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P2 REVIEW
SKIN
Skin is the largest organ of the human body and serves multiple essential
functions:

1. Protection - barrier between the internal organs and the external

environment.

epidermis, contains keratinized cells that provide resistance against

abrasions and infections

Keratin → provides strength and waterproofing to the outer layer of skin

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 2. Secretion - Sweat glands produce sweat, which helps regulate body
temperature and eliminate waste products.

Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, an oily substance that lubricates the

skin and hair, preventing them from drying out.

3. Excretion - The skin plays a role in excreting certain waste products, primarily
through the sweat glands.

4. Body Temperature Regulation - When the body overheats, sweat evaporation

cools the skin and lowers body temperature. Conversely, during cold
conditions, blood vessels constrict to conserve heat.

5. Cutaneous Sensation - The skin contains numerous sensory receptors that

detect touch, pressure, temperature, and pain

The skin is composed of two primary layers:

1. Epidermis - The epidermis provides waterproofing and serves as a barrier

against pathogens. It also contains melanocytes, which produce melanin, the
pigment responsible for skin color and protection against UV radiation.

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 2. Dermis - The dermis lies beneath the epidermis. It provides structural
support to the skin and contains blood vessels, nerve endings, sweat
glands, hair follicles, and sebaceous glands.

Beneath the skin lies the subcutaneous tissue, also known as the hypodermis.
The hypodermis primarily consists of adipose tissue (fat), which acts as
insulation, energy storage, and cushioning against physical shock.

insulation - It serves as a barrier against cold temperatures by providing

thermal insulation

energy storage - stores excess energy in the form of triglycerides (fat

molecules). When the body needs energy, such as during periods of fasting or
increased activity, these stored triglycerides are broken down into fatty acids
and glycerol and released into the bloodstream for energy production

cushioning - provides cushioning and protection for vital organs and tissues. It
acts as a shock absorber, helping to cushion organs against impact and
reduce the risk of injury.

Epidermis

Role of Epidermis - prevents the entry of microorganisms into the body

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 Causes of Epidermal Weakening - The epidermis can weaken due to actions
such as scraping or stripping its surface. Examples include using dry razors,
tape removal, or improper positioning techniques.

Effects of Excessive Dryness and Moisture - excessive dryness can lead to

cracks and breaks in the skin and mucosa, providing entry points for
bacteria. Emollients (moisturizer lang na mga chuy) help to soften the skin and
prevent moisture loss, while proper hydration can improve moisture retention
and prevent dryness.

Chemical Irritation - Misuse of soap, detergents, cosmetics, deodorants, and

depilatories can cause chemical irritation to the skin.

The skin has special parts that help us feel things like touch, pain, heat, cold, and
pressure.

To keep the skin healthy (para estetik):

1. Try to reduce rubbing or friction to prevent damage to the outer layer of the
skin, which can lead to pressure ulcers.

2. Smooth out bedding to get rid of anything that might rub against the skin and
cause irritation.

Developmental Stage
Neonate's Skin

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 The skin of a neonate is relatively immature at birth. The layers of the
epidermis and dermis are loosely bound together, and the skin is very thin.

Therefore, neonates require gentle handling, especially during bathing, to

prevent injury and infection.

Toddler's Skin

As a toddler grows, the layers of their skin become more tightly bound
together, making it more resistant to injury and infection compared to
neonatal skin.

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 However, toddlers are more active in their play and may not have
established hygiene habits.

Parents and caregivers need to provide thorough hygiene care for toddlers
and teach them good hygiene habits to maintain skin health and prevent
infections.

Adolescence

The skin undergoes growth and maturation, resulting in changes in its

appearance and function

Sebaceous glands become more active during adolescence. This

increased activity predisposes adolescents to acne, which is characterized
by active inflammation of the sebaceous glands accompanied by pimples

Sweat glands become fully functional during puberty, leading to increased

sweating. As a result, adolescents often begin to use antiperspirants to
control body odor and reduce sweating

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 Bed Bath

Complete Bed Bath:

Administered to patients who are completely dependent and confined to

bed.

Partial Bed Bath:

Bathing specific body parts, such as hands, face, axillae, and perineal
area, to provide comfort. Can also include washing the back and providing
a back rub.

Sponge Bath at the Sink:

Bathing in a basin or sink while the patient sits in a chair. Patients may
perform part of the bath independently, with assistance needed for hard-
to-reach areas.

Tub Bath:

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 Immersion in a tub of water, offering thorough washing and rinsing.
Commonly used in long-term care, with some tubs equipped with lifting
devices for dependent patients.

Shower:

Patient sits or stands under a continuous stream of water. Provides more

thorough cleaning but can cause fatigue.

Bag Bath/Travel Bath:

Contains pre-moistened cloths with a no-rinse cleanser and emollient,

offering an alternative for easy use and patient comfort.

Chlorhexidine Gluconate (CHG) Bath:

Uses antimicrobial bath wipes to reduce the risk of hospital-acquired

infections on skin, invasive lines, and catheters.

Physically Dependent or Cognitively Impaired

1. Increase Skin Assessment Frequency:

Patients who are physically dependent or cognitively impaired are at

higher risk for skin breakdown → increase the frequency of skin
assessments

2. Consider Special Needs and Challenges:

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 Patients with cognitive impairments may have special needs and
challenges during bathing. They may easily become afraid, refuse,
withdraw, or exhibit aggressive behaviors.

It's important to identify triggers that cause these behaviors, such as

unmanaged pain, feeling cold, fear, embarrassment, or loss of control.

3. Adapt Bathing Procedures and Environment:

Adapt bathing procedures and the environment to reduce triggers.

Administer analgesics before bathing, maintain a warm environment, and
ensure safety devices are in place.

Offer choices to the patient, such as the type of soap or timing of face
washing, to give them a sense of control.

Use comforting words and a gentle approach during bathing to help the
patient relax.

4. Collaborate with Family Members:

Teach family members how to bathe dependent or cognitively impaired

patients for optimal outcomes once the patient is discharged. This
collaboration helps ensure continuity of care and support for the patient's
needs

MEDZ

Terms
Onset - This is the time it takes after taking a medication for it to start working
and produce a response

Peak - The peak time is when the medication reaches its highest
concentration in the bloodstream, meaning it's working at its strongest

Trough - This is the lowest level of medication in the bloodstream, right

before the next dose is due

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 Duration - This is how long the medication stays in your body at a
concentration high enough to produce its effect. It's like the "length" of time
the medication keeps working.

Plateau - This is when the medication reaches a steady level in the

bloodstream after repeated doses. It's like reaching a "flat" or stable level,
where the medication is consistently present in the body.

Factors Affecting Each Route

Oral

Oral route should be avoided in patients with gastrointestinal issues like

nausea, vomiting, reduced motility, or after GI surgery.

Contraindicated in patients who are unconscious, confused, or unable to

swallow.

Not feasible during gastric suction

Oral medications may irritate the GI tract, discolor teeth, or have unpleasant
taste.

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 Parenteral

There is a risk of introducing infection with certain medication administration

routes.

Patients may experience pain from repeated needle sticks, particularly with
invasive routes such as intravenous or intramuscular.

Subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intradermal routes should be avoided in

patients with bleeding tendencies due to the risk of increased bleeding.

Intramuscular and intravenous routes have higher absorption rates, potentially

increasing the risk of adverse reactions.

Skin
Patients with skin abrasions are at risk for rapid medication absorption and
systemic effects.

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 Medications are absorbed through the skin slowly.

Transdermal
Medication leaves oily or pasty substances on skin and sometimes soils
clothing.

Mucous Membrane
Mucous membranes are highly sensitive to some medication
concentrations.

Patients with ruptured eardrum cannot receive ear irrigations.

Rectal suppositories contraindicated if the patient has had rectal surgery or if

active rectal bleeding is present.

Medication Error

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 Medication errors encompass various mistakes such as inaccurate prescribing,
administering the wrong medication, incorrect route or timing, giving extra doses,
or failing to administer a medication.

To Prevent Medication Errors:

1. Prepare medications for only one patient at a time.

2. Adhere to the six rights of medication administration.

3. Read labels at least three times, comparing them with the medication
administration record (MAR) before giving the medication.

4. Use at least two patient identifiers and review allergies before administering
medication.

5. Avoid interruptions during medication administration.

6. Double-check all calculations and high-risk processes with another nurse.

7. Don't interpret illegible handwriting; clarify with the healthcare provider.

8. Question unusually large or small doses.

9. Document all medications immediately after administration.

Oral
Assess the patient's ability to swallow before administering oral medications.

Position the patient upright at a 90-degree angle when administering oral

medications, unless contraindicated by their condition.

Utilize a multidisciplinary approach involving speech therapists, dietitians, and

occupational therapists to determine the best techniques for patients with
swallowing difficulties.

Protecting a Patient From Aspiration

Recognize signs of dysphagia (difficulty swallowing) such as coughing,

voice changes, delayed swallowing, or regurgitation.

Assess the patient's ability to swallow and cough by checking for the gag
reflex and offering small amounts of water.

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 Position the patient upright in a seated position with proper alignment.

If the patient has unilateral weakness, place the medication in the stronger
side of the mouth.

Administer pills one at a time, ensuring proper swallowing before

introducing the next one.

Topical
Apply locally applied medications such as lotions, pastes, and ointments with
gloves and applicators to prevent systemic and local effects.

Use a sterile technique if the patient has an open wound to minimize the risk
of infection.

Clean the skin thoroughly before applying medications by washing gently with
soap and water or soaking the area.

Apply each type of medication according to directions to ensure proper

penetration and absorption.

Follow these guidelines to ensure the safe administration of transdermal or

topical medications:

When applying a transdermal patch, ask the patient if he or she has an

existing patch.

Wear disposable gloves when removing and applying transdermal

patches.

If the dressing or patch is difficult to see (e.g., clear), apply a noticeable

label to the patch.

Document the location on the patient's body where the medication was
placed on the MAR.

Document removal of the patch or medication on the MAR. Fold sticky

sides of the patch together.

Eye Instillation

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 Patients should be cautioned against abusing medications as overuse can lead
to a rebound effect, and worsening nasal congestion.

Vaginal Instillation
Vaginal medications come in various forms such as suppositories, foam,
jellies, or creams.

After insertion into the vaginal cavity, body temperature causes suppositories
to melt and be distributed and absorbed.

Foam, jellies, and creams are administered with an applicator inserter.

Give suppositories with a gloved hand following standard precautions.

Patients often prefer self-administering vaginal medications and require

privacy.

Vaginal medications are often used to treat infections, resulting in foul-

smelling discharge.

Subcutaneous Injection
The best subcutaneous injection sites include the outer posterior aspect of the
upper arms, abdomen from below the costal margins to the iliac crests, and
anterior aspects of the thighs.

For heparin injections, the abdomen is most recommended, using the sides at
least 2 inches from the umbilicus.

Low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) should be injected slowly (over 30

seconds) into the abdomen.

Use U-100 insulin syringes for U-100 insulin and 1-mL tuberculin syringes for
U-500 insulin.

Rotate insulin injections within the same body part (intrasite rotation) at
least 2.5 cm (1 inch) away from previous sites.

Injection sites should not be reused for at least 1 month.

45-degree angle

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 Intramuscular Injection
The intramuscular (IM) route provides faster medication absorption due to the
greater vascularity of muscles

Insert the needle at a 90-degree angle for IM injections.

Intradermal Injection
Intradermal (ID) injections are typically used for skin testing, such as
tuberculin screening and allergy tests.

Medications are injected into the dermis, where blood supply is reduced and
absorption occurs slowly.

Choose ID injection sites that allow easy assessment for changes in color and
tissue integrity, such as lightly pigmented, lesion-free, and relatively hairless
areas like the inner forearm and upper back.

Use a tuberculin or small hypodermic syringe for ID injections.

Insert the needle at a 5 to 15-degree angle with the bevel pointed up.

After injection, a small bleb resembling a mosquito bite should appear on the
skin surface. If no bleb appears or if the site bleeds after needle withdrawal,
the medication may have entered subcutaneous tissues, invalidating test
results.

Lung Volume
Tidal Volume (TV):

Tidal volume is simply the amount of air you breathe in and out during
normal, everyday breathing.

Residual Volume (RV):

Residual volume is the amount of air that remains in your lungs even after
you've breathed out as much as you possibly can.

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 Forced Vital Capacity (FVC):

Forced vital capacity is the maximum amount of air you can breathe out
forcefully and completely after you've taken the deepest breath you
possibly can.

Ventilation:

It's the process of moving air in and out of the lungs.

When you inhale, you're bringing fresh air into your lungs, and when you
exhale, you're pushing out air.

This movement of air is essential for bringing oxygen into the body and
getting rid of carbon dioxide

Perfusion:

Perfusion refers to the circulation of blood through the body's tissues.

It's like the shopee rider (delivery service) of the cardiovascular system.
Oxygen-rich blood is pumped from the heart to all parts of the body,
delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells.

After the cells have used up the oxygen, the blood returns to the heart,
carrying carbon dioxide and other waste products. Then, it's pumped back
to the lungs to be oxygenated

Diffusion:

Diffusion is the process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide move

between the air in the lungs and the blood in the tiny blood vessels called
capillaries.

Think of it as a simple swap – oxygen moves from the air in the lungs into
the bloodstream, while carbon dioxide moves from the bloodstream into
the lungs to be exhaled.

diffusion is like the natural spreading out of molecules from where there
are lots of them to where there are fewer, until they're evenly distributed

Respiratory Gas Exchange:

In the alveoli of the lungs, oxygen from the air we breathe enters the blood,
while carbon dioxide from the blood moves into the alveoli to be exhaled.

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 Oxygen Transport:

Oxygen is transported in the blood by binding to hemoglobin →

oxyhemoglobin → can release oxygen such as in body tissues where
oxygen is needed for cellular function.

Artificial Airway
1. Oral Airway:

An oral airway is like a guardrail for the tongue. It's a curved device placed
in the mouth to keep the tongue from falling back and blocking the throat.

Oral airway prevents the tongue from obstructing the trachea, ensuring a
clear passage for air to flow into the lungs.

2. Endotracheal and Tracheal Airways:

These are temporary airway devices inserted directly into the trachea
(windpipe).

They're used for short-term purposes, such as providing mechanical

ventilation, relieving upper airway obstruction, protecting against
aspiration (inhaling food or fluids), and clearing secretions.

3. Tracheostomy:

A tracheostomy is like having a permanent airway installed.

It's a surgical procedure where a hole is made in the front of the neck
directly into the trachea. A tube, called a tracheostomy tube, is then
inserted to keep the airway open.

This type of artificial airway is used for long-term assistance, especially

for patients who need prolonged mechanical ventilation or have chronic
respiratory conditions.

Suctioning Techniques

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 Suctioning techniques are used to remove secretions from different parts of the
airway to help patients breathe better.
Oropharyngeal and Nasopharyngeal Suctioning:

These techniques are used when the patient can cough effectively but
can't clear secretions.

A healthcare provider uses a small, flexible tube to remove secretions from

the mouth (oropharyngeal) or nose (nasopharyngeal) to help the patient
breathe better.

Orotracheal and Nasotracheal Suctioning:

These techniques are used when the patient can't manage secretions by
coughing and doesn't have an artificial airway.

Orotracheal and nasotracheal suctioning involve using a tube inserted

through the mouth (orotracheal) or nose (nasotracheal) and down into the
trachea to remove secretions directly from the airway.

Tracheal Suctioning:

This technique is used when the patient has an artificial airway, such as
an endotracheal tube or tracheostomy tube.

Tracheal suctioning involves inserting a tube through the artificial airway

into the trachea to clear secretions and maintain a clear airway.

Tracheal Care:

Open Suctioning

Open suctioning involves disconnecting the patient from the

ventilator or artificial airway (such as a tracheostomy tube) before
suctioning.

This method is typically used when the patient can tolerate a

brief interruption in ventilation.

Closed Suctioning:

Closed suctioning is done without disconnecting the patient from

the ventilator or artificial airway.

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 This method allows for suctioning while maintaining ventilation,
minimizing the risk of infection and reducing the need for
reconnection to the ventilator.

Methods for Maintaining and Promoting

Lung Expansion
Ambulation

Ambulation means walking or moving around.

When you walk, your breathing rate increases, and your lungs expand and
contract more fully. This movement helps prevent stagnation in the lungs
and encourages better ventilation and oxygenation.

Positioning

Positioning involves arranging the body in specific ways to optimize lung

function.

By positioning the body correctly, we can reduce the risk of fluid buildup in
the lungs (pulmonary stasis) and maintain good airflow and oxygen levels.

Incentive Spirometry

breathing exercise tool.

Incentive spirometry encourages you to take deep breaths by inhaling

slowly and deeply through a device called a spirometer. This helps expand
the lungs and keeps them healthy.

Invasive Mechanical Ventilation:

This is a life-saving technique used with artificial airways like endotracheal

tubes or tracheostomy tubes.

Think of a ventilator as a machine that helps you breathe. It delivers air into
the lungs through a tube in the throat, providing support when patient can't
breathe on their own

Noninvasive Ventilation

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 Noninvasive ventilation is a way to support breathing without using a tube
inserted into the airway.

Picture wearing a mask connected to a machine that helps the patient

breathe. They help keep the airways open and improve ventilation.

Chest Tube:

Chest tubes are inserted into the chest to drain air or fluid that's
accumulated around the lungs.

Maintaining and Promoting Oxygen

1. Oxygen Therapy:

Oxygen therapy helps prevent or relieve low oxygen levels in the body
(hypoxia).

2. Safety Precautions:

Safety measures are important when using oxygen therapy to prevent

accidents like fires.

Safety precautions, like keeping oxygen tanks away from heat sources and
ensuring proper ventilation, help keep patients safe during oxygen therapy.

3. Supply of Oxygen:

Oxygen can be supplied from tanks or through a wall-piped system in

healthcare facilities.

4. Methods of Oxygen Delivery:

Oxygen is delivered to patients through devices like nasal cannulas,

oxygen masks, and Venturi masks.

5. Home Oxygen Therapy:

Home oxygen therapy is prescribed for patients with low oxygen levels,
typically measured by arterial blood gases

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 Fluids
Fluid Balance Components:

Fluid balance involves three main aspects:

Fluid intake: This refers to the fluids we consume

Fluid distribution: Once inside the body, fluids are distributed

throughout cells

Fluid output: This includes the fluids that leave the body

Hormonal Regulation:

Several hormones play key roles in regulating fluid balance:

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): ADH helps regulate the amount of water

reabsorbed by the kidneys. When ADH levels increase, the kidneys
reabsorb more water, leading to less urine production and helping to
conserve fluid.

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS): This system helps

regulate blood pressure and fluid balance by controlling the release of
hormones like renin, angiotensin, and aldosterone. These hormones
work together to increase blood pressure and retain sodium and water
in the body.

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP): ANP is released by the heart in

response to increased blood volume and pressure. It helps promote the
excretion of sodium and water by the kidneys, leading to decreased
blood volume and pressure.

Respiratory Acidosis:

This occurs when there's too much carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood
due to inadequate breathing (hypoventilation).

In respiratory acidosis, the lungs can't remove enough CO2 from the
body, leading to an accumulation of carbonic acid

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 Respiratory Alkalosis:

This happens when there's too little CO2 in the blood due to excessive
breathing (hyperventilation).

In respiratory alkalosis, the lungs exhale too much CO2, causing a

deficit of carbonic acid

Metabolic Acidosis:

This results from an increase in metabolic acids or a decrease in

bicarbonate (a base) in the blood.

In metabolic acidosis, the kidneys can't eliminate enough metabolic

acids from the body, causing them to build up in the blood and leading
to a decrease in consciousness levels.

Metabolic Alkalosis:

This occurs when there's a direct increase in bicarbonate or a decrease

in metabolic acids in the blood.

In metabolic alkalosis, there's an excess of bicarbonate in the blood,

leading to an increase in blood pH.

Physical Assessment
1. Daily weights:
Daily weighing is crucial for monitoring fluid status, especially in patients
with conditions like heart failure, renal failure, or edema.

2. Fluid intake and output (I&O): Monitoring fluid intake and output provides
insights into fluid balance and renal function.

3. 24-hour I&O: This involves documenting all fluid intake and output over a
24-hour period.

4. Intake: Includes all liquids consumed by the patient, whether orally

ingested, received through intravenous infusion, or administered via
feeding tubes.

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 5. Output: Includes urine output, as well as fluid losses from other sources
such as diarrhea, vomiting, gastric suction, wound drainage, or drainage
from surgical drains.

6. Laboratory studies: electrolyte levels, renal function, blood glucose levels,

and markers of inflammation or infection.

Fluid Management
1. Health promotion:

Fluid replacement education: Educate patients on the importance of

maintaining proper hydration and the risks associated with fluid
imbalances

2. Acute care:

Enteral replacement of fluids: Administer fluids orally or through enteral

feeding tubes to replace fluid losses and maintain hydration in patients
who are able to tolerate oral intake.

Restriction of fluids: In certain cases, such as in patients with congestive

heart failure or kidney disease, fluid restriction may be necessary to
prevent fluid overload and worsening of symptoms.

Parenteral replacement of fluids and electrolytes: Administer fluids and

electrolytes intravenously to patients who cannot tolerate oral intake or
require rapid correction of fluid imbalances.

3. Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN):

TPN is a method of providing complete nutrition intravenously for patients

who are unable to eat or absorb nutrients orally or enterally. TPN solutions
contain a balanced combination of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals, and electrolytes, tailored to the individual patient's needs.

4. Use of crystalloids and colloids:

Crystalloids: These are intravenous fluids containing electrolytes such as

sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate in varying concentrations.

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 They are used for fluid replacement, maintenance, and resuscitation in
patients with dehydration, shock, or electrolyte imbalances.

Colloids: Colloids are often used for volume replacement in cases of

severe hypovolemia or hypoproteinemia, and they may include blood
products like albumin or packed red blood cells.

IV Therapy
Types of solutions:

Isotonic solutions: Often used to expand fluid volume and replace lost
fluids, such as normal saline (0.9% NaCl) or lactated Ringer's solution.

Hypotonic solutions: Used to rehydrate cells, such as 0.45% NaCl. These

solutions have the ability to rehydrate cells by causing water to move
from the extracellular fluid into the intracellular space

Hypertonic solutions: Used to draw fluid out of cells and into the
bloodstream, such as 3% NaCl or 5% dextrose in normal saline. These
solutions draw water out of cells and into the bloodstream, effectively
shrinking cells

Electrolytes
1. Sodium:

Sodium is an electrolyte that plays a crucial role in maintaining fluid

balance and nerve function in the body. Sodium helps regulate the amount
of water in and around cells, which is critical for maintaining proper
hydration levels in the body

Imbalance Signs and Symptoms:

Hyponatremia (Low Sodium): Symptoms may include headache,

nausea, confusion, muscle cramps, and in severe cases, seizures or
coma.

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 Hypernatremia (High Sodium): Symptoms may include thirst, dry
mouth, swollen tongue, restlessness, weakness, and in severe cases,
confusion, seizures, or coma.

2. Potassium:

Potassium is another essential electrolyte that helps regulate muscle

contractions, nerve signals, and fluid balance. Adequate potassium levels
are necessary for muscles to contract and relax effectively, allowing for
smooth movement and coordination.

Imbalance Signs and Symptoms:

Hypokalemia (Low Potassium): Symptoms may include muscle

weakness, fatigue, constipation, irregular heartbeat, and in severe
cases, paralysis or life-threatening heart rhythms.

Hyperkalemia (High Potassium): Symptoms may include muscle

weakness, tingling sensations, nausea, slow or irregular heartbeat, and
in severe cases, paralysis or cardiac arrest.

3. Magnesium:

Magnesium is vital for muscle and nerve function, blood sugar regulation,
and bone health. Magnesium helps activate enzymes that facilitate
chemical reactions necessary for cellular function and metabolism.

Imbalance Signs and Symptoms:

Hypomagnesemia (Low Magnesium): Symptoms may include muscle

cramps, tremors, fatigue, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and in severe
cases, seizures or abnormal heart rhythms.

Hypermagnesemia (High Magnesium): Symptoms may include

nausea, vomiting, weakness, low blood pressure, respiratory
depression, and in severe cases, cardiac arrest.

Nursing Research

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Nursing Research
Nursing research is all about finding new knowledge, improving how nurses are
trained, and making sure resources are used wisely. Researchers might study
different ways to help patients manage pain after surgery or investigate how to
prevent infections in hospitals.

Outcome Research
Outcomes research is about figuring out what really works in healthcare. It helps
patients, doctors, and policymakers make smart decisions by looking at things like
how well treatments work, their risks and benefits, and how they affect patients in
the long run. The outcomes need to be things we can see or measure.
Researchers might compare different treatments for diabetes to see which one
helps patients control their blood sugar levels best.

Nursing and the Scientific Approach

Nursing uses both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Quantitative
research deals with numbers and measurements, like counting how many patients
get better with a certain treatment. Qualitative research looks at experiences and
meanings, like understanding how patients feel about their care

Research Process
Before any research can be done involving people, it needs to be approved by an
Institutional Review Board (IRB). There are also specific terms to protect the
people involved, like informed consent (where participants know what they're
getting into and can choose freely) and confidentiality (keeping their information
private).

The Relationship between EBP, Research, and QI

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 Although evidence-based practice (EBP), research, and quality improvement (QI)
are closely related, they're different processes. EBP uses information from
research and other sources to figure out the best nursing care. Research asks
questions and finds answers to add to what we know about nursing. QI focuses on
making local improvements in how things are done to help patients, but these
changes might not apply everywhere.

Nursing research is about finding better ways to care for

patients, outcomes research helps us understand what
treatments work best, the scientific method ensures we get
reliable answers, and evidence-based practice uses this
knowledge to provide the best care possible

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