COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware refers to the tangible parts of a computers system. It includes all physical
components of the computer. Examples of computer hardware include the keyboard, disk drive,
monitor, central processing unit (CPU), memory and other peripherals like a mouse.
Understanding the various physical components of a computer system will help one understand
how a computer system operates as a whole.

Computer organization
A basic computer consists of three major components: CPU (Central Processing Unit), IO
(Input/Output), and Memory. Figure 2-1 below illustrates how a computer is organized:

Figure 1-1: Computer organization

Data is entered into the computer via the Input and the CPU processes the data based on a
programs which are in the computer Memory. The result is then returned to the Memory for
storage or is presented to the user via the output devices. CPU itself consists of Arithmetic and
Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Registers.

Computer Peripherals
Computer peripherals performs basically two broad functions; inputting data into the computer
and outputting information from the computer. Those peripherals used for inputting are called
input devices and those used for outputting are called output devices.
Input Devices
Data input devices are user-machine interfacing devices whose role is to collect data from the
source, encode data from human readable form to machine-readable form and transmitting the
data to the computer processor. Therefore, Input devices are peripherals that feed a computer
system. They are broadly categorized into the following:
a) Offline input devices
b) Online input devices
c) Direct input devices

Offline input devices

These are computer input devices that collect data without involving the computer processor.
Data is transcribed and stored on offline computer medium. The systems are separated units from
the main computer system. The following are examples of offline input devices;
Key to tape
It is a system whereby data is entered into a magnetic tape cartridge before it is passed into the
computer system as an input. It involves the following: a magnetic tape encoder, a keyboard, a
magnetic tape driver, a buffer store, a Video Display Unit (VDU) for visual verification of data.
An operator reads from the source documents and enters data via the keyboard. The data entered
is recorded on a computer compatible magnetic tape. In a unit without a VDU facility,
verification is done by rewinding the data and re-keying data from the source document. Any
discrepancies are signaled and the operator solves out the error to ensure that the correct data is
written on the tape. Verified data can then be input into the computer from the tape. Magnetic
tape and recorders are used for operating large volumes of data for use in batch processing
systems, since it requires data to be accumulated before processing.
Advantages of key-to-tape devices
 Data capturing is fast as little mechanical movement is involved
 Error correction is simple and quick
 Verification can be carried out using the same machine
 Tape re-use is possible, hence reducing costs
Disadvantages of key-to-tape
 Compatibility problem might arise when moving a tape from one machine to another
 The system is slow as data is prepared at one point and processed at another point
Key to diskette
In this structure, data is transcribed, encoded and stored on a magnetic diskette (Floppy diskette).
This system is common in micro-computer based systems however, this technology is becoming
obsolete.

Key to disk
In this structure data is collected, encoded and stored on a magnetic disk. This system comprises
of workstation, encoder, fixed disk and a magnetic disk drive. An operator keys in data at the
work station from a source document and then verification is carried out by the use of visual
checking method. A computer validation program carries out validation checks on the keyed
data. Any error detected can be reported to the operator for correction and a valid data is written
to the disk from where it is fed to the computer system.
Advantages of the key-to-disk
 Data can easily be checked for errors at the preparation stage
 Costs are reduced because the basic validation needs not be done on more expensive
mainframe computers.
Disadvantages of key-to-disk
 High initial cost thus high volumes of data are needed to justify its use.
 Slow in the sense that a lot of time is taken before data is passed for processing
Key to optical disk
This is a newest offline input device. This system uses the latest technology to store data items
on an optical media for instance CD-ROM, WORM,DVD-ROM etc. This structure involves the
keyboard, optical and an optical media.
Online input devices
They are also referred to as keyboard input devices. In this input system data is collected
automatically, encoded and stored on an online storage system. All the system operations on this
device are guided by an operating system. In the keyboard entry, a user types characters, numeric
and special symbols using a keyboard. Examples of online input devices include keyboard and
terminals.

a. Keyboard

A keyboard is a device used to encode data by key depression, which enters information into a
system. The keyboard converts alphabets and numbers, and other special symbols into electrical
signals that processor can understand and process. These signals are sent to the computer's CPU.
Some specialist keyboards have extra function keys that perform special actions when pressed.

Figure 2-2: A logitech gaming keyboard

An example of a keyboard is a gaming keyboard in figure 1-2 above.
There are three different layouts for a keyboard:
 QWERTY: This is a standard keyboard layout. QWERTY indicates the arrangement of the
upper left corner six letters in the first row of the alphabetic keys.

Figure 2-3: QWERTY Keyboard layout

 AZERTY: This is a keyboard layout that is similar to the QWERTY layout and some
European countries use this keyboard. This layout is slightly modified from the QWERTY
keyboard.

Figure 2-4: AZERTY Keyboard Layout

 Dvorak: This is another keyboard layout modified greatly from a standard layout. The
keyboard is devised to increase typing speed by placing frequently used keys more naturally.
 In the past, mechanical jams were a problem in typing. Thus, the standard keyboard layout
was designed to limit typing speed.

Figure 2-5: Dvorak Keyboard Layout

Advantages of using a keyboard
1. It is suitable for interactive processing when output is given immediately via the VDU
2. It is appropriate for data entry
3. When used together with a VDU one is able to visually check for the correctness of the
entered data
4. It is convenient for entering small volumes of data in small business systems.
Disadvantages
1. Unsuitable for large volumes of data
2. One needs some degree of skills to use it effectively
3. Can be accessed by unauthorized personnel

b. Terminals
A terminal is an input/output device that usually includes a keyboard for input, a video display
for output, and a communications link to send and receive information. There are three different
types:
 Dumb Terminal: This is an input/output terminal that does not have a capability of
processing. It only enters and receives data without processing.
 Smart Terminal: This terminal has some processing capability. It has a small memory. It
performs some editing of data before sending them to a main computer.
 Intelligent Terminal: This is a terminal that has a full processing capability. The terminal
has a processing unit, primary storage. It may or may not have local storage. Recently, most
intelligent terminals have local disk. An intelligent terminal is actually a microcomputer with
communications capability.
Direct Input Devices
Direct input is a data entry form that does not use a keyboard to input data. Today, more data and
instructions are entered a CPU of microcomputers directly using direct input devices used to
provide a more natural user interface. These entry devices reduce ' typing errors. There are many
forms of direct input devices: Mouse, Touchpad, Touch screen, stylus, Light Pen, Graphics
Tablet/digitizer, Scanner, Bar-code readers, fax, Voice-Input Devices.
a. Mouse
A mouse is the most widely used pointing device on personal computers. With the rise in
graphical user interfaces, mouse became the most commonly used method in controlling a
computer. A mouse is used to manipulate objects and text etc. on the computer screen. This
device can be plugged into the back of a computer, the back of a keyboard, or can even be
cordless.
There are three types of mouse:
1. A mechanical mouse has a rubber ball on its underside to detect movement of the mouse
2. An optical mouse uses devices that emit and sense light to detect the mouse's movement.
3. A cordless mouse (either mechanical or optical) transmits data using wireless technology
such as radio waves or infrared light waves.
i). Mechanical mouse
An example of a mechanical mouse is the Ball Mouse shown in figure 2-6 below.

Figure 2-6: A look into the inner workings of a Ball Mouse.

The Ball Mouse utilizes a small rubber ball inside to transmit a spatial relationship between
objects on the screen. The mechanical movement is done by 2 scroll bars that detects X and Y
axis movement of the ball to allow it glide on the desktop plane.
Since it contained moving parts, the ball mouse was prone to dirt building up inside. With the
falling cost of technology, Ball Mice have now been mostly replaced with lighter optical mice.
ii). Optical
The optical mouse uses a light-emitting diode and photodiodes to detect movement relative to the
underlying surface, rather than moving some of its parts like the traditional track ball that detects
movement of X and Y axis mechanical movement of the roller stick. In order to increase the
precision of the mouse, multiple infrared lasers with increasing resolution is included in the
mouse.
Originally there were two kinds of optical mice; Type1: which used an infrared LED and a four-
quadrant infrared sensor to detect grid lines printed with infrared absorbing ink on a special
metallic surface and Type 2: which used a 16-pixel visible-light image sensor with integrated
motion detection on the same chip and tracked the motion of light dots in a dark field of a printed
paper or similar mouse pad.
The optical mouse actually takes 1,500 camera-like images per second and the images are sent to
a processor to determine changes in the patterns to allow the computer to notice how the position
of the mouse has changed and therefore the cursor on the computer screen reacts accordingly.
iii). Cordless mouse
A cordless mouse allows the user to interact without having the inconvenience of cords. In some
cases, it liberates the mouse to be closer to the computer and can provide a myriad of options for
computer and CPU placement that were not available before its invention. The technology
behind the cordless mouse has been improved over the years to the point where the accuracy and
dependability is comparable to traditional computer mouse. Radio waves are used to transmit
information back and forth between the computer and cordless mouse. Most traditional mice do
so over wires.
Advantages of using a mouse
 A mouse is user-friendly for computer beginners.
 A mouse is easy and convenient to use with a graphical user interface.
 Using a mouse to select items or move to a particular position on the screen is faster than
using a keyboard.
Disadvantages of using a mouse
 It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse.
 Issuing commands by using a mouse is slower than by using a keyboard.
 It needs some practice in order to control a mouse properly.
 A mouse is not accurate enough for drawings that require high precision.
 A mouse usually requires a flat surface to operate.
 A mouse needs more desk space to operate when compared with a trackball or a touchpad.
b. Touchpad and Touch screen
It is also called a pointing stick. A touchpad is a small, flat, rectangular pointing device that is
sensitive to pressure and motion. It is controlled by the pointer on a computer by dragging your
finger across its surface. Touch pads are most commonly built into a laptop computer.
A pointing stick resembles a pencil eraser and is commonly located in between keys on a laptop
key board. To control the pointer on the computer with a pointing stick you use your finger to
bend the stick in the direction you would like the pointer to move.
A touchpad differs from a point stick in that it allows one to move the cursor about without
having to adjust the position of your hand. Some find this more convenient because pressure is
not needed to move the sensor. Touch pads are also more accurate, albeit, expensive compared to
pointing sticks. Once again due to the virtues of cheaper technology, a touchpad is considered
standard on a laptop.

Figure 2-7: Touchpad on a laptop computer

A touch screen is a touch-sensitive display. By using the touch of a finger on a computer screen,
the computer is able to receive input from the movement of your finger to control operations of
the computer. The finger transfers electrical currents to the computer. They are often used for
information kiosks located in department stores, hotels, airports, and museums. They are also
used for ATM machines to allow easy access of bank accounts and on smarty-phones as shown
in figure 2-8 below.
There are two common types of touch screen; resistive screens and capacitive screens. Resistive
screen operate by using two thin layers. When one layer comes into contact with another they
form a connection which can be translated into a pair of coordinates that can be used by a
computer.
The second technology utilizes the concept that the human body is a conductor, and when
someone taps on a resisting material (such as a glass panel), a change in capacitance is observed,
and the computer can determine where the user made a selection. This type of technology is
known as capacitive sensing. A popular use of capacitive sensing is the touch screens in popular
smartphones such as the Iphone shown in figure 2-8 below.

Figure 2-8: An Iphone uses a glass capacitative touch screen to handle input

Advantages of a touch screen

 No extra peripherals are need except the monitor
 A touch screen allows easy access to commands, which are usually identified by words or
symbols on the screen
Disadvantages of a touch screen
 Touch screens are not suitable for inputting a large amount of data because they require a lot
of arm movements
 Only items already on the screen can be selected

c. Stylus
 Figure: 2-9 Styli Pens
A Stylus is a small pen-like device used to enter data by reacting to a touch-sensitive screen or
film. It is commonly used on a graphics tablet which is a flat, rectangular, electronic plastic
board, on which a stylus writes or draws. Styli allow a user to input handwriting specific pieces
of information like signatures. One important feature of a stylus is its tip which ideally is made
of a firm but non-scratching form of plastic. The body of a stylus can be made from anything
ranging from synthetic plastic to bronze or chrome in some situations. Stylus and graphics tablet
are mainly used for computer-aided design and drafting by architects, mapmakers, artists, and
designers. They are also used with many popular devices like Blackberries, Palm Pilots and
Trios. Their popularity has reached a point where some company's offer conversion kits to
change high-end or ergonomic writing pens into a stylus.

Advantage of stylus
 A stylus can be pointed to different positions on the tablet quickly.
Disadvantage of stylus
 A stylus and a graphics tablet normally has to work together, and cannot work separately
d. Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device detects the presence of light and it looks like a pen connected to
the computer the user can bring the pen to whichever location on the screen they want.
It is therefore a computer input device, with a light sensitive wand which works with Cathode
Ray Tube (CRT) monitors. Light pens are commonly used by health care professionals (such as
doctors and dentists) and design work.
They were used in engineering, graphic design and illustrating but light pens have been replaced
by other technologies.
Advantages of light pens
 Using a light pen is more direct and precise than using a mouse.
 Light pen is also convenient for applications with limited desktop space.
Disadvantage of light pens
 Light pens normally require a specially designed monitor to work with.

e. Digitizer
A digitizer is a "pointing" technology implemented on computer tablets. It consists of the
"tablet", an electronically integrated surface representative (to the computer) of an XY-axis grid.
Using the electronic stylus (pen), the tablet will detect the stylus' movements and convert it into
digital signals for the computer to use. A digitizing tablet is commonly used in the engineering
and architectural industries as well as for fine and commercial art.
f. Scanner
A scanner is a device that uses light to read an image or text and turn it into a digital message.
This media can then be used to store, change and send the image or text. There are various types
of scanners. The three most common are Drum, flatbed and hand.
i. Drum scanners also referred to as a sheet feed scanner has motorized rollers
(photomultiplier tubes (PMT)) that can feed the source document across the scanning
head during the scanning process.
ii. A flatbed scanner works like a copy machine except that it creates a file of the document
rather than a paper copy. It uses a glass pane and a bright light.
iii. Hand scanners are dragged across the image manually.
The quality of a scanner is determined by its optical resolution and colour depth. Enhanced
resolution or interpolated resolution uses a special formula to add pixels between those generated
by the optical resolution.
Scanners are mainly used for image processing, which consists of capturing, storing, analyzing,
displaying, printing, and manipulating images. Many scanners also include optical character
recognition (OCR) software, which can convert an image of text into a text file that can be
edited.
Advantages of a scanner
 A scanner with appropriate OCR software can work as an OCR system.
Disadvantages of a scanner
 A scanner is best for two-dimensional objects only.
 Scanned images usually take up a lot of storage space.
 g. Bar-Code and bar-code reader
A bar code is a series of stripes that vary in thickness. These stripes represent numbers, which a
computer reads as data. Bar codes are printed on products that are sold in retail, as well as postal
service packages, rental videos etc. A bar code reader which uses laser beams is used to read bar
codes. A bar code reader reads a bar code by using light patterns that pass through the bar code
lines. Bar code readers are widely used in supermarkets, department stores, libraries, etc. With
the introduction of Wifi enabled smartphones with cameras, barcodes can be scanned on
products and matched to an online database which allows someone to compare prices between
various retail stores without having to visit each one. Another use of this combination is finding
the nutritional content of a consumable product by scanning its barcode.
Advantages of using bar codes and bar code readers
 The process of data entry is fast and accurate.
 Bar codes can be printed by normal printing methods.
 No need to write down or key in the name of the item or its actual price.

Disadvantages of using bar codes and bar code readers

 Only numbers can be coded.
 Bar codes cannot be read directly by people.
 A bar code reader may misread a bar code if there is any dirt or mark on the code.
h. Fax
Fax also known as a telecopier is short for facsimile. It is a telecommunications technology used
to transfer copies of documents, and was first used through telephone network. A fax machine
consists of a scanner, a modem, a printer, and a phone.
i. Speech Recognition
Input to a computer can take the form of speech. While technology for this is not widespread,
speech input is constantly improving, and may find use in everyday life in the near future. There
are a number of examples of concepts behind speech recognition devices which include:
1. Phonetic models
This is the technology that deals with sounds (phonemes) which are the basis of words. The
computer can identify the sounds and match them with potential words. Word with the same
phonemes (e.g. their and there) can be selected by the words around them using grammar.
2. Dictionary
A speech recognition dictionary creation device can create a speech recognition dictionary
capable of recognizing even an abbreviated expression of a word with a high recognition ratio.
The device consist of: a word separation section for dividing a recognition object speech
consisting of one or more words into constituting words, a string acquisition section for creating
a string for each of the constituting words according to the reading of the constituting words
separated, an abbreviated word creation rule storage section for storing an abbreviated word
creation rule using; an abbreviated word creation section for taking a out of a string of each
constituting word, joining them so as to create a candidate of an abbreviated word containing one
or more and applying the abbreviated word creation rule to the candidates so as to create an
abbreviated word; and vocabulary storage section for storing the created abbreviated word
together with the recognition object word as a speech recognition dictionary.
3. Grammar
Matching phonemes with words requires the use of grammar (e.g. "their" house, or over "there")

Output Devices
An output device is any peripheral device that converts machine-readable information into
people-readable form such as a monitor, printer, plotter and voice output device.
a. Computer Display (Monitors)
A computer display (monitor) is also called a display screen or video display terminal (VDT). A
monitor is a screen used to display the output of a computer. Images are represented on monitors
by individual dots called pixels. A pixel is the smallest unit on the screen that can be turned on
and off or made to be of different shades. The pixels therefore influence on the clarity of the
images and the screen resolution.
Screen resolution is the degree of sharpness of a displayed character or image. The amount of
pixels and the size of the monitor can determine how sharp the picture is. The screen resolution
is usually expressed as the number of columns by the number rows. A 1024x768 resolution
means that it has 1024 dots in a line and 768 lines. The effect of this is that, a smaller screen
looks sharper on the same resolution compared to a bigger screen. Thus, the more pixels you
have the better the display will be.
Other measures of display resolution are dot pitch and refresh rate. A dot pitch (sometimes
called line pitch, stripe pitch, phosphor pitch, or pixel pitch) is a specification for a computer
display, computer printer, image scanner or other pixel-based device that describes the distance,
for example, between dots (sub-pixels) of the same color on the inside of a display screen. In the
case of a color display, dot pitch is a measure of the size of a triad plus the distance between the
triads. Dot pitch may be measured in linear units, usually millimeters, with a smaller number
meaning closer spacing, or in dots per linear unit, for example dots per inch, with a larger
number meaning closer spacing. Closer spacing generally produces a sharper image (as there are
more pixels in a given area).
Refresh rate refers to the number of times the image on a monitor (screen) is redrawn each
second. Essentially, it is the number of times per second that the pixels are recharged so that their
glow remains bright. If the refresh rate is higher, the image on the screen will look more solid
and flicker less. Typically, most screens have a refresh rate of between 56-120 times per second.
An interlaced technique is used to refresh the line of the screen by exposing all odd lines first
then all even lines next. A non-interlaced technology that was developed later refreshes all the
lines on the screen from top to bottom. The non- interlaced method gives more stable video
display than interlaced method. It also requires twice as much signal information as interlaced
technology.
There are two forms of display: cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) and flat-panel display.
i. Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)
A CRT is a vacuum tube used as a display screen for a computer output device. Although the
CRT means only a tube, it usually refers to all monitors. Examples of CRT include:
a. Monochrome Monitors
A monochrome monitor has two colours, one for foreground and the other for background. The
colours can be white, amber or green on a dark (black) background. The monochrome monitors
display both text and graphics modes.
b. Colour Monitors
A color monitor is a display peripheral that displays more than two colours. Colour monitors
have been developed through the following paths.
 CGA: This stands for Colour Graphics Adapter. It is a circuit board introduced by IBM and
the first graphics standard for the IBM PC. With a CGA monitor, it is harder to read than
with a monochrome monitor, because the CGA (320 X 200) has much fewer pixels than the
monochrome monitor (640 X 350). It supports 4 colors.
 EGA: It stands for Enhanced Graphics Adapter. EGA is a video display standard that has a
resolution of 640 by 350 pixels and supports 16 colors. EGA supports previous display
modes and requires a new monitor.
 VGA: VGA stands for Video Graphics Array. This is a video display standard that provides
medium to high resolution. In a text mode, the resolution of this board is 720 by 400 pixels.
It supports 16 colors with a higher resolution of 640 by 480 pixels and 256 colors with 320 X
200 pixels.
 Super VGA: This is a very high resolution standard that displays up to 65,536 colors. Super
VGA can support 16.8 million colors at 800 by 600 pixels and 256 colors at 1024 by 768
pixels. A high-priced super VGA allows 1280 by 1024 pixels. Larger monitors (17" or 21"
and larger) with a high resolution of 1600 by 1280 pixels are available. VESA (Video
Electronics Standards Association) has set a standard for super VGA.
In the colour monitor the Colour depth also called bit depth plays an important role. The coluor
depth is the number of bits used to represent the colour of a single pixel in a bitmapped image or
video frame buffer. This concept is also known as bits per pixel (BPP), particularly when
specified along with the number of bits used. Higher colour depth gives a broader range of
distinct colours. 1 byte can produce 256 colours. Usually 2 or 3 bytes are used in images stored
as photographs.

ii. Flat Panel Displays

Portable computers such as a lap top use flat panel displays, because they are more compact and
consume less power than CRTs. Portable computers use several kinds of flat panel screens:
1. Liquid-Crystal Displays (LCDs)
It is a display technology that creates characters by means of reflected light and is commonly
used in laptop computers. LCDs have replaced LEDs (light emitting diodes) because LCDs use
less power. LCDs are difficult to read in a strong light, because they do not emit their own light.
Portable computers wanted to have brighter and easier to read displays this requirement has led
to improvements on the LCDs to create a Backlit LCDs which are currently in use.
Backlit LCDs has its own light source provided from the back of the screen. The backlit makes
the background brighter and clear, as a result the texts and images appear sharper. However, this
still is much less clear than CRTs.
Better technology has been developed to overcome the challenges of Backlit LCDs called Active
Matrix LCDs. An active-matrix LCD is a type of liquid crystal display used in notebook
computers as it is very portable and lightweight. It is also known as TFT (thin-film transistor).
Every dot on the screen has a transistor to control it more accurately this therefore provides a
better contrast, speeds up screen refresh and reduces motion smearing. They are more expensive
and require more power which can affect battery life in portable computers.
2. Electroluminescent (EL) Displays
This is a flat panel display technology that actively emits light at each pixel when it is
electronically charged. This provides a sharp, clear image and wide viewing angle. The EL
display type of flat panel is better than LCDs.
3. Gas Plasma Displays
This is also called a gas panel or a plasma panel and is another flat screen technology. A plasma
panel contains a grid of electrodes in a flat and a gas filled panel. The image can persist for a
long time without refreshing in this panel. The disadvantages of the gas plasma displays are that
they must use AC power and cannot show sharp contrast.
b. Printers
A printer is an output device that produces a hard copy of data. The resolution of printer output
is expressed as a dot per inch (DPI) which is the number of dots printed within a linear inch).
Printers can be classified into different types in several ways. First, by the way they print. Under
this class they include:
A. Serial Printers: Also called a character printer. Print a single character at a time.
They are usually inexpensive and slow.
B. Line Printers: Print a line at a time. They are expensive and very fast. Line
printers use a band, a chain, etc.
C. Page Printers: Also called a laser printer. Print a page at a time. They usually use
a laser to produce page images. Quality of the print is best. This is a little bit
expensive, but the price of the personal laser printer is decreasing.
Second, according to the use of a force during printing. Under this class they include:
 Impact Printers: Hammer hits ribbons, papers or print head. Dot-matrix and daisy-wheel
printers are the examples.
 Nonimpact Printers: They do not have the hammer and do not hit. An example is an ink-jet
and laser printer.
The third classification is by the way they form characters. Printers in this classification are:
 Bit-Mapped Printers: Images are formed from groups of dots and can be placed anywhere
on the page. They have many printing options and good printing quality. They use PostScript
as a standard language for instructing a microcomputer.
 Character-based Printers: Printer print characters into the lines and columns of a page.
These printers use predefined set of characters and are restricted in position of characters.
Examples of printers
1. Daisy-Wheel Printer
Daisy-Wheel is a printer mechanism that uses a hub (wheel) having a set of spokes at the margin
of the hub. The wheel can be removed to use a different character set. The end of each spoke is a
raised image of a type character. When the wheel is turned and the required character is aligned
to the print hammer, the character is then struck into a ribbon and onto a paper with the hammer.
Daisy-Wheel Printer prints typewriter-like very high quality characters. However, they are
slower and less reliable than dot-matrix printers. Microcomputers seldom use this printer,
because the better dot-matrix printers and inexpensive laser printers are available today.
2. Chain Printer
A chain printer uses a printing mechanism that uses character typefaces linked together in a
chain. The chain spins horizontally around a set of hammers aligned with each position. When
the required character is in front of the selected print position, hammer in that position hits the
paper into the ribbon against the character in the chain. This printer is not commonly found
around microcomputers, because it is a very expensive, high-speed machine designed originally
for mainframes and minicomputers. Chain printers are very reliable and can speed up to 3000
lines per minute.
3. Dot-Matrix Printer
Dot-matrix printers are printers that write characters and form graphic images using one or two
columns of tiny dots on a print head. The dot hammer moving serially across the paper strikes an
inked-ribbon and creates images on paper. Dot matrix printers are popular printers used with
microcomputers, because the printers are highly reliable and inexpensive. They are used for tasks
where a high-quality image is not essential. Many, however, move from dot printers to laser
printers, because the price of laser printers is falling down. Several kinds of dot matrix printers
are available with print heads that have 7, 9, 18, or 24 pins.
4. Ink-Jet Printer
Ink-jet is a printer mechanism that sprays one or more color of ink at high speed onto the paper
and produces high-quality printing. This printer also produces color printing as well as high-
quality image. That is, ink-jet printers can be used for variety of color printing at a relatively low
cost. Ink-jet printing has two methods of printing: Continuous stream method and drop-on-
demand method.
5. Laser Printer
A laser printer is a printer that uses the electrophotograpic method used in a copy machine. The
printer uses a laser beam light source to create images on a photographic drum. Then the images
on the drum are treated with a magnetically charged toner and then are transferred onto a paper.
A heat source is usually applied to make the images adhere. In 1984, Hewlett-Packard introduced
the first desktop laser printer, called the LaserJet.
The laser printer produces high-resolution letters and graphics quality images, so it is adopted in
applications requiring high-quality output. Recently, the laser printer is gaining its market share
dramatically, mainly because the lowered price and the quality.

c. Plotters
A plotter is a special-purpose output device that draws images with ink pens. That is, the plotter
is a graphics printer for making sophisticated graphs, charts, maps, and three-dimensional
graphics as well as high-quality colored documents. It can also produce larger size of documents.
Plotters require data in a vector graphics format that can produce images with a series of lines.
Vector graphics could be considered as points, lines, curves, and polygons, which are all based
upon mathematical equations to represent images in computer graphics.
There are two main types of plotters:
 Drum Plotter: This is a plotter that has a drum. A paper wraps the drum that rotates to
produce plots. Pens in a drum plotter move across the paper while the drum is turning. A
drum plotter is usually used to produce smaller drawings.
 Flatbed Plotter: This is a plotter that has a bed. This is also called a table plotter. The plotter
draws graphics on the paper placed on the beds which are of different sizes. This plotter is
usually used for producing large drawings.
Other than the Pen, plotters can also use electrostatic charges to produce a raster image by
charging the paper with high voltage. This voltage attracts toner which is then melted into the
paper with heat.

d. Voice-Output Devices
These devices produce a human speech-like sound, but actually is prerecorded vocalized sounds.
Voice output is used in the telephone information system, where the requested number is
reported using a voice output system. For example, when a student enrolls courses using a
telephone registration system, he or she hears voice output upon your request. Voice output is
becoming common in voice messaging systems. Voice Messaging is an alternative to electronic
mail (E-mail). The use of voice mail is called voice massaging. In voice mail a computer
digitizes incoming voice messages and stores them on disk, then forwards them to the receiver.
Some of the devices used in voice-output include: speaker, MIDI and Microphones.
1. Speakers
This is the primary method of sound output in most computers today. Sound is translated from
bits to electrical signals in a sound card, which then channels the signals to the speakers.
2. MIDI
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is an industry-standard protocol that enables
electronic musical instruments (synthesizers, drum machines), computers and other electronic
equipment (MIDI controllers, sound cards, and samplers) to communicate and synchronize with
each other. Unlike analog devices, MIDI does not transmit an audio signal — it sends event
messages about pitch and intensity, control signals for parameters such as volume, vibrato and
panning, cues, and clock signals to set the tempo. MIDI files are typically created using
computer-based sequencing software (or sometimes a hardware-based MIDI instrument or
workstation) that organizes MIDI messages into one or more parallel "tracks" for independent
recording and editing.
3. Microphone
 Figure 2-10: The Shure and Beta Microphones
A microphone is a device used to change sound into electric signals. Microphones are used in
telephones, tape recorders, hearing aids and many other devices.
e. Modem
A modem is short for "MOdulator-DEModulator." Modulation is the process of converting from
digital to analog. Demodulation is the process of converting from analog to digital. This is
another form of the output device. The modem enables digital microcomputers to send output
through analog telephone lines. Both voice and data can be carried over through the modem. The
modem is not only an output device but also an input device that receives data and voice through
a communication channel.

Central processing unit (CPU)

The CPU is an electronic device that interprets and caries out basic instructions that operates the
computer. It is the main unit inside the computer and is responsible for all events inside the
computer. It controls all internal and external devices, performs arithmetic and logic operations.
The CPU is composed of several units as shown in the figure 2-11 below;

Figure 2-11: CPU

Control unit (CU)
The control unit directs and controls the activities of the internal and external devices. It
interprets the instructions fetched into the computer, determines what data, if any, are needed,
where it is stored, where to store the results of the operation, and sends the control signals to the
devices involved in the execution of the instructions.
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and logical operations.
The ALU relies on basic items like number systems, data routing circuits (adders/subtracters),
timing, instructions, operands, and registers to perform its operations. Figure 2-12 below
shows a representative block diagram of an ALU of a microcomputer.

Figure 2-12: ALU of a microcomputer

The inputs to the ALU are the data to be operated on (called operands) and a code from the
control unit indicating which operation to perform. Its output is the result of the computation.
In many designs the ALU also takes or generates as inputs or outputs a set of condition codes
from or to a status register. These codes are used to indicate cases such as carry-in or carry-out,
overflow, divide-by-zero, etc.
Functions of Arithmetic Logic Unit:
 It gets its data from a certain computer memory called processor register. After the data gets
processed, its results get stored in output registers of the arithmetic logic unit.
 The arithmetic logic unit performs integer arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
etc.
 It also performs bitwise logic operations like AND, OR, XOR, etc.
 The arithmetic logic unit can also performs bit-shifting operations like rotating or shifting a
certain word to either the left or the right by a given number of bits. These can also be
represented as divisions by 2 and also multiplications by 2.
Registers
Registers are a group of cells used for memory addressing, data manipulation and processing.
Some of the registers are general purpose and some are reserved for certain functions. It is a
high-speed memory which holds only data for immediate processing and results of this
processing. If these results are not needed for the next instruction, they are sent back to the main
memory and registers are occupied by the new data used in the next instruction.
Clock Unit
Every computer contains an internal clock that regulates the rate at which instructions are
executed and synchronizes all the various computer components. The CPU requires a fixed
number of clock ticks (or clock cycles) to execute each instruction. The faster the clock, the more
instructions the CPU can execute per second. The speed at which a microprocessor executes
instructions is described as the clock rate.

Computer memory
Computer memory also called computer data storage refers to computer components and
recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time. Computer
data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information
retention. Traditionally, memory has been called main memory, real storage or internal memory,
while storage devices have been referred to as secondary storage, external memory or
auxiliary/peripheral storage.
a. Main memory
Main memory (Primary storage or internal memory), is the space on your hard drive that is
briefly used for working space and is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. A computer
generally has two types of main memory which are categorized as volatile and nonvolatile. They
are used for short-term and long-term retention of information respectively. Examples of main
memory include Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).
Random-access Memory (RAM)
It is also temporary storage, holding software instructions and short-term working memory for
the processor (they are volatile). It therefore temporally holds data, instructions that control the
computer operations (operating system) or instructions that manipulate data (application
software). The operating system resides in RAM only when the computer is turned on. The
application software remains in RAM only when it is being used. When application software is
retrieved from the secondary memory, it is loaded into the RAM, replacing the application
software that was previously residing there. Current computer have an expanded RAM that can
hold and run several application software simultaneously (this process is called multitasking).
Data and instructions about to be processed are in RAM as are the output processes and they are
electronically stored as opposed to being magnetically or optically stored. Thus, when the
computer is shut down, all instructions and data in RAM are lost because the flow of electricity
ceases. In RAM. Any address can be randomly accessed at any time; hence the name random
access memory.

Figure 2-13: A DDR RAM memory module

Cache Memory
Sometimes called Processor cache is very fast compared to RAM. It is used to store frequently
used instructions and therefore most actively used information in the main memory is just
duplicated in the cache memory, which is faster, but of much lesser capacity. Computers that
have cache memory process data faster than computers without it because data travels faster
from the cache memory to the CPU than from RAM to the CPU. Some cache are built directly in
the processor chip, while others cache are built in an external chip to the processor.

Read-only memory (ROM)

ROM contains instructions that the computer uses to operate. For example, it contains a small
startup program called BIOS used to bootstrap the computer, that is, to read a larger program
from non-volatile secondary storage to RAM and start to execute it. Unlike RAM, the
instructions and information stored in the ROM chip is not lost when the computer is turned off.
It is therefore non-volatile.
Many types of "ROM" are not literally read only, as updates are possible; however it is slow and
memory must be erased in large portions before it can be re-written. Some embedded systems
run programs directly from ROM (or similar), because such programs are rarely changed.
Examples of ROM include:
 PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory): A permanent storage device that becomes a
read-only memory after it is written once by the customer rather than by the chip
manufacturer.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): EPROM is a reusable PROM-
chip that can be erased by a special ultraviolet light. EPROM holds its content until erased
and new instructions can be written on it.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): EEPROM-chip
can be erased, either within a computer or externally, by electric power.

Complementary Metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)

It is a non-volatile memory. It also keeps the time and current date even when the computer is
turned off. Unlike ROM, the user can change CMOS.

b. Secondary storage
Secondary storage also known as external memory or auxiliary storage differs from primary
storage in that, it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its
input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using
intermediate area in primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is
powered down—it is non-volatile. It is less expensive than primary storage. Consequently,
modern computer systems typically have more secondary storage than primary storage and data
is kept for a longer time there.
In modern computers, hard disk drives are usually used as secondary storage. The time taken to
access a given byte of information stored on a hard disk is typically a few thousandths of a
second, or milliseconds. By contrast, the time taken to access a given byte of information stored
in random access memory is measured in billionths of a second, or nanoseconds. This illustrates
the significant access-time difference which distinguishes solid-state memory from rotating
magnetic storage devices: hard disks are typically about a million times slower than memory.
Rotating optical storage devices, such as CD and DVD drives, have even longer access times.
With disk drives, once the disk read/write head reaches the proper placement and the data of
interest rotates under it, subsequent data on the track are very fast to access. As a result, in order
to hide the initial seek time and rotational latency, data are transferred to and from disks in large
contiguous blocks.
The secondary storage is often formatted according to a file system format, which provides the
abstraction necessary to organize data into files and directories, providing also additional
information (called metadata) describing the owner of a certain file, the access time, the access
permissions, and other information.
Some other examples of secondary storage technologies are: flash memory (e.g. USB flash
drives or keys), floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punched cards, standalone RAM disks,
and Iomega Zip drives.
c. Tertiary storage
It involves a mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount removable mass storage media
into a storage device according to the system's demands; this data is often copied to secondary
storage before use. It is primarily used for archival of rarely accessed information since it is
much slower than secondary storage. It is very useful for very large data stores, accessed without
human operators. Typical examples include tape libraries and optical jukeboxes.
When a computer needs to read information from the tertiary storage, it will first consult a
catalog database to determine which tape or disc contains the information. Next, the computer
will instruct a robotic arm to fetch the medium and place it in a drive. When the computer has
finished reading the information, the robotic arm will return the medium to its place in the
library.
d. Virtual memory
Virtual memory is a memory management technique developed for multitasking kernels. This
technique virtualizes computer architecture's various hardware memory devices (such as RAM
modules and disk storage drives), allowing a program to be designed as though; there is only one
hardware memory device and this "virtual" device acts like a RAM module and the program has,
by default, sole access to this virtual RAM module as the basis for a contiguous working
memory (an address space).
Most computer operating systems use the concept of virtual memory, allowing utilization of
more primary storage capacity than is physically available in the system. As the primary memory
fills up, the system moves the least-used chunks (pages) to secondary storage devices (to a swap
file or page file), retrieving them later when they are needed. As more of these retrievals from
slower secondary storage are necessary, the more the overall system performance is degraded.
Advantages of virtual memory
1. Use hardware memory more efficiently than systems without virtual memory.
2. Make the programming of applications easier by; hiding fragmentation, delegating to the
kernel the burden of managing the memory hierarchy (there is no need for the program to
handle overlays explicitly), obviating the need to relocate program code or to access memory
with relative addressing.
e. Off-line storage
Off-line storage is computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of
a processing unit. The medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device, and
then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator
before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without
human interaction.
Off-line storage is used to transfer information, since the detached medium can be easily
physically transported. Additionally, in case a disaster, for example a fire, destroys the original
data, a medium in a remote location will probably be unaffected, enabling disaster recovery. Off-
line storage increases general information security, since it is physically inaccessible from a
computer, and data confidentiality or integrity cannot be affected by computer-based attacks.
Also, if the information stored for archival purposes is accessed seldom or never, off-line storage
is less expensive than tertiary storage.
In modern personal computers, most secondary and tertiary storage media are also used for off-
line storage. Optical discs and flash memory devices are most popular, and to much lesser extent
removable hard disk drives. In enterprise uses, magnetic tape is predominant. Older examples are

floppy disks, Zip disks, or punched cards.

Characteristics of computer storage

a. Volatility
There are two categories of volatility:
 i. Non-volatile memory: Will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly
supplied with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information.
ii. Volatile memory: Requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest
memory technologies of today are volatile ones (not a universal rule). Since primary
storage is required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory.
b. Differentiation
i. Dynamic random access memory: A form of volatile memory which also requires the
stored information to be periodically re-read and re-written, or refreshed, otherwise it
would vanish.
ii. Static memory: A form of volatile memory similar to DRAM with the exception that it
never needs to be refreshed as long as power is applied.
c. Mutability
This describes any changes that apply to the memory. There are three mutability attribute of the
memory.
i. Read/write storage or mutable storage: Allows information to be overwritten at any time.
A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary storage purposes
would be useless for many tasks. Modern computers typically use read/write storage also
for secondary storage.
ii. Read only storage: Retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and write
once storage (Write Once Read Many) allows the information to be written only once at
some point after manufacture. These are called immutable storage. Immutable storage is
used for tertiary and off-line storage. Examples include CD-ROM and CD-R.
iii. Slow write, fast read storage: Read/write storage, this allows information to be
overwritten multiple times, but with the write operation being much slower than the read
operation. Examples include CD-RW and flash memory.
d. Accessibility
There are two ways in which data can be accessed from a memory. They include:
i. Random access: Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately
the same amount of time. Such characteristic is well suited for primary and secondary
storage.
ii. Sequential access: The accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one
after the other; therefore the time to access a particular piece of information depends
 upon which piece of information was last accessed. Such characteristic is typical of off-
line storage.
e. Addressability
There are three ways in which a computer memory can be addressed. They include:
i. Location-addressable: Each individually accessible unit of information in storage is
selected with its numerical memory address. In modern computers, location-addressable
storage usually limits to primary storage, accessed internally by computer programs,
since location-addressability is very efficient, but burdensome for humans.
ii. File addressable: Information is divided into files of variable length, and a particular file
is selected with human-readable directory and file names. The underlying device is still
location-addressable, but the operating system of a computer provides the file system
abstraction to make the operation more understandable. In modern computers, secondary,
tertiary and off-line storage use file systems.
iii. Content-addressable: Each individually accessible unit of information is selected based
on the basis of (part of) the contents stored there. Content-addressable storage can be
implemented using software (computer program) or hardware (computer device), with
hardware being faster but more expensive option. Hardware content addressable memory
is often used in a computer's CPU cache.
Capacity
f.
The memory capacity of a computer is expressible in two ways. Namely;
i. Raw capacity: The total amount of stored information that a storage device or medium
can hold. It is expressed as a quantity of bits or bytes (e.g. 10.4 megabytes).
ii. Memory storage density: The compactness of stored information. It is the storage
capacity of a medium divided with a unit of length, area or volume (e.g. 1.2 megabytes
per square inch).
g. Performance
i. Latency: The time it takes to access a particular location in storage. The relevant unit of
measurement is typically nanosecond for primary storage, millisecond for secondary
storage, and second for tertiary storage. It may make sense to separate read latency and
write latency, and in case of sequential access storage, minimum, maximum and average
latency.
 ii. Throughput: The rate at which information can be read from or written to the storage. In
computer data storage, throughput is usually expressed in terms of megabytes per second
or MB/s, though bit rate may also be used. As with latency, read rate and write rate may
need to be differentiated. Also accessing media sequentially, as opposed to randomly,
typically yields maximum throughput.
h. Energy use
Storage devices that reduce fan usage, automatically shut-down during inactivity, and low power
hard drives can reduce energy consumption 90 percent. 2.5 inch hard disk drives often consume
less power than larger ones. Low capacity solid-state drives have no moving parts and consume
less power than hard disks. Also, memory may use more power than hard disks.

Fundamental storage technologies

The most commonly used data storage technologies are semiconductor, magnetic, and optical,
while paper still sees some limited usage.
Semiconductor memory uses semiconductor-based integrated circuits to store information. A
semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny transistors or capacitors. Both volatile
and non-volatile forms of semiconductor memory exist. In modern computers, primary storage
almost exclusively consists of dynamic volatile semiconductor memory or dynamic random
access memory.
Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a magnetically coated surface to
store information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. The information is accessed using one or
more read/write heads which may contain one or more recording transducers. A read/write head
only covers a part of the surface so that the head or medium or both must be moved relative to
another in order to access data.
In optical storage, the typical optical disc, stores information in deformities on the surface of a
circular disc and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and
observing the reflection. Optical disc storage is non-volatile. The deformities may be permanent
(read only media), formed once (write once media) or reversible (recordable or read/write
media). The following forms are currently in common use: CD, CD-ROM, DVD, CD-R, DVD-
R, DVD+R, CD-RW, DVD-RW etc.
Magneto-optical disc storage is optical disc storage where the magnetic state on a ferromagnetic
surface stores information. The information is read optically and written by combining magnetic
and optical methods. Magneto-optical disc storage is non-volatile, sequential access, slow-write,
fast-read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.
Paper data storage, typically in the form of paper tape or punched cards, has long been used to
store information for automatic processing, particularly before general-purpose computers
existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium and
was read mechanically (or later optically) to determine whether a particular location on the
medium was solid or contained a hole. A few technologies allow people to make marks on paper
that are easily read by machine (these are widely used for tabulating votes and grading
standardized tests). Barcodes made it possible for any object that was to be sold or transported to
have some computer readable information securely attached to it.

Revision Questions

1. Describe ALU, CU and CPU.

2. Distinguish between bit and byte.
3. Differentiate between volatile and non-volatile memory.
4. Distinguish between impact and non-impact printers.
5. What are the five basic operations performed by any computer system?
6. Draw a block diagram to illustrate the basic organization of computer system and explain the
function of various units.
7. What is input device? How does it differ from output device?
8. Differentiate between RAM and ROM.
9. What is cache memory? How is it different from primary memory?
10. Write short notes on (a) Control Unit (b) Random Access Memory (RAM)
11. Discuss the various characteristics of a computer storage
12. What are the fundamental storage technologies used in the computers?