Firefighting 13-5

Table 13.1 Exposure limits for firefighters under various conditions 13.4.5 Advances in technology
(Reproduced with permission from Society of Fire Safety, 2014.)

Routine Hazardous Extreme Critical Like many industries, technology associated with firefight-
condition condition condition condition ing is always evolving and progressing, with standards

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Maximum time 25 10 1 <1 improving, more efficient and safer equipment being devel-
(minutes) oped and new equipment being introduced to react to
Maximum air 100 120 160 235
emerging challenges posed by the modern built
temperature (°C) environment.
Maximum 1 3 4–4.5 > 10
radiation (kW·m–2)
While some technological advances can be adopted rela-
tively quickly, caution must be exercised by fire engineers
and any other stakeholders so as not to presume that the
local fire and rescue service for a particular area will have
access to (or the budget or demand to acquire) all forms
Temperature: 120 ºC Radiation: 3.0 kW·m–2 of cutting-edge firefighting equipment. The adoption of
new equipment and techniques may also not be univer-
sally accepted between different fire and rescue services.
In some cases, advancements in technology are adopted
Exposure limit relatively slowly by fire and rescue services. An example
1.5 m
<10 mins of this could be the availability and use of positive pres-
sure ventilation (ppv) equipment and tactics by different
fire and rescue services in the UK.

At the extreme end, some technologies may be so special-

ised or unique that they are only adopted in certain areas
or where they are absolutely warranted. An example of this
Figure 13.1 Example exposure limits in hazardous conditions up to could be the development of the Martin ‘First Responder’
10 minutes, with conditions measured at 1.5 m relative to the floor level Jetpack product (Martin Aircraft Company, no date),
(After Society of Fire Safety, 2014, with permission.)
which may soon enter use to assist firefighters responding
to incidents in Dubai. Similarly, the development of higher
The acceptance criteria in this case have been derived reach fire appliances, such as the Bronto Skylift High
from exposure limits used by the Australasian Fire Author- Level Articulated (HLA) aerial platform (Bronto Skylift,
ities Council, as outlined by the Society of Fire Safety no date), which can vertically extend to 81–112 m, can
(2014) (Table 13.1). The suggested firefighter tenability offer enhanced high-rise firefighting capabilities. However,
criteria can be summarised as shown in Figure 13.1 such appliances may only be appropriate (or be able to be
practically put into service) for a relatively small number
Although the SCA guidance document is specific to resi- of fire and rescue services. Cutting extinguishing tech-
dential applications, the broad fire engineering themes niques, utilising equipment such as the coldcut Cobra
and concepts outlined within it relating to the demonstra- (originating from Sweden) or Pyrolance (USA), enables
tion of firefighter tenability could potentially be applied to firefighters to attack a fire from outside the fire compart-
other building uses. There may also be cases where visi- ment by using high-pressure water to cut through walls
bility through smoke needs to be considered in relation to and building fabric and apply water spray through the
firefighter tenability; for example, BS 7346-7: 2013 (BSI, resulting holes.
2013a: clause 10) requires a 10 m visibility criterion to be
applied when demonstrating the performance of impulse Overall, what needs to be remembered is that while fire
jet fan smoke ventilation systems being used in car parks and rescue services will always use a similar base level of
to assist firefighting access. equipment (pumping appliances, hose lines and so on),
engineers and designers may need to be aware of and
account for emerging technologies and new practices or
tactics being implemented by the local fire and rescue
13.4.4 Other equipment service as part of their building or site design.
considerations

In addition to their own ppe and hose equipment, firefight-

ers may need to transport and use other equipment (e.g. 13.5 Fire and rescue service
ladders or breaking-in gear) for use during an incident. notification and response
This can be a key consideration in some cases when
designing firefighter access routes from perceived fire
appliance arrival positions to and around buildings. It 13.5.1 Local fire and rescue service
needs to be remembered that firefighters will in most cases
have to physically carry all necessary equipment, thus it is resource variations
important to ensure that such access routes are reasonably
limited in distance, intuitive in terms of wayfinding and It is important to understand the level of local fire and
reasonably dimensioned to permit relatively easy transpor- rescue service coverage to a building as this can vary signif-
tation of resources and equipment. Assumed fire and icantly depending upon geographical area. In addition, due
rescue service vehicle parking locations also need to be to increasing economic and resource pressures on fire and
practical. rescue services in many areas, the current level of coverage
13-6 Fire safety engineering

may be under review and subject to change. Therefore, resources on their pda record for a building, with this
understanding where local fire stations are situated and often being limited (e.g. a single pump appliance). Upon
what resources they have could be relevant to the develop- arrival at an incident, the officer in charge of the initial
ment of the building fire strategy in terms of what initial fire and rescue service attendance will then call for addi-

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resources will be available and the time it will take for the tional resources should they be required.
fire and rescue service to attend an incident (and factoring
in a suitable margin of safety, should the building fire strat-
egy rely upon this). 13.5.2 Improving fire and rescue
service notification
The local fire and rescue service may provide full-time
and/or retained fire coverage to an area. Retained fire To increase the potential for early attendance by the fire
stations (which are common in some countries, including and rescue service, in support of a building’s life safety
the UK and Ireland) are staffed by professional firefighters, and/or property protection strategy, the fire engineer
who may have other employment elsewhere but respond to should consider the use of automatic transmission of
emergency incidents within their local area when neces- signals from the building fire detection and alarm system
sary. Although not as common, volunteer-staffed fire to a suitable alarm receiving centre.
stations may also be present (such as in parts of Germany,
France and the USA), or a private fire and rescue service By considering the factors outlined in section 13.5.1, along
(part or fully private) may serve the site in question. with the hours during which the building in question is
occupied and the reliability of manual means of notifica-
It is usual for all forms of fire station to have attendance tion (e.g. use of telephones by onsite staff), the building
time targets. There will, however, be differences in the level fire strategy may determine that the provision of a more
of coverage that different geographical areas receive, in resilient arrangement for the early summoning of the fire
terms of how quickly the fire and rescue service could and rescue service is required due to the risks posed by
potentially arrive to deal with an incident and what the building’s use and occupancy. Often this is most easily
resources and equipment they would have available to achieved through the automatic transmission (via a moni-
them. For example, a fire and rescue service in an urban tored link) of fire detection and alarm system signals to an
metropolitan area could be expected to provide a quicker alarm receiving centre, from where a quick response to a
response and more immediate resources than one located in potential fire incident and the summoning of the fire and
a remote rural area. rescue service can be efficiently completed. An alarm
receiving centre could be located in, for example, a contin-
While the distance to the nearest fire station will be a uously staffed fire and security room on the same site as
consideration for fire engineers, in most cases the fire the building requiring protection (as found in some shop-
engineer should not rely solely upon a response from this ping complexes and hospital sites) or in a third party
fire station as a means to justify a proposed scheme. It will commercially operated centre.
always be possible that the resources located at the fire
station are responding to another incident elsewhere. The use of an alarm receiving centre will provide a more
Therefore, where required and possible, it would be more reliable and resilient means to react to a fire detection and
resilient to consider assessing the following information alarm signal from a building, and can therefore help to
in relation to the relevant local fire and rescue service: compress the timeline involved in getting adequate fire
and rescue service resources to an incident. Example
—— average time for emergency calls to be responded to design and procedural guidance relating to automatic
transmissions from a fire detection and alarm system to an
—— average time for firefighters to be mobilised and alarm receiving centre can be found in BS 5839-1: 2017
leave the fire station (BSI, 2017b: clause 15), and requirements for alarm moni-
—— average time for the first and second fire appli- toring and receiving centres are covered in BS EN 50518:
ances to arrive at an incident 2013 Parts 1 to 3 (BSI, 2013b, 2013c, 2013d) and BS 8591:
2014 (BSI, 2014b).
—— what the expected predetermined attendance (pda)
could be, and what implications this may have for
the scheme in question
—— what the potential, reasonable worst-case scenarios 13.6 Fire service vehicle access
for all the above could be, and how these might and water supplies
need to be considered as part of a sensitivity analysis.

Information relating to the above can often be requested 13.6.1 Roadway access
from the local fire and rescue service, and in some cases is
publicly available (via the internet) as part of fire and It is important to ensure that fire and rescue service vehi-
rescue service performance target and response time statis- cles can access a site and get close enough to a building
tics reports. via appropriately sized and constructed roadways in order
to commence fire and rescue operations. This should
In regard to the pda mentioned above, another common include consideration of associated landscaping, building
perception is that the fire and rescue service will immedi- overhangs, the need to drive over or under features such
ately mobilise a multitude of fire appliances and resources, as bridges, and so on. The extent to which fire and rescue
sufficient to deal with the worst-case fire incident in a service vehicle access is required depends on whether
building. For most incidents, this is not the case; the fire external (see section 13.8) or internal (see section 13.9)
and rescue service will usually only mobilise those firefighting measures are appropriate and what type of fire
Firefighting 13-7

Table 13.2 Fire and rescue service vehicle route specification (UK) (BSI, 2017a)

Appliance type Min. width of Min. width of Min. turning Min. turning Min. clearance Min. carrying
road between gateways / m circle between circle between height / m capacity / t
kerbs / m kerbs / m walls / m

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Pump 3.7 3.1 16.8 19.2 3.7 12.5
High-reach 3.7 3.1 26.0 29.0 4.0 17.0
Note: Because the weight of high-reach appliances is distributed over a number of axles, it is considered that their infrequent use of
a carriageway or route designed to 12.5 tonnes is not likely to cause damage. It would therefore be reasonable to design the road
base to 12.5 tonnes, although structures such as bridges should have the full 17 tonnes capacity.

and rescue service vehicle response needs to be planned space needs to be provided to allow these vehicles
for. Ultimately, this will be driven by the size, height, loca- to negotiate corners. This is often assessed for new
tion, geometry and occupancy of the building in question. routes and roadways by completing a swept path
Ensuring the provision of adequate fire and rescue service analysis.
vehicular access should be considered by all relevant
designers and stakeholders at a very early stage in the —— Dead-end access roads: Limits are often placed in
design process for a building, to ensure that the necessary national and international design guidance on the
external and internal fire and rescue service access arrange- distance along which the fire and rescue service
ments can be supported. In particular, design schemes drivers are expected to reverse their vehicles before
involving podium access need to be very carefully consid- being able to drive forward away from a building
ered to avoid imposing onerous expectations on firefighters, or site. For example, in the UK-specific context, a
in terms of having to conduct firefighting operations in dead-end access road distance of 20 m is typically
areas remote (physically, visually and communication considered the limit under BS 9999 (BSI, 2017a:
wise) from the locations accessible to fire and rescue clause 21.3), while under International Fire Code
service vehicles. guidance the limit is 150 feet (ca. 45 m) (ICC,
2017: Appendix D). When such limits are exceeded,
The design guidance applicable in a particular geographi- suitably sized turning circle or hammerhead facil-
cal area will often specify, in broad terms, what dimensions ities should be provided to allow fire and rescue
and carrying capacity fire and rescue service vehicle access service vehicles to turn around and drive forward
routes should have. For example, BS 9999 (BSI, 2017a: from the dead-end road. While some of these dead-
clause 21.3) provides guidance on how these routes should end distance limits have historic origins (e.g. the
be designed for the two most common fire appliance types UK limit of 20 m originates from the time when
used in the UK, as shown in Table 13.2. fire and rescue services used horses to pull their
engines), they do have a practical relevance in the
Checks should be made to ensure that inspection covers modern era. Managing fire and rescue service
(such as those used by public utilities) and other similar resources during an incident can be complicated;
features that may be incorporated into the roadway design thus, as fire appliances carry all relevant personnel
are capable of carrying the expected carrying capacity and equipment, reasonable measures need to be
weights. provided to ensure that resources can be moved
relatively easily if required. In some scenarios, it
For those designing roadways and vehicle access for a site may be possible for the fire engineer to justify
or building, it should be remembered that fire appliances dead-end access road distances that exceed rele-
are not standardised; the size and weight and equipment vant local limits based on the provision of other
carried may differ between appliance types within a fire building-specific compensatory measures. Such
and rescue service, and may differ further regionally, measures could include the voluntary provision of
nationally and internationally. Some fire and rescue a robust suppression system in a building where
services use more specialised vehicles than others; a suppression is not required for other reasons, or
consideration which may also need to be factored into the wider access roads to permit easier vehicle revers-
design of roadways. Relevant vehicle dimensions and ing. In some cases, measures such as these could
details should therefore be confirmed with the local fire assist in obtaining agreement by the local fire and
and rescue service where appropriate. rescue service to an extension to the road distance.
Other design considerations that may need to be checked
as part of ensuring that adequate fire and rescue service —— Working area: While providing the roadways to
vehicle access can be facilitated include the following: minimum dimensions, such as those shown in
Table 13.2, will get the fire and rescue service vehi-
—— Roadway gradients: There may be local roadway cles close to a building, it must be remembered
gradient design limits that must be observed. For that firefighters will require a working area in
example, in the UK, hardstanding areas for high- order to unload personnel and stowed equipment
reach appliances should not exceed a 1 in 12 from the appliance for use. Therefore, it may be
gradient, and gradients of 1 in 4 should be avoided best practice to provide some additional room
for fire and rescue service vehicle access in general. around perceived fire appliance parking positions
(e.g. in zones designated for perimeter access or
—— Vehicle turning and sweep circles: When designing where fire appliances will be parking near to desig-
access routes, allowances should be made for fire nated building entry points or fire mains inlets) to
appliance turning and sweep circles as additional allow for this to be done easily. This may be of
13-8 Fire safety engineering

particular relevance if it is proposed that only a 2.5 bar nozzle pressure, the rate of delivery will be approx-
single-lane access road is to be provided. imately 160 litres of water per minute (this figure should
be taken as a guide only; e.g. some modern multi-flow
—— Roadway markings: For some sites it may be neces- nozzles for use with layflat hose can deliver 360–750 litres
sary to consider the use of roadway markings to

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per minute). Therefore, with a 1000 litre tank and a deliv-
impose traffic restrictions (such as no parking ery flow of 160 litres per minute, the water would be
areas or hatched zones for emergency vehicle use exhausted within 6 minutes. The significance of these
only) or, in some extreme cases, such as found in figures for preplanning is that if a fire cannot be extin-
North America, the use of fire lanes on roadways. guished within that time period, additional water supplies
Similarly, if a fire and rescue service roadway is need to be established to maintain an unbroken attack on
proposed to pass through a pedestrianised area, a the fire. The building type also has an influence on the
clear fire path should be planned and identifiable requirements for a water supply; for example, for a high-
(perhaps using different surface materials or mark- rise building, a water supply must be secured to charge fire
ings) to ensure that it is not obstructed. mains before firefighters can be committed to the fire
—— Posts and bollards: Any posts or bollards installed compartment, thus additional water supplies will be
across roadways used for fire and rescue service needed.
access (to restrict use by other vehicles) should
usually be of the removable or collapsible (fixed The most common and effective means of providing
hinged) type, with standard ‘fire brigade’ padlocks supplementary and resilient water supplies is via a hydrant
used to secure them in the up position. Any connected to a water main. These often take the form of
proposed use of flexible or electronically retract- underground hydrants (e.g. to BS 750: 2012 (BSI, 2012a)
able posts or bollards needs to be carefully or BS EN 14339: 2005 (BSI, 2005a)), but could also be
considered, and design details discussed with the presented as pillar hydrants (e.g. to BS EN 14384: 2005
local fire and rescue service. (BSI, 2005b), with these provided by the relevant local
water authority from street water mains or by the building
—— Use of security gates across a roadway or vehicle access or site developer or owner as a private hydrant. Alterna-
point: Gates are often used to restrict access to tively, where no piped water supply can be provided, a
larger sites, but to prevent any delay being caused charged static tank or natural water source (river, pond or
to fire appliances, ideally only one gate barrier similar) could be considered acceptable provided that it
should be used. This should be secured by a means provides adequate capacity for the building, site or risk in
that can be easily and quickly opened by the fire question and is agreed with the local fire and rescue
and rescue service (e.g. use of a single ‘fire brigade’ service. Guidance in Approved Document B Volume 2
padlock or, where electronic gate locks are used, a (HM Government, 2013) recommends a capacity of at
drop-key mechanism). For some buildings or sites, least 45 000 litres, but it is suggested that the adequacy of
there may be a 24-hour security presence, where this would need to be assessed on a project-specific basis
gates are opened via a central control system; the (particularly as some alternative sources of water may
relevant details and protocols associated with this increase time delays to effective firefighting due to the
may need to be agreed with the local fire and need for additional specialist equipment or the need for
rescue service. water relay).
—— Traffic calming measures: Features such as speed
humps can significantly increase fire and rescue Figure 13.2 illustrates how the fire and rescue service will
service attendance times, depending on the length typically connect a pumping appliance to a hydrant.
of roadway over which the traffic calming measures
are proposed, and on their design, number and To connect a standpipe to an underground hydrant (for
spacing. example), the firefighter has to collect a standpipe, key and
bar from a locker on the pumping appliance, run to the
If there is any doubt as to what local regulatory and fire hydrant, lift the pit lid, take the blank cap off the outlet,
and rescue service requirements are in place in relation to screw the standpipe onto the outlet, fit the key onto the
the above items (or similar roadway features), the local fire
and rescue service, and possibly the local traffic authority,
should be consulted. As outlined in section 13.5.1, while
pumping and high-reach appliances are often the most Collecting head
common forms of vehicles used by fire and rescue services,
there may be a need to plan for the attendance of other
specialised appliances for some buildings or sites. This
should also be discussed with the local fire and rescue
service in the event of any doubt.

13.6.2 External water supplies and

hydrants
Carrying water to an incident enables the fire and rescue Figure 13.2 Water from a hydrant via a standpipe and a line of hose of
service to apply the first jet or spray to the fire with least one length to the collecting head of a pump and then from a delivery
delay. However, the water supply carried in the tanks of valve via a line of hose of two lengths to a branch or nozzle (Note: the
pumping appliances is limited; capacity is typically hose connection between the hydrant and fire appliance may be
between 1000 and 2000 litres. Using a 12.5 mm nozzle at twinned depending upon local fire and rescue service procedures.)
Firefighting 13-9

false spindle, fit the bar into the key, turn on the water to would be a hydrant located within 90 m of an entry point
flush the hydrant and then turn off the water. For plan- to the building and not more than 90 m apart or, for a
ning purposes, may be reasonable to assume a time of building fitted with a dry rising main, within 90 m of the
30 seconds to collect the equipment off the pumping fire main inlet connection (assumed for a building with a

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appliance and 30 seconds of work at the hydrant (1 minute). compartment of more than 280 m2 that is more than
If the hydrant is 20 m from the pump (equivalent to a 100 m away from an existing hydrant) (HM Government,
single length of hose; in some cases, two lengths of hose 2013: section 15.7). BS 9990: 2015 guidance (BSI, 2015a:
twinned between the fire appliance and hydrant will be clause 5), which covers the provision of private hydrants,
required), it will take the firefighter a total of 20 seconds adds to this by stating that hydrants should be positioned
to run to the hydrant and back. On return to the pump, no less than 6 m away from the building or risk in order
the firefighter will collect a length of hose, run back to the to offer some protection from falling debris and other
hydrant, connect the hose to the standpipe and run back possible occurrences during a fire. For comparison, NFPA
to the pump, paying out the hose (a further 20 seconds). 24 (NFPA, 2013: chapter 7) gives the general recommen-
The firefighter will then run back to the standpipe dation that hydrants ‘shall be spaced in accordance with
(10 seconds) and turn on the water (10 seconds). It is the authority having jurisdiction’ and ‘for average condi-
appreciated that hydrant pits sometimes contain debris tions hydrants shall be placed at least 40 feet (12.2 m)
that must be removed before the hydrant can be used, and from the building protected’.
this would extend the time considerably. However, as with
all planning assumptions, the above figures have assumed In terms of flow rate for hydrants, typical building design
a hydrant pit in good order. Using these figures, the total guidance is relatively silent on specific requirements; for
time available for one firefighter to obtain a feed from an example, BS 9999 (BSI, 2017a: clause 22.2) limits recom-
underground fire hydrant to a pump where the hydrant is mendations to ensuring that hydrants are capable of
20 m from the pump could reasonably be considered as delivering a ‘sufficient flow of water to enable effective
being 2 minutes. firefighting to be undertaken’. In terms of assessing
whether a hydrant flow is sufficient for firefighting, exam-
Securing an uninterrupted water supply is one of the crit- ple data produced in the National Guidance Document on
ical actions that the fire and rescue service will complete the Provision of Water for Fire Fighting (LGA and Water UK,
upon arrival at an incident. Ensuring that an appropriate 2007: Appendix 5) show that there can be quite diverse
supply is available should therefore be identified as part of requirements, depending upon the type of building and
a building’s or site’s fire strategy. For new developments, risk in question; this is summarised in Table 13.3.
formal consultation may be needed with the local water
authority and the local fire and rescue service (which are This variation in potential flow rate demand between
likely to have a specialist water department) to ascertain different uses demonstrates the importance of liaising
the adequacy of existing supplies and to identify where with the local water authority and fire and rescue service
new hydrants may be required. when providing new or assessing existing hydrant
installations.
The legislative requirement to provide hydrants can be a
complex issue. For example, in England and Wales, while For more complex schemes, where water supplies are
there is guidance contained in design documents support- deemed to require more in-depth analysis to support a
ing the Building Regulations, it is actually the Fire and specific fire engineered design solution, PD 7974-5 (BSI,
Rescue Services Act 2004 that is explicit in stating that the 2014a: clause 8 and Annex A) provides a detailed commen-
fire and rescue authority must secure an adequate supply tary and suggested methodology for the assessment of
of water in the event of fire. The Act states that if securing water demand and efficient flow rates.
a supply requires making an agreement with a water
undertaker to provide hydrants, it is the responsibility of Table 13.3 Recommended ideal hydrant flow rates (LGA and Water
the fire and rescue authority to pay the water undertaker. UK, 2007)
There is no qualification in this that differentiates between
Type of structure Flow rate / Distance
whether the hydrants are on public or private land,
litre · s–1 from risk / m
although it is usual for hydrants on private property to be
paid for by the developer or owner. However, it is standard Housing: not more than two floors 8 Not stated
policy within all fire and rescue services in the UK that it Multi-occupied housing: not more 20–35 Not stated
should be made clear to developers and owners that the than two floors
fire authority cannot be expected to meet the expense of Lorry/coach parks, multistorey car 25 90
providing water supplies for special premises where this parks, service stations
would be out of all proportion to the remainder of the risk Industrial estates:
in an area. Further information relating to the legislative up to 1 hectare 20 Not stated
background and general requirements for hydrants is 1–2 hectares 35 Not stated
provided in the National Guidance Document on the Provi- 2–3 hectares 50 Not stated
sion of Water for Fire Fighting (LGA and Water UK, 2007). over 3 hectares 75 Not stated
Shopping, offices, recreation and 20–75 Not stated
The location of hydrants should be such that they are near tourism
to fire and rescue service appliance parking positions, near Village halls 15 100
to building entry points and readily accessible. Hydrants
Primary schools and single-storey 20 70
should be located in a prominent position and clearly health centres
signed, and not camouflaged in surrounding landscaping.
Approved Document B guidance suggests that a reasona- Secondary schools, colleges, large 35 70
health and community facilities
ble provision for a building not provided with fire mains
13-10 Fire safety engineering

13.7 Internal water supplies: of fire main, which can be referred to using a number of
different terms.
fire mains
It can be seen in Table 13.5 that different guides recom-

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mend the installation of a dry fire main at varying floor
heights; in the UK this is where (depending upon the
13.7.1 General guidance being applied and building use) the top occupied
floor height above fire and rescue service vehicle access
Fire mains are fixed installations provided within a build- level is more than 7.5 m, 11 m or 18 m, where hose
ing to assist with the supply of water for firefighting, helping distances from the perceived fire appliance parking posi-
to reduce hose lengths and fire and rescue service interven- tion to the furthest point of the furthest dwelling exceed
tion times. As shown in Table 13.4, there are various types 45 m (for residential flats), or where there are large or deep

Table 13.4 General terminology used for fire mains in buildings (examples)

Type of installation Terms used in UK Terms used in USA

Internal firefighting water main Fire main, rising/falling main or Standpipe system
internal main
Pipework that is normally empty of water Dry riser/faller Manual dry
Pipework that is filled with pressurised air No equivalent in UK Hybrid mains; automatic dry and
semi-automatic dry
Pipework that is filled with water but has no Charged dry main or damp main Manual wet
other supply
Pipework that is filled with water and has additional Wet fire main, wet riser/faller Automatic wet
water supplies to sustain a firefighting attack

Table 13.5 Typical criteria for internal fire mains (summary examples UK)

Design guide Building use Floor Top floor height or Type of fire main Typical location of fire main
area lowest floor depth* outlets or landing valves
ADB / BS 9991 Residential flats (where the N/A < 18 m in height Refers to BS 9990; Protected staircase landings
hose distance from the typically dry
pumping appliance to the
furthest point of the furthest
dwelling exceeds 45 m)
BS 9991 Residential flats N/A 18–50 m in height Dry Firefighting staircase
and/or –10 m deep landings
BS 9991 Residential flats N/A ≥ 50 m in height Wet Firefighting staircase
landings
ADB Shop, commercial, assembly, ≥ 900 m2 storey ≥ 7.5 m in height Refers to BS 9990; Firefighting lobbies
recreational or industrial use over 7.5 m in typically dry
height
ADB All buildings ≥ 900 m2 (each Two or more Refers to BS 9990; Firefighting staircase
basement storey) basement storeys typically dry landings for residential flats,
firefighting lobbies for all
other uses
ADB All buildings N/A 18–50 m in height Dry Firefighting staircase
and/or –10 m deep landings for residential flats,
firefighting lobbies for all
other uses
ADB All buildings N/A ≥ 50 m in height Wet Firefighting staircase
landings for residential flats,
firefighting lobbies for all
other uses
NFPA 1 All buildings N/A 3 floors high or Floor landings
15 m in height
NFPA 5000 All buildings N/A 4 floors high/deep
BS 9999 All buildings within the N/A 11–18m in height Dry Firefighting lobbies
scope of the document
BS 9999 All buildings within the N/A 18–50 m in height Dry Firefighting lobbies
scope of the document
BS 9999 All buildings within the N/A ≥ 50 m in height Wet Firefighting lobbies
scope of the document
* Floor heights and depths are measured above and below fire and rescue service access level.
Note: ADB refers to Approved Document B Volume 2 design guidance (HM Government, 2013).
Firefighting 13-11

multiple basement levels present. Where the top occupied risers, a four-way inlet should be provided. The door of
floor height exceeds 50 m, a wet fire main is required in the inlet box should be secured and should be clearly indi-
order to ensure that water can be adequately pumped verti- cated with appropriate signage (e.g. ‘DRY RISER INLET’).
cally up the building. Fire mains can also be a useful tool A drain valve should be incorporated into the breeching

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for fire engineers wishing to enhance (as part of a wider inlet unless the main also feeds landing valves below the
fire strategy) the firefighting provisions in a building that inlet level. An automatic air release valve should be fitted
would not otherwise be required under typical design guid- at the highest point on dry risers to permit the riser to be
ance to have a fire main. charged with water without the need to open any landing
valves. NFPA 14: Standard for the installation of standpipes
and hose systems (NFPA, 2016) contains similar design
13.7.2 Dry fire mains guidance, although there are three classes of ‘standpipe
systems’ that can be applied when using this document,
Dry fire mains consist of a pipe installed vertically through dependent upon the building or scenario in question.
a building with an inlet breeching provided at fire and
rescue service vehicle access level and outlets, with A dry fire main can also be ‘charged’, i.e. permanently
hand-controlled valves (known as landing valves), on each filled with water, which is sometimes known as a ‘damp
floor (Figure 13.3). On arrival, the firefighters connect fire main’ or ‘manual wet fire main’. The primary benefit
hoses from a hydrant to a pump appliance and from the of providing such an arrangement is that the fire and
pump appliance to the fire main inlet, then charge the rescue service do not need to fill the fire main with water,
main with water. Other firefighters go to a floor (in an thereby ensuring there is no delay in deploying firefight-
above-ground context, one or two floors below the fire ing jets to tackle the fire. However, this arrangement tends
floor initially, to establish a bridgehead, which is usually only to be applied where extensive fire main installations
a protected area, from which firefighting crews can then are proposed for a building or site. The permanent charg-
be committed to tackle the fire), connect their hoses to the ing of the fire main should be discussed with the local fire
outlet and run out the hose to the fire. Fire mains that and rescue service.
serve above-ground floor levels are known as dry rising
mains, while those that serve below-ground floor levels are Horizontal dry fire mains (involving a horizontal length,
known as dry falling mains. In the UK, BS 9990 (BSI, with no vertical rise or fall to other floors) have also been
2015a) (with supplementary references to BS 5041) applied on design schemes. However, they have limited
provides guidance on the design, installation and mainte- application, related to: their potential to cause confusion
nance of fire mains. among attending fire crews; the fact that, while they may
be able to deliver water across a significant horizontal
Dry fire mains typically have pipework diameters of distance, firefighters with all their required equipment
100 mm or 150 mm. Breeching inlets for dry risers are still need to travel across the same distance; and issues
located on an external wall as close as possible to the relating to practical drainage and maintenance.
installation and relevant fire and rescue service access
point into the building, and there should be access for a The landing valves (also known as outlets) for fire mains
pumping appliance within 18 m of each fire main inlet. are typically located in close association with the protected
The breeching inlet box should be positioned with its firefighter access routes provided in a building. For exam-
lower edge between 400 mm and 600 mm above ground ple, it is common in the UK for the landing valves to be
level. Where a 100 mm dry fire main is provided, a provided within the firefighting lobbies provided to the
two-way breeching inlet should be fitted, and for 150 mm firefighting access stair in commercial buildings, and
within the firefighting access stair enclosure for residen-
tial buildings. The landing valves themselves should be
positioned in a manner that enables ease of access and the
Automatic running out of what will become a charged hose line, and
air release ensures they do not obstruct or become obstructed by
door openings. Additionally, landing valve height, protec-
tion and security should also be considered; for example,
BS 9990 (BSI, 2015a) recommends that the lowest part of
Landing
valve
the valve is positioned no lower than 750 mm above floor
level, that the valve is preferably protected by an appro-
priate box to BS 5041-2: 1987 (BSI, 1987), and that
precautions should be taken against vandalism and theft
of the landing valves. Any alternative landing valve loca-
tions (that deviate from the expectations of local or
national fire safety design guidance) should be discussed
and agreed with the local fire and rescue service.

13.7.3 Hybrid fire mains

Breeching
In addition to the dry and charged dry mains common in
inlet at the UK, NFPA 1 (NFPA, 2018a) also describes two hybrid
Drain ground dry and wet systems, known as an automatic dry standpipe
valve level system and semi-automatic dry standpipe system. Both
systems consist of a dry main that is filled with pressurised
Figure 13.3 Schematic of a dry rising fire main air. When a landing valve is opened, water flows into the
13-12 Fire safety engineering

system piping automatically. The water supply for these than 100 mm diameter that enters the wet fire main tank(s)
systems must be capable of supplying the system demand. above the maximum water level. Any such inlet provided
should be clearly indicated with appropriate signage that
ensures it is identifiable as the wet fire main infill.
13.7.4 Wet fire mains

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Wet fire mains in the UK are known as ‘automatic wet’ 13.7.5 Additional considerations
standpipe systems in NFPA codes. A wet fire main is simi- relating to fire main landing
lar in construction and layout to a dry fire main except
that the system is connected to a permanent water supply valves
that is capable of supplying the system demand automati-
cally. This may be a direct connection to a water company There are clear differences within and between national
main, where this is permitted and is of sufficient capacity, guidance relating to the positioning of fire main landing
but more commonly consists of a water tank and either a valves. For example, the recommendations in Approved
pumping facility or gravity feed or both. In the UK, Document B (HM Government, 2013) and BS 9999 (BSI,
BS 9990 (BSI, 2015a) guidance calls for wet fire mains to 2017a) vary depending on whether or not the landing
be fed by two interconnected tanks of equal capacity, valve is located in a firefighting shaft or protected stair-
having a total minimum capacity of 45 000 litres, with the way and whether or not a building is sprinklered. The
tanks automatically supplied from a mains water supply. recommendations are also significantly different to the
The tanks and water mains feed should be capable of NFPA 1 (NFPA, 2018a) recommendation that landing
maintaining a flow of water to supply two firefighting hose valves should be located at each intermediate landing
lines for 45 minutes when water is being used at a total between floor levels in every required exit stairway. NFPA
rate of 1500 l · min–1, with two pumps (duty and standby) 1 also recommends considerably more landing valves
provided to feed the system with a running pressure of than Approved Document B.
8 (±0.5) bar per landing valve when the landing valve is
fully open. For many building and fire main systems, designs achiev-
ing compliance with the minimum standards outlined in
Wet fire mains are suitable for buildings of all heights but local and national standards will suffice. However,
are essential when the highest floor is more than 50 m for some fire engineered buildings it may be appropriate
above fire and rescue service access level. This is due to to further consider where fire main landing valves are
the excessive pressure at which the fire and rescue service located and/or whether the provision of additional
would need to pump and the delay in delivering water to landing valves would bring clear benefits to a scheme
the highest point in the riser. The benefit of wet fire mains (through the subsequent enhancing of firefighter access
is that a supplementary water supply via fire service pumps arrangements).
may not be necessary. If a supplementary water supply is
necessary, the time available to obtain the supply is Research in England in 2004 (ODPM, 2004b) assessed the
extended. physiological limits of firefighters in a series of controlled
experiments. Essentially, these experiments tested the
Because of the need to provide sufficient pressure in the maximum distance it was considered possible to penetrate
upper sections of wet risers, the pressures in the lower into a fire compartment for the purposes of fighting a fire
parts of the riser may be excessive. If this is the case, it and searching for a casualty. The research determined
may be necessary to limit the delivery pressures so as to that heat strain among the firefighters was the greatest
avoid dangerously high pressures in firefighting hoses. single source of performance limitation. It was further
Pressure control can be achieved by the provision of a determined that the most significant effect on heat strain
pressure relief connection built into the delivery side of was the number of stairs that had to be climbed while
the landing valve that is permanently connected to a waste wearing standard ppe, standard-duration breathing appa-
pipe. Valves can be calibrated to give different inlet–outlet ratus or extended-duration breathing apparatus and
pressure differentials, as appropriate for specific locations carrying firefighting and rescue equipment.
within the riser. An alternative type of landing valve for
wet risers incorporates a ‘dead shut-off ’ pressure-reducing As a result of the trials, the research suggested that fire-
valve and requires no drain connection. For example, fighters should be able to penetrate into a fire compartment
BS 9990 recommends pressure-reducing valves be provided to rescue a casualty, where no stair climbing is required
to regulate the flow and pressure to 750 (±75) l · min–1 at to access the point of entry, for a maximum distance of
8 (±0.5) bar per landing valve, with the system designed 34 m. This distance was reduced if firefighters had to
so that the static pressure in any hose line connected to a climb stairs beforehand. For example, climbing two floors
landing valve does not exceed 12 bar when the nozzle is reduced the penetration distance to 32 m, and climbing
shut off. 10, 20 and 30 floors reduced the penetration distance to
approximately 25 m, 20 m and 12 m, respectively. It
The landing valve/outlet location for a wet fire main should be noted that this research dealt with simulated
system should meet the same standards as for dry fire incidents, and there are no data on actual fire incidents
main systems, as outlined in section 13.7.2. that suggest that travel distances up to 45 m into a
fire compartment are excessive. Therefore, it was deemed
An emergency tank filling connection for fire and rescue that the distances firefighters are able to travel are primar-
service use may be necessary to take account of circum- ily dependent upon the number of floors climbed, and
stances when the automatic infill is out of action. BS 9990 that travel distances within fire compartments should be
recommends that this should typically take the form of a based on a standard that considers both the (non-
breeching inlet (positioned in a prominent location on the operational) research and the practical experiences of
face of the building) connected to a delivery pipe of not less actual firefighting.
Firefighting 13-13

It is standard operating practice within the UK for fire- rescue service to ensure there is confidence in operational
fighters to travel up a high-rise building in a firefighting procedures expected to be applied, hose line distances and
lift and to exit that lift two floors below the fire floor. resourcing, and travel distances.
Although the research referred to above suggested that if

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firefighters climbed two floors they should not travel
more that 32 m into a fire compartment, this is not 13.7.6 Foam inlets
supported by assumptions made in typical design guid-
ance, where hose coverage distances of 45 m and 60 m can A foam inlet system consists of an inlet box housing a
be acceptable, depending upon the circumstances. In fact, foam inlet adaptor that is connected to a length of distri-
if the two floors and 32 m recommendation were accepted bution pipework, which then terminates in one or more
as a standard, it would mean that fire mains should be fixed foam pourers or discharge outlets. In the UK, design
installed in the majority of buildings above two floors in guidance relating to the design of these systems can be
height. found in BS 5306-1 (BSI, 2006). These systems are
provided to assist the fire and rescue service in fighting
When firefighters exit a firefighting lift two floors below fires involving oil storage tanks or oil-fired boilers that are
the fire floor, they undertake two key tasks: either situated below ground level or are inaccessible from
outside. Where a fire strategy deems that such an installa-
(a) establishing a bridgehead on that floor, and tion is required, the foam inlet breeching connection at
the fire and rescue service access level should be posi-
(b) the officer in charge considers where it is safe to tioned in a prominent and practical location (e.g. within
connect the primary and secondary hose lines to 18 m of a practical fire appliance parking position), with
the fire main landing valves; ideally, the primary this being clearly indicated with appropriate signage.
hose line would be connected to a fire main land-
ing valve on the floor below the fire floor, with the
secondary (safety) hose line connected to the fire
main landing valve on the fire floor.
13.8 External firefighting
It is clear from the above that, if only one landing valve access (perimeter
is to be installed for each staircase, the optimum location
for that landing valve is within the staircase enclosure. access)
This will ensure that only the fire-resisting doors to the
fire floor are held open by the hose line passing through Design standards attempt to ensure that the fire and
them and will shorten hose lines. Arguably, locating land- rescue service can reasonably reach the exterior of a build-
ing valves within stair enclosures also increases the ing in order to efficiently commence firefighting operations.
possibility that firefighters can use the landing valve The ideal scenario is to afford access to all sides of a build-
located on the fire floor. ing. The reasons why external access is required are best
summarised in clause 16.1 of Approved Document B
There is also merit in the NFPA 1 recommendation that Volume 2 (HM Government, 2013), which states that it is
landing valves should be located at each intermediate needed to enable high-reach appliances to be used and to
landing between floor levels rather than at floor levels. enable pumping appliances to supply water and equip-
This would remove the need for landing valves at the full ment for firefighting and search and rescue activities. The
floor levels, and would mean that hose lines could be extent to which external access is required is, however,
connected half a floor below the fire floor rather than one driven by the size and height of a building.
or two full floors below, thereby reducing the lengths of
hose lines and reducing congestion on staircases (includ- In the UK context, buildings less than 11 m in height, as
ing potentially not disrupting wheelchair refuges). measured to the highest occupied storey, need to facilitate
access for pumping appliances, while those over 11 m in
If it is proposed to provide more than one fire main land- height need to be designed to facilitate access for high-
ing valve per level for each staircase (to enhance firefighter reach appliances. This acknowledges that the portable
water supply and access arrangements by helping to reduce ladders typically carried on pumping appliances have a
potential hose and travel distances), this could be presented limited reach. Depending upon the size of the building (in
in several different arrangements, such as: terms of total area, m2), a percentage of the building
perimeter must then be made available for fire and rescue
—— a twin landing valve connection within the stair- service access, with this ranging from 15% to 100%. The
case enclosure at each level fire and rescue service should then be able to access the
building from adjacent to the designated perimeter eleva-
—— a single landing valve each within the staircase
tion. Where access for high-reach appliances is required,
enclosure and within the associated protected
designated hard-standing areas need to be provided and
lobby at each level
must be free from overhead obstructions (such as cables,
—— a single landing valve within the staircase enclosure trees etc.).
and a single landing valve installed adjacent to the
door to the fire compartment, for those occasions Key to providing the adequate perimeter access percentage
when it is safe to enter the fire compartment is ensuring that there are entry points into the building on
without a charged hose line. any elevations that have a designated perimeter access
zone (within 18 m of a practical fire appliance parking
Where it is proposed to provide more than one fire main position). BS 9999 (BSI, 2017a: clause 21.1) calls for suit-
landing valve per staircase per level, the arrangements able entry door(s) not less than 750 mm in width to be
should be discussed and agreed with the local fire and provided so that there is no more than 60 m between each
13-14 Fire safety engineering

door and/or the end of the elevation. It is then assumed —— buildings more than 11 m but less than 18 m
that the provision of this perimeter access along with the in height; firefighting shaft to include an escape
access offered by the normal means of escape for a building stair and unvented firefighting lobby with a fire
will provide reasonable access for firefighting. Note that main

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there is no requirement to consider the nature and quan-
tity of facade openings (e.g. windows) on the upper floors —— buildings intended to be used as shops, factories or
of a building; however, in some cases (e.g. for a building for assembly and recreation where the height of
with no windows, or with double- or triple-glazed fixed the topmost storey exceeds 7.5 m, with the floor
shut windows) where an engineered approach is being area of any storey above the ground storey not less
taken in relation to firefighting access, it would be advisa- than 900 m2; firefighting shaft to include a fire-
ble to consider the practicalities of firefighting externally. fighting stair and firefighting lobbies with a fire
main
In some geographical areas, alternative methods of facili- —— buildings or parts of buildings where the height of
tating perimeter access for the fire and rescue service can the surface of the floor of the topmost storey
be required. For example, access ‘holes’ can be provided (excluding any storey consisting entirely of plant
at regular intervals in the building facade (as mentioned rooms) exceeds 18 m; firefighting shaft to include
in the Spanish Technical Building Code), which are seen a firefighting stair, firefighting lobbies with a fire
to offer benefits. main, and a firefighting lift

As part of developing an external access strategy, appropri- —— buildings where the depth of the surface of the
ate access should also be afforded to any fire system inlet floor of the lowermost storey exceeds 10 m; fire-
connections positioned on the building perimeter which fighting shaft to include a firefighting stair,
the fire and rescue service personnel may need to use. firefighting lobbies with a fire main, and a fire-
Common inlet connections that may need to be consid- fighting lift
ered include dry rising main inlets, wet rising main inlets —— buildings where there are two or more basement
and suppression system inlets. Hose distances from the levels, each with a floor area exceeding 900 m2;
perceived fire appliance parking position to such inlet firefighting shaft to include a firefighting stair and
connections need to be minimised. In the UK, for exam- firefighting lobbies with a fire main.
ple, the distance between the pumping appliance parking
position and a dry rising main inlet should be limited to
18 m, which equates to one hose length (see section 13.4.2). The recommendations in BS 9999 (clauses 20.1.2 and 20.1.3)
for the number of firefighting shafts include the following:

—— At least two firefighting shafts should be provided

13.9 Internal firefighting in buildings with a storey of 900 m2 or more in
area and should be located to meet the maximum
access hose distances set out in (a) and (b) below:
(a) If the building is fitted throughout with an
13.9.1 Provision of firefighting shafts automatic sprinkler system in accordance
with BS EN 12845, then sufficient fire-
Reasonable access into and within a building must be fighting shafts should be provided such
provided for firefighters to enable them to undertake effi- that every part of every qualifying storey is
cient firefighting activities. The main factor determining no more than 60 m from a fire main outlet
the level of access and dedicated facilities required to in a firefighting shaft, measured on a route
assist the fire and rescue service is the size and height of suitable for laying hose.
the building in question. For some buildings, the provi- (b) If the building is not fitted with sprinklers,
sion of adequate external (perimeter) access along with the then every part of every qualifying storey
access offered by the normal means of escape routes will should be no more than 45 m from a fire
be acceptable. For other buildings, such as those with main outlet contained in a protected stair-
deep or multiple basement levels or those that are tall and way and 60 m from a fire main in a fire-
beyond the reach of fire service ladders, more onus is fighting shaft, measured on a route suitable
placed on firefighting occurring inside the building, thus for laying hose.
special access facilities and, often, enhanced fire compart-
mentation need to be provided. Note: qualifying storey means a floor with a height
of more than 18 m, or basements more than 10 m
The most common facility provided within a building to in depth.
improve firefighting capability is a firefighting shaft. Note: in order to meet the 45 m hose criterion in (b),
Depending upon the specifics of the building involved, a it might be necessary to provide additional fire
firefighting shaft will provide a package of fire protection mains in escape stairs. This does not imply that
measures and installations to help facilitate internal these stairs need to be designed as firefighting shafts.
firefighting.
Note: it is not necessary for lobbies to be provided
Local and national fire safety design guidance sets out to escape stairs solely to accommodate dry riser
criteria for where firefighting shafts (or equivalent) need outlets. The riser outlets may be sited on landings
to be provided. For example, in the UK, BS 9999 (BSI, or half-landings to the stair, provided that suffi-
2017a) recommends the provision of at least one firefight- cient space is available for their use by firefighters
ing shaft in each of the following types of buildings: without obstructing the opening of doors.