solution containing 4.0 g of magnesium sulphate in 100g of
water assuming complete dissociation of magnesium sulphate.(Molar mass of magnesium sulphate
= 120 g/mol Kb for water = 0.52 K Kg mol-1.) (ANS :373.49 K.)
152. Calculate the boiling point of solution containing 15.0 g of NaCl in 250g of water.(Molar mass
of NaCl = 58.44 g/mol Kb for water = 0.512 K Kg mol-1.) (ANS :ΔTb= 0.525K Tb = 373.675K )
153. Calculate the mass of NaCl (molar mass =58.5) must be dissolved in 37.2 g of water to lower
the freezing point by 20C assuming complete dissociation of NaCl. Kf for water is 1.86 KKgmol-1 .
(ANS: 1.17 g)
154. What mass of NaCl (molar mass =58.5) must be dissolved in 65g of water to lower the freezing
point by 7.50C ? Assume Van’t Hoff’s factor =1.87. . (ANS: 8.199g)
155. Calculate the freezing point depression for 0.711m aqueous solution of sodium sulphate if it is
completely ionised in solution.If this solution actually freezes at -0.3200C ,What is the value of
Van’t Hoff factor for it at the freezing point. (ANS:i =2.42)
156. A 0.561 m solution of unknown electrolyte depresses the freezing point of water by 2.930C .
What is the value of Van’t Hoff factor for this electrolyte. Kf for water is 1.86 KKgmol-1(ANS:i=2.82)
157. Determine the amount of CaCl2 (i = 2.47) dissolved in 2.5 litre of water such that its osmotic
pressure is 0.75 atm at 27° C. ( ANS: 3.42 g)
158. Determine the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by dissolving 25 mg of K2SO4 in 2 litre of
water at 25° C, assuming that it is completely dissociated.( ANS:5.27 x 10-3 atm)
159. Osmotic pressure of a 0.0103 molar solution of an electrolyte is found to be 0.70 atm at 270c .
calculate Vant Hoff factor.( R=0.082 L atom mol-1 K-1) (ANS:i=2.95)
160. 3.9g of Benzoic acid dissolved in 49 g of benzene shows a depression in freezing point equal to
1.62 K. calculate Vant Hoff factor and predict the nature of solute associated or dissociated. (Kf for
benzene is 4.9 K Kg mol-1 & molar mass of Benzoic acid = 122 g/mol.) (ANS:i=0.5067)
161. 2g of Benzoic acid dissolved in 25 g of benzene shows a depression in freezing point equal to
1.62 K. Kf for benzene is 4.9 K Kg mol-1. What is the percentage association of acid if it forms
dimer(ANS: α = 0.99 2=99.2%.)
162. Phenol associates in benzene to a certain extent to form a dimer .A solution containing 20g
phenol in 1.0 kg of benzene has its freezing point lowered by 0.69K.Calculate the fraction of phenol
that has dimerised. Kf for benzene is 5.1 K Kg mol-1 (ANS:α =0.733,73.3%)
163. Calculate the boiling point of one molar aqueous solution of Potassium chloride.Density of KCl
is 1.04 g/ml . Assume,Potassium chloride is completely dissociated ( Atomic mass of K = 39.& Cl =
35.5, Kb for water = 0.52 K Kg mol-1.) (ANS:1.0780C,101.0780C)
164. 19.5 g of CH2FCOOH is dissolved in 500 g of water. The depression in the freezing point of water
observed is 1.00 C. Calculate the van’t Hoff factor and dissociation constant of fluoroacetic acid.
(ANS: 1.0753, 0.0753, 0.00307 )
165. Calculate the depression in the freezing point of water when 10 g of CH3CH2CHClCOOH is added
to 250 g of water. Ka = 1.4 × 10–3, Kf = 1.86 K kg mol–1 (ANS: i= 1.065, 0.647o)

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