BAT 05102:

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
SELO 1. Apply principles and theories in
constructing business correspondence
and deliver messages clearly

a. Define communication and communication skills.

b. Explain the importance and levels of
communication(intrapersonal, personal, group,
organization and public levels).
c. Explain the process of communication.
d. Apply theories and models of communication to
prepare and deliver messages properly.
e. Identify barriers to effective communication.
 COMMUNICATION

The Meaning of Communication.

u Communication is a dynamic process…
u Through this process we convey a
thought or feeling…
u How you say what you say plays an
important role in communication.
 Cont…

u No single agreed definition. The

controversy is due to multiplicity of the use
of the term.
u There is non-linguistic communication.
u (e.g. animal communication, machine
communication, art communication,
chemical communication etc).
u There is also linguistic communication
(verbal and non-verbal communication).
u The origin of the term
communication comes from the
Latin word ‘communicare’ which
means ‘to make common’.
u This means when the idea you have
in mind resembles the idea I have in
my mind, then we have
communicated; we have created
common understanding.
uCommunication is the
transmission of information
and meaning from one
individual or group to
another. The crucial element
is meaning.
uThe process of
communication is successful
only when the receiver
understands an idea as the
sender intended it.
u Communication involves
exchange of thoughts between
two parties.
u In order to transfer an idea, we
must use symbols (words, signs,
pictures which stand for the idea.
The symbols must be understood
by the person(s) with whom we
intend to communicate.
u Generally, communication is
the process of sharing ideas or
attitudes in way that produces
a degree of understanding
between two or more people.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
u Communication skills are
techniques and strategies for
enhancing effective delivery of
message for effective
communication.
u Good communication skills can
improve the way that you operate
through life, smoothing your way in
your relationships with others.
u Poor communication skills, on
the other hand, can sour
relationships from business to
personal, and make your life
significantly harder.
u While these skills may be a
regular part of your day-to-
day work life, communicating
in a clear, effective and
efficient way is an extremely
special and useful skill.
u Communication skills involve
listening, speaking, observing
and empathizing. It is also
helpful to understand the
differences in how to
communicate through face-to-
face interactions, phone
conversations and digital
communications, like email and
social media.
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
i. Base for action
u Communication acts as a base
for any action. Starting of any
activity begins with
communication which brings
information necessary to begin
with.

u
u ii.Planning becomes easy
u Communication facilitates
planning. Planning is made easy by
communication. Any type of
information regarding the human
resource requirement of each
department of the organisation
can be collected through
communication.
u iii. Means of Coordination
u Communication is an important
tool for coordinating the efforts
of various people at work in the
organisation.
u iv. Aids/helps in Decision-Making
u The information collected
through communication aids in
decision-making.
Communication facilitates
access to the vital information
required to take decisions.
u v. Provides Effective Leadership
uA communication skill brings
manager near to his subordinates
and exchange ideas and submits
appropriate proposals, knows their
opinions, seeks advices and make
decisions. This enables a manager
to win confidence of his
subordinates through constantly
communicating with them and
removing probable
misunderstandings.
u vi. Boosts morale and motivation
u An effective communication instills
confidence among subordinates
and workers ensuring change in
their attitude and behaviour. The
main cause of conflict and
dissatisfaction is misunderstanding
which can be removed through
communication skills. This boosts up
the morale of the people and
motivates them to work harder.
u vii. For socializing
u Communication also helps in
socializing. In todays life the only
presence of another individual
fosters communication. It is also
said that one cannot survive
without communication.
u viii. For moulding individual’s
attitudes
u Communication plays a crucial
role in altering individual’s attitudes.
A well informed individual will have
better attitude than a less-informed
individual. Organizational meetings
and other forms of communication
help in moulding employee’s
attitudes.
u ix. Helps your career progression
u Being able to deliver messages
clearly and understand other
people means the work can be
completed effectively and to the
benefit of the company as a
whole.
u x. Increases cooperation and
organisational peace
u The two-way communication
process promotes co-operation
and mutual understanding
amongst the workers and also
between them and the
management. This leads to less
friction.
u xi. A unifying factor
u Communication is an important
unifying factor in community
development. It is a source of unity
in the society and unifies the
activities in various communities.
u LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
u Interpersonal Communication
u This is any kind of communication
between two people, and only two
people.
u Intrapersonal communication
} This is mental conversation or
communication with yourself. E.g.
assignment notebooks, calendars,
any kind of reminder to do
something later or congratulating
yourself on a job well done.
} Intra-group communication
Communication which takes place
within a group. E.g.
communication among diploma
students.
} Inter-group communication
} Communication which takes place
between groups. E.g.
communication between PGD and
Diploma students
} Organizational communication
} This refers to communication
among the group of people
related in some sort of business or
administrative structure.
Communication in this type can by
hierarchical or non-hierarchical.
E.g. communication between and
among CBE administration, staff
and students.
} Public Communication
} It refers to a sender-focused form
of communication in which one
person is typically responsible for
conveying information to an
audience.

} E.g. President addressing the

nation.
} Mass communication
} Mass communication is
communication directed toward a
large audience simultaneously,
usually electronically. This would
be television, radio, the internet,
newspapers, the morning
announcements, etc.
Communication process
 Components/ Elements of
Communication Process

The transmission of the sender’s

ideas to the receiver and the
receiver’s feedback or reaction to
the sender constitute the
communication process
From this there is the following
elements or components of
communication process as
discussed below;
 Cont…

1. Sender / Encoder - It is a person,

group or an organization that
sends the message. A sender
makes use of symbols (words or
graphic or visual aids) to convey
the message and produce the
required response.
u The views, attitude, skills,
competencies, and knowledge of
the sender have a great impact
on the message.

u The verbal and non verbal

symbols chosen are essential in
ascertaining interpretation of the
message by the recipient in the
same terms as intended by the
sender.
2. Message
u It is a key idea that the sender wants
to communicate. It is a sign that
elicits the response of recipient.
u Communication process begins with
deciding about the message to be
conveyed. It must be ensured that
the main objective of the message is
clear.
u 3. Medium/Channel
u It is a means used to exchange /
transmit the message. The sender
must choose an appropriate medium
for transmitting the message, else the
message might not be conveyed to
the desired recipients.
u The choice of appropriate medium of
communication is essential for making
the message effective and correctly
interpreted by the recipient.
Cont…
This choice of communication medium
varies depending upon the features of
communication.
For instance - Written medium is chosen
when a message has to be conveyed
to a small group of people,
while an oral medium is chosen when
spontaneous feedback is required from
the recipient as misunderstandings are
cleared then and there.
4. Receiver/Decoder

Receiver / Decoder is a person for

whom the message is intended /
aimed / targeted.
The degree to which the decoder
understands the message is
dependent upon various factors such
as knowledge of recipient, their
responsiveness to the message, and
the reliance of encoder on decoder.
 5. Feedback

u Feedback is the main component

of communication process as it
permits the sender to analyze the
efficiency of the message.
u It helps the sender to confirm the
correct interpretation of message
by the decoder.
 Cont…

u Feedback may be verbal

(through words) or non-verbal
(in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It
may take written form also in
form of memos, reports, etc.
 Cont…
u Things to consider when giving a
productive feedback:
u 1. Create safety-The person
receiving the feedback should
feel comfortable.
u 2. Be positive - Positive feedback
leaves the recipient open to
taking new direction.
 Cont…
3. Be specific-People generally
respond better to specific, positive
direction.
4. Be immediate-Give feedback
immediately and frequently.
5. Be tough, not mean-Give the
objective, specific, forward-moving
type of feedback.
 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS/
CYCLE

u Thecommunication process is the

steps we take in order to
successfully communicate. It is
continuous and dynamic in nature
rather than a static phenomenon.
 Cont…

u It is a simple process where a

message is being transferred from
a sender to the receiver. The
receiver after receiving the
message understands the
message in the desired form and
then acts accordingly.
The Process of sending the Message
u The sender first thinks of information,
whatever he intends to
communicate. Then he puts the
information or the message in words
or prepares content. The process of
putting the thoughts in words is called
encoding. Finally the content after
being ready is transmitted to the
receiver.
The Process of receiving the Message
u The message reaches the receiver,
who then decodes the message or in
simpler terms breaks the information,
understands it and responds to the
sender. This process is known as
decoding. The receiver also gives
feedback to the sender after he has
understood the complete
information.
Six stages of the communication
process:
u 1. The idea is developed in the mind of the sender.
u 2. The idea is encoded (by the sender) into
linguistic symbols, normally words or pictures.
u 3. The idea is transmitted to the desired destination.
The sender has to decide on how to send the
message.
u 4. The idea must be received by the intended
receiver.
u 5. The idea/message must be decoded or
interpreted according to the receiver’s
experiences.
u 6. The receiver sends feedback to the sender
based on the correct or wrong interpretation.
THIS IS BAT05102

THEORIES OF
COMMUNICATION
 COMMUNICATION THEORIES
Ø Communication theory refers to any conceptual
representation or explanation of the
communication process.

Ø It is the discipline that studies the principles of

transmitting information and the methods by which
it is delivered.
 COMMUNICATION THEORIES
Ø It is an attempt to explain how and why humans
communicate meaningfully with each other. Such
theories can originate from a variety of different
fields, including Psychology, Biology, and Philosophy

Ø Communication theory provides an explanation of

how, exactly, one individual is able to
communicate meaning to another and the degree
to which the speaker and the listener can
understand each other.
COMMUNICATION ACCOMODATION
THEORY

u Communication Accommodation Theory

(CAT) was developed by Howard Giles, a
professor of Linguistics and Psychology at the
University of California, Santa in 1973.
COMMUNICATION
ACCOMODATION THEORY
u It states that “when humans talk to
each other, they tend to change the
way they talk to match the way the
listener talks. Whether you realize it or
not, and it can be either conscious or
unconscious, you match your accent,
your speed, your rhythm, your
vocabulary and even your stance and
gestures to that of the person you are
talking to.”
 CAT

Communication Accommodation Theory

u i. Addresses interpersonal communication issues, yet
also links it with the larger context of the intergroup
communication.
u ii. Explores the different ways in which we
accommodate our communication, our motivations
for doing so, and the consequences.
u iii. Elaborates the human tendency to adjust their
behaviour while interacting.
 Cont…
u iv. The reason for adjustment is to control the
social differences between the interactants.
People accommodate their communication
activities to get approval and to set a positive
image in front of the interactant.
u Generally, the theory seeks to explain and
predict why, when, and how people adjust their
communicative behaviour during social
interaction, and what social consequences
result from those adjustments
 Types of accommodation
u 1. CONVERGENCE
u Refers to the processes whereby two or more
individuals alter or shift their speech to resemble that
of those they are interacting with.
u It is a tendency for people to become more alike in
terms of linguistic, prosodic or non-verbal features,
including pronunciation, utterance length, pauses,
speech rates, vocal intensities.
 Cont…

u 2. DIVERGENCE
u Refers to the ways in which speakers make
more noticeable of their verbal and non-verbal
differences in order to distinguish themselves
from others.
u These two processes usually are dependent on
the characteristics of the interactant. People
accommodate their communication while
interacting with a person who has higher
standards and other characteristics which they
believe is better than them.
 Cont…

Assumptions of CAT:
u i. While communicating there will be similarity and
differences in the speech and behaviour. The
characteristics that people exhibit are based on our
experiences and the cultural backgrounds that we
grew up in.
u ii. A conversation is evaluated by understanding the
perception of the speech and behaviours of the
other. Through evaluation people decides to
accommodate and fit in.
 Cont…

u iii. Norms guide the accommodation process

which varies in the degree of appropriateness.
Norms define the behaviours of people and they
are expected to act accordingly.
u iv. The social status and belonging is determined
by language and behaviours. While people
communicate they tend to accommodate the
behaviours of those who are in the higher social
status than them.
Cont…

Application of the CAT

It is applicable in various communication processes.
For instance, in an organization it can be used to
communicate effectively among the employees as
well as they adapt while communicating to a senior
employee.
 Cont…

Criticism of CAT:
i. Divergence can create barriers in communication
since distance is maintained between people when
somebody is taken as inferior.
ii. Differences between convergence and divergence
are sometimes distorted by situations.
iii. Both parties involved in communication are always
assumed to be rational and there are no conflicts
between them.
iv. Very few researches have been done on this subject.
 Cont…
u CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY
u Is a communication theory that seeks to explain
individual differences in the ability to communicate
skillfully. It was developed in 1970 by Jesse Delia and
his associates at the University of Illinois.
u Constructivism aims to describe the way people
with more interpersonal complexity and complex
thinking are more successful in regards to social life
and in the professional world.
 Cont…
u Constructivism theory states that ”successful
communication is a complicated matter that
requires the mastery of several different types of
knowledge or competencies.”
u Within this theory, communication competence
recognizes that individuals differ in how they
construct their reality, organize knowledge and
meaning, and accomplish individual and relational
goals.
 Cont…
Competences for successful
communication/skilled
communicator.
a. Linguistic competence
b. Sociolinguistic competence
c. Rhetorical confidence
d. Conversational management
Cont...

a. Linguistic Competence
Involves the proper use of grammar and syntax, as
well as the ability to linguistically comprehend
messages received from other speakers.
b. Sociolinguistic Competence
Refers to a person’s ability to understand the social
rules that govern communication in different
situations.
Aspects of communication that vary from group to
group include turn-taking, personal distance, voice
volume and tone, use of titles, and size and range of
gestures.
Cont...
c. Rhetorical Competence
Refers to how speakers extract meaning from the
messages of others and, in response, create
messages that can achieve goals. Successful
messages are informative, persuasive and sensitive
to others’ needs.
d. Conversational Management
Refers to how people manage face-to-face
interactions by allocating speaking turns, directing
conversation topics and adjusting communication
goals according to others’ responses.
Cont...
Constructivism assumptions:
i. Active Construction of Reality:
This assumption of constructivism recognizes that
individuals interact in their world and contribute to
shaping reality. This view stands in contrast to a view
of the world where individuals are passive and do
not interact or change the world around us.
ii. Meaning is always shifting:
This assumption of constructivism recognizes that
individuals think - and our knowledge shifts
depending on factors like situation, purpose, roles,
and experience.
Cont...
Application
1. Constructivism helps people to recognize and
cultivate the qualities of effective communication.
2. Skillful communication improves the lives of listeners
by relaying life-enhancing information, leading to
healthier behaviors.
3. Today, constructivism continues to have vital
applications in fields like business, education, health
care, journalism and politics, and has broadened our
understanding of socialization and language
acquisition
Cont...
4. Interpersonal cognitive complexity has been
employed in studying other individual differences like
recall of information, listening comprehension, social
perception, perspective-taking, and communication
apprehension/anxiety.
Criticism of Constructivism theory
i. Communicating effectively does not necessarily
need competence of communicators.
ii. Constructivism has bee criticized for focusing much
on society and culture as a causal factor in human
behavior, excluding the influence of innate biological
tendencies.
 COMMUNICATION MODELS
Ø A model is a systematic representation of an
object or event in idealized and abstract form.
Ø Communication models aim to present
communication as a process.
Ø It is like a map, representing features of a
territory.
There are two main types of models:
1. Linear models
a) Aristotle’s model
b) Shannon and Weaver’s model
2. Non-linear models
a) Interactional models
b) Transactional models
I. Linear communication model
u Communication is considered as a one way
process in which sender is the only one who
sends message and receiver doesn’t give
feedback or response at all
u (A) Aristotle’s communication Model
u Aristotle represented communication as might a
spokesperson who speaks to large audiences
u This model incorporates three elements i.e.
speaker, message and listener
u Aristotle’s Model
u Weaknesses of Aristotle’s model
u Is a fairly simplistic model. The Communication process
is limited to the persuasive dimension.
u Communication is perceived as an authoritarian
relationship.
u There is no any form of feedback.
(B)Shannon and Weaver’s model
u Focused on information theory specifically the
transmission and reception of messages in
telecommunications.
u Seems to be geared for telecommunications such as
radio &TV.
u The elements of the model is information
source, message, transmitter, signal, receiver,
sources of noise and information destination.
u Transmitter and receiver would be the
hardware used by the sender and receiver
during the act of communication.
u Noise may come from static sources (like solar
flares), unusual weather conditions, or electron
equipment that interferes with the signal.
Ø Shannon and Weaver’s model
u Weaknesses of the Model
u i. It is linear and a simplistic model.
u ii. It ignores the plurality of receivers.
u iv. There is no feedback loop.
2. Non-Linear Models
a.) Convergence/Interactive Model
u Describes communication as a process in which
participants alternate positions as sender and
receiver and generate meaning by sending
messages and receiving feedback within physical
and psychological contexts
u Rather than illustrating communication as a linear,
one-way process, the interactive model
incorporates feedback, which makes
communication a more interactive, two-way
process.
Cont...
u In the message formation of both sources are
affected by their “field of experience”.
u Field of Experience is a communication pattern
alteration factor like culture, social, psychology,
situation and channels used. All these factors also
affect the message interpretation.
Schramm’s Model
u Wilbur Schramm came up with two models of
communication.
u However, the second model presents
communication as a process by introducing the
concept of feedback
Ø Cont…
u Wilbur Schrum introduced the idea of feedback
from the receiver to the sender. Thus,
communication becomes a continuous process of
messages and feedback.
u This model allows for interaction between the parts
communicating.
u He conceived decoding and encoding as activities
maintained simultaneously by the sender and the
receiver; he also made provisions for a two-way
interchange of messages.
u Notice also the inclusion of an “interpreter” as an
abstract representation of the problem of meaning
Schramm’s Model
u Weakness of Schramm’s Model
u It doesn’t recognize that communication can be
unequal: There are many circumstance where
communication may involve one authority figure
talking and one (or many) listeners trying to interpret
the message.
u Communication is not taken as dynamic. It predicts
communication to follow the same pattern always
u It doesn’t work for mass communication
u One person communicating to many looks very
different to the circular one-to-one model proposed
in the Osgood-Schramm’s approach
Transactional model of
communication
} Describes communication as a process in which
communicators generate social realities within
social, relational, and cultural contexts.
} People don’t just communicate to exchange
messages; rather communicate to create
relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our
self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue
to create communities.
u Both sender and receiver are known
as communicators and their role reverses
each time in the communication process as
both processes of sending and receiving
occurs at the same time.

u Since both sender and receiver are necessary

to keep the communication alive, the
communicators are also interdependent to
each other.
u Helical Model of communication
u It was proposed by Frank Dance in 1967.
u The model explains communication process based
on Helix structure, the bottom or starting is very small
then it gradually moves upward in a back and forth
circular motion forming bigger circles in the top. The
whole process takes some time to reach.
u Just as a helix, the communication process starts
very slowly (defined by a small circle).
u Communicators share only small portions information
and this gradually develops into next level
expanding its boundaries; but this will take some
time.
u Helical Model of Communication
u Cont……..
u Dance’s Helical Model builds on circular models by
explaining how we improve our messages over time
by using feedback.
u When we communicate with others, their feedback
will influence our next statement.
u We become more knowledgeable with each cycle
of communication, enabling up to ‘expand our
circle’, as represented by the increasingly wider and
wider circles.
u Example of Helical Model of
Communication
u A child crying at birth signifies the communication of
the child to its parents that he/she is alive. After some
years, the child cries whenever he needs anything
like food or attention. He/she learns words and starts
communicating with words.
u Weaknesses of Helical Model of
Communication
u i. Continuity may not always be true for
communication. There might be breaks in situations
as well as events can be meaningless, forced or
unproductive.
u ii. The purpose of communication is not always
growth.
BARRIERS OF COMUNICATION
 BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION

u While communicating we may face many

problems, such problems are message is not passed
properly or gets lost. This may lead to
misunderstanding between communicators.
u A communication barrier is any obstacle or
problem in the process of communication which
hinders the process of communication.

u It is anything that hinders a message from reaching

the intended destination effectively.

u Communication barriers are obstacles to effective

communication.
 1. Physical barriers

Ø Any barrier which arise from our surroundings.

Ø These barriers create problems or confusion in

communication. They include:

Ø Noise :traffic/machine noise, waves

Ø Time and Distance :Physical distances between

people can create major problems in
communication.
 Cont…

Ø Wrong Selection of Medium : example: Emails, letters,

memo

Ø Defects in Communication Systems: when instruments

or machines used in communication e.g. mobile
phones develop the problem. The network of Internet
can fail or the Mike or Microphone used in the
programmes can create loud noise.
 2. Language/Semantic Barriers
Ø Barriers arising due to differences in language
vocabularies, meaning or pronunciation can create
confusion among the people.

Ø Linguistic means related to the language. Semantic

means the meaning of the words.

Ø Example: The same word may mean different things

to different people.Words with similar pronunciation
but different meaning e.g principal and principle,
Jargons
 3. Cultural barriers

Ø Different cultures, whether they be a societal culture

of a race or simply the work culture of a company,
can hinder developed communication if two different
cultures clash.

Ø Example:

Ø business card exchange in US and Japan

Ø Concept of Time : Western culture Time is important. In

Asian/African culture Time is taken leisurely.
 4. Psychological/emotional barriers

u The barriers originate from the mind of a person. Some

of the sources of psychological barriers are ego,
emotions and feeling, self-image(negative or positive)

Example: communication that take place when a

person is emotionally disturbed, lead to negative
attitude or opinions of this person. Fear, anger, worry,
hatred, hunger etc can lead to problems in
communication.
 5. Physiological barriers
Ø Physiological barriers may result from the receiver’s
physical state.

Ø For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may

not fully grasp the content of a spoken
conversation especially if there is significant
background noise.
 6. Systematic barriers
u This may exist in structures and organisations where
there are inefficient or inappropriate information
systems and communication channels, or where there
is lack of understanding of the roles and
responsibilities for communication.
 7. Attitudinal barriers
u These are behaviours or perceptions that prevent
people from communicating effectively.

u They may result from personality conflicts, poor

management, resistance to change or lack of
motivation.
 8. Technological barriers
u The technology is developing fast and as a result, it
becomes difficult to keep up with the newest
developments. Hence sometimes the technological
advance may become a barrier. The cost of
technology is sometimes very high.
 10. Poor Listening
u Perhaps the most common barrier to reception is
simply a lack of attention on the receiver’s part. We
all let our minds wander now and then, regardless
of how hard we try to concentrate.
HOW TO OVERCOME COMMUNICATION
BARRIERS
i. Be aware of language, message and tone.
The sender should ensure that the message is
structured in clear and simple language. The tone of
the message should not harm the feelings of the
receiver. Unnecessary use of technical words should be
avoided.
ii. Communicate according to the level of receiver.
The sender of the communication should organize the
formation of the message not according to his or her
level, but he or she should keep in mind the point of
understanding or the surroundings of the receiver.
Cont…

iii. Consult others before communication

When you’re planning the communication, suggestions
should be invited from all the individuals concerned. Its
main benefit will be that all those people who are
consulted at the time of preparing the communication
preparation will add to the success of the
communication system.
iv. Make sure to receive proper feedback
The reason for feedback is to find out whether the
receiver has appropriately understood the meaning of
the information received.
Cont…

v. Consistency of Message
The message sent to the receiver should be in unity
with the objectives, programmes, policies and
techniques of the organization.
vi. Follow up Communication
In order to make communication successful, the
management should frequently try to know the
weaknesses of the communication structure. In this
situation effort can be made to know whether to lay
more hassle upon the formal or the informal
communication would be suitable.