TOPIC: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM II

CONTENT: 1.The Peripheral nervous system

2. Structure and functions of a neurone
3. Reflex and voluntary actions

SUB-TOPIC1. THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

The peripheral nervous system links the CNS with the body’s receptors and effectors
in mammals. When receptors pick up impulses of change in the environment,
messages are sent to the CNS which integrates the information and sends appropriate
messages to the effectors accordingly.

The peripheral nerves are of two types;

i. the spinal nerves connected to the spinal cord and
ii. the cranial nerves, connected to the brain.

The spinal nerves serve the receptors and effectors in the other body parts.
The cranial nerves are associated chiefly with the receptors and effectors in the head,
while

The PNS consists of

i. The Somatic nervous system (SNS) and
ii. The Autonomic nervous system (ANS).

i. Somatic Nervous System

The nerves of the SNS principally serve the parts of the body which take part in
responses to external stimuli (e.g. sense organs, limb muscles and glands) and
voluntary activities. Nerve fibres without synapses extend from the brain through the
spinal cord to the skeletal muscles. The motor neurones stimulate the effectors. The
SNS also controls the emptying of the bladder and the opening of the anal sphincters.

ii. Autonomic Nervous System

The ANS is concerned with control of the bodies involuntary activities e.g. heartbeat,
movements of the gut and secretion of sweat.

The ANS consists of two parts;

a. The Sympathetic and
b. The Parasympathetic systems.

Both contain nerve fibres serving structures over which the body has little or no
voluntary control. In both cases nerve fibres from the brain or spinal cord pass into the
organs concerned. Along the course of each pathway there is a complex set of
synapses forming a ganglion.

a. In the sympathetic system, the ganglia lie alongside the vertebrae close to the
spinal cord.
 b. In the parasympathetic system, the ganglia are embedded in the wall of the
effector itself. The effects produced by the two systems generally oppose one
another (antagonistic).
Thus, if the sympathetic system causes a certain muscle to contract, the
parasympathetic system relaxes it.

The following is a diagrammatic representation of the autonomic nervous system

showing its connections with the central nervous system and its effects on some
internal organs.

The Autonomic nervous system

The Neurone
The neurone is the basic structural unit of the nervous system. It consists of a cell
body and protoplasmic processes called nerve fibres which are tied up in bundles
called nerves. It is specialized for transmitting electric impulses. Mature neurones
have lost their ability to regenerate.
Structure of a Neurone
A Neuronehas three basic parts;
i. A cell body
ii. Dendron
iii. The axon
i. A cell body: this may be star-shaped, oval or angular. It has a large nucleus and
dense granulated cytoplasm which gives it a greyish colour. The golgi apparatus
manufactures vesicles containing chemicals needed for the transfer of electric
impulses.
The cell body relays impulses to the axon
ii. Dendron with branches called dendrites:dendrons carry nerve impulses that their
dendrites receive to the cell body.
iii The axon ending in synaptic knob(s): this carries electric impulses away from the
cell body to their destination. The synaptic knobs release chemicals that bring about
transfer of electrical impulses from an axon to the target cells.

Neuron
The nervous system is made of bundles of cells called neurons. Neurons are found
throughout your body. They send electrical signals that direct all of your body’s
activities, including thinking, breathing, and moving. These signals travel along
the length of one neuron and jump to another neuron over a gap called a synapse.

There are different types of neurons

i. Based on their functions
ii. Based on number of axons they possess

i. Based on their functions

a. Sensory (afferent) neurone: this receives impulses from receptors and passes them
towards the CNS.
b. Motor (efferent) neurone: this receives impulses from the CNS and passes them to
the effector.
c. Relay/ association neurone: this transfers impulses from the sensory neurones to
the motor neurones.

ii. Based on number of axons they possess

Neurones may also be grouped according to the number of axons they possess,
thus, there are
i. Unipolar (one axon)
ii. Bipolar and (two axons)
 iii. Multipolar neurons (more than two)

NERVE IMPULSES
A nerve impulse is a wave of electrical activity travelling along a neurone.

Nerve impulses are transmitted along a neurone in two main ways;

i. Electrical and
ii. Ionic (chemical) means.

i. Electrical Transmission
When an axon is in the resting state, its inside is negatively charged and its outside is
positively charged. Thus the membrane surrounding the axon is polarized. This is
called its resting potential.
When an impulse passes through the axon, its inside becomes positively charged and
its outside becomes negatively charged. This is the action potential and the nerve
membrane becomes depolarized for a short time after which the original resting
potential is restored.
Once an action potential is set up, it moves rapidly along the neurone until it reaches
the end of the axon.

ii. Ionic (chemical) Transmission

When an axon is at rest, the membrane is polarized i.e. its outside is positively charged
and the inside is negatively charged. A resting neuron actively pumps out sodium ions
(Na+) out through the cell membrane and retains chloride ions (Cl- ). As each sodium
ion is pumped out a potassium ion (k+) is pumped into the cell. The potassium ions
leak out again but the sodium ions cannot move in because the sodium gates are
closed. This results in the polarization of the neurone. An electric potential difference
thus exists across the membrane of the neurone.

When an impulse passes along the axon, the membrane suddenly becomes depolarized
and permeable to sodium ions. This reverses the resting potential i.e., the inside of the
axon becomes positively chargedand the outside negatively charged, thus an action
potential is set up. Small local currents on both sides of the membrane (at the leading
end of the region of polarization) excite the next part of the axon, so that an action
potential is propagated along the whole length of the axon.

Impulses are set up in nerve cells as a result of excitation of the receptors. Nerves are
stimulated by mechanical, osmotic, chemical, thermal and electrical stimuli. If the
strength of a stimulus is below certain threshold intensity no action potential is evoked.
Further increase in intensity of the stimulus however does not give a larger potential.
A stimulated neurone therefore acts in an all-or-none manner.
Transmission of the impulse across the synapse occurs by chemical means. When an
impulse arrives at a synapse a chemical substance, acetylcholine, is released. This
diffuses across the gap and causes excitation of the adjacent nerve cell.
The synapse prevents impulses from going in the wrong direction i.e. an impulse can
only go in one direction across a synapse but it can go in either direction along an
axon.

REFLEX AND VOLUNTARY ACTIONS

Actions are responses to stimuli. They involve the nervous and endocrine system.
There are two main action patterns;
i. The Reflex action
ii. The Voluntary action.

i. Reflex Action
Responses to a stimulus that are not controlled by will i.e. involuntary responses are
called reflex actions. We are often not aware of our reflex actions though sometimes
we may become aware of them shortly after doing them. Reflex actions help to protect
us against danger and also to maintain equilibrium in both our internal and external
environment.
Other examples of reflex actions are;
i. blinking of the eyes.
ii. Withdrawing the hand from a hot object.
iii. The knee jerk e.t.c.

The Reflex Arc

The reflex arc is the simplest pathway taken by a nerve impulse in mediating a simple
response. In the simplest form it involves only two neurones; a sensory neurone and a
motor neurone. For example, in the knee jerk a sensory neurone synapse directly with
a motor neurone.

The structures which take part in a reflex arc are;

i. The sensory receptor that detects the stimulus.
ii. The afferent neuron along which the sensory impulse is transmitted.
iii. The relay neuron in the central nervous system which passes the impulse from the
afferent neuron to the motor neuron.
iv. The motor neuron which receives the impulse from the relay neuron
v. The effector muscle or gland which responds to the motor impulse with an
appropriate action.
Some reflex actions involve only the spinal cord and are known as spinal reflexes e.g.
the knee jerk while others involve the brain and are called cranial reflexes e.g.
contraction of the pupils when a light source approaches them.

Complex Reflex Actions

A reflex action could be complex when the actions involve neurones at different levels
of the spinal cord or the brain. Complex reflexes are also fast and automatic and
produce stereotyped activities like simple reflexes, but they involve ascending and
descending nerve fibres within and between the spinal cord and the brain.
 ii. Voluntary Actions
These are actions which we think about first before doing them. These actions involve
the brain and are usually the acts of will. They are consciously carried out e.g. a
sudden withdrawal of the foot from a sharp object is a reflex action but going back to
examine the foot and extract the object is a conscious or voluntary action.

Voluntary actions therefore;

i. Involve higher centres of the brain.
ii. Involve numerous neurones.
iii. Bring about comparatively sloe responses.
iv. Bring about responses that vary with circumstances.

The brain may also initiate a voluntary action without any sensory stimulation.
THE SENSE ORGANS
A sensory system consists of sensory neurons (including the sensory receptor cells),
neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception and
intereception. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing,
touch, taste, smell, balance and visceral sensation. Sense organs are transducers that
convert data from the outer physical world to the realm of the mind where people
interpret the information, creating their perception of the world around them.
The sense organs are connected to the brain with specialised neuron cells called
sensory nerve cells that help transmit the signals to the brain and help an organism
perceive the senses
The sensory nervous system is a part of the nervous system responsible for
processing sensory information Gautama Buddha and Aristotle classified five
'traditional' human senses which have become universally accepted: touch, taste,
smell, sight, and hearing. Other senses that have been well-accepted in most
mammals, including humans, include nociception, equilibrioception, kinaesthesia,
and thermoception. Furthermore, some nonhuman animals have been shown to
possess alternate senses, including magnetoreception and electroreception.
The initialization of sensation stems from the response of a specific receptor to a
physical stimulus. The receptors which react to the stimulus and initiate the process
of sensation are commonly characterized in four distinct categories: chemoreceptors,
photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and thermoreceptors. All receptors receive
distinct physical stimuli and transduce the signal into an electrical action potential.
This action potential then travels along afferent neurons to specific brain regions
where it is processed and interpreted.
Chemoreceptors, or chemosensors, detect certain chemical stimuli and transduce
that signal into an electrical action potential. The two primary types of
chemoreceptors are:
Distance chemoreceptors are integral to receiving stimuli in gases in the olfactory
system through both olfactory receptor neurons and neurons in the vomeronasal
organ.
Direct chemoreceptors that detect stimuli in liquids include the taste buds in the
gustatory system as well as receptors in the aortic bodies which detect changes in
oxygen concentration.
Photoreceptors are capable of phototransduction, a process which converts light
(electromagnetic radiation) into, among other types of energy, a membrane
potential. The three primary types of photoreceptors are: Cones are photoreceptors
which respond significantly to color. Rods are photoreceptors which are very
sensitive to the intensity of light, allowing for vision in dim lighting. The
concentrations and ratio of rods to cones is strongly correlated with whether an
animal is diurnal or nocturnal. In humans rods outnumber cones by approximately
20:1
Mechanoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to mechanical forces, such
as pressure or distortion.While mechanoreceptors are present in hair cells and play
an integral role in the vestibular and auditory systems, the majority of
mechanoreceptors are cutaneous and are grouped into four categories:
Slowly adapting type 1 receptors have small receptive fields and respond to static
stimulation.Slowly adapting type 2 receptors have large receptive fields and respond
to stretch. Rapidly adapting receptors have small receptive fields Pacinian receptors
have large receptive fields and are the predominant receptors for high-frequency
vibration.
Thermoreceptors: are sensory receptors which respond to varying temperatures.
While the mechanisms through which these receptors operate is unclear, recent
discoveries have shown that mammals have at least two distinct types of
thermoreceptors, the end-bulb of Krause, or bulboid corpuscle, detects temperatures
above body temperature. Ruffini's end organ detects temperatures below body
temperature.
Nociceptors: respond to potentially damaging stimuli by sending signals to the spinal
cord and brain. This process, called nociception, usually causes the perception of
pain.They are found in internal organs, as well as on the surface of the body.
In cellular organisms, the sensory organs are made up of sensory cells that respond to
a specific type of stimuli. These sensory receptor cells transduce the physical stimuli
to nerve signals that are interpreted by the brain cells.
The Five Sense Organs and their Functions
The human sensory system has five sensory organs that help sense five elements of
the physical stimulus, namely:
Sense of sight through the eyes,
Sense of taste through the tongue,
Sense of smell through the nose,
Sense of touch through the skin,
Sense of hearing through the ears.
Every sense organ receives external stimuli and sends messages to the brain via the
sensory nerve. The brain responds to messages, helps sense organs reciprocate to the
stimuli, and connects humans to the external environment. Let us get into the details
of each sense organ and its functions.
EYES: Sense of Sight

THE DIAGRAM OF A HUMAN EYE

The sense of sight or eyes perceives things that a normal being can visualise or see.
The eye can be a complex sensory organ, having 256 unique characteristics but
accounting for 80% of our learning. It can capture nearly 50+ images in one
millisecond.
The eye has a transparent outer layer called the cornea that bends the light. It also
has a protective layer that works like a camera shutter called the iris. The light that
passes through the iris goes through the small hole of the Pupil to reach the cornea.
The cornea helps focus the light and allows them to pass through the lens.
The eye lenses then focus the light on the retina. The retina is the innermost layer
drained by nerve cells.
They have a rod and cone-shaped cells that help translate the light into a colourful
central vision. Rod-shaped cells even function in limited light zones or at night. The
retina transmits the information as electrical impulses to the brain via the optic
nerve.
Impairment of vision or eye functioning can cause eye conditions, including cataracts,
age-associated macular degeneration, retinitis pigmentosa, glaucoma (tumours), eye
infections, and diabetic retinopathy.
Care of the eye
Partial or complete loss of eyesight can be devastating, impacting everyday activities
and your life. Here is what you can do to optimise your sense of sight.
Eat a healthy, nutritious diet: Eyes need a good amount of Omega-3 fatty acids,
vitamin C, and vitamin E. Eat plenty of green leafy vegetables, berries, citrus fruits,
nuts, seeds, and fish.
Monitor your blood pressure and blood sugar levels: Check your blood pressure and
diabetes, as elevated blood pressure or sugar can affect eyesight.
Avoid straining your eyes: Do not overstrain your eyes. Have enough lighting while
reading. Practice eye exercises that relax the eye muscles and strengthen them. Avoid
more screen time and take more breaks while working on the computer.
Wear sunglasses for light sensitivity: The harmful UV radiations of the sun can
damage the eyes. Sunglasses help protect the eyes when out in the sun.
Have an annual ophthalmological visit: Make sure to update your eye prescriptions
and regularly get an eye check.
TONGUE: Sense of Taste
DIAGRAM OF A HUMAN TONGUE
The tongue helps taste different foods. The sense perceived by the tongue can be
subdivided into five distinct tastes:
Sweet,
Bitter,
Salty,
Sour,
And Umami or savoury.
The tongue is embedded with taste buds. It is estimated that a normal adult has
nearly 2,000 to 4,000 taste buds lined up on the tongue, at the back of the throat, on
the epiglottis, oesophagus, and nasal cavity.
And if you are wondering, spicy is one of the tastes. Spicy is a pain signal. The
sensory cells on the taste buds have pores that function like funnels. The pores have
tiny taste hairs. The hair protein binds with the cells through chemicals and helps
with taste.
Note that the tongue has specific zones for each flavour. All five distinct flavours can
be felt or sensed by any part of the tongue. However, they differ in their level of
sensitivity to taste.
The sensation of taste and smell are correlated, and the sensation of smell is also
perceived by the mouth- called olfactory referral. And so, often, people with stuffy
noses have problems tasting food.
Also, the food texture felt through the skin and experienced through the eyes also
contributes to its overall taste.

The basal cells of the tongue detect flavour and are regenerative cells that regenerate
10% of their cells every day. And so, the tongue burnt due to hot piping foods heals
quickly and does not completely die
The receptors of basal cells receive these taste stimuli and send electrical signals to
the brain. The taste receptors express and function through their chemosensory
properties and help perceive the sense of taste.
Though the tongue is a small sensory organ, it can develop conditions like oral thrush,
ageusia (loss of taste), or hypogeusia (limited sense of taste).
NOSE: Sense of Smell

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE SENSE OF SMELL

According to Neuroscientists, humans have more than 400 smelling receptors on the
floor of their nasal cavity that can help differentiate different odours just as
effectively as dogs.
Decreased ability to smell or hypersomnia is a common age-related complaint, which
can also be due to certain medical conditions, such as common flu, and sinusitis.
Chronic conditions like schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, brain injury, or Parkinson’s
can also cause loss of ability to smell or Anosmia. Did you know that humans can
smell more than 1 trillion odours? The National Institutes of Health research shows
how the olfactory cleft on the roof of the nasal cavity helps smell with the olfactory
bulb and fossa. The olfactory cleft has nerve endings that aid in transmitting the
signals to the brain.
HOW TO CATER FOR SENSES OF TASTE AND SMELL
Taste and smell are interlinked. When there is a loss of smell, you tend to lose the
sense of taste and vice-versa. Here are steps to protect the senses of taste and smell.

Maintain proper oral hygiene: Poor dental or oral health can often lead to issues with
taste and smell. Disease or infections of the gums and teeth can affect the taste buds
and the nasal cavity. And so, maintaining good oral hygiene is a must.
Limit your salt intake: Excess salt intake can destroy your taste buds. Reducing salt
intake can improve your sense of taste and maintain sodium levels while improving
overall health and improving blood pressure levels.
Nutrition is Vital: Avoid foods that can cause allergies, sinusitis, or tonsillitis that can
affect both the sense of taste and smell. Have a healthy diet and experiment with
different cuisines once in a while to enhance your taste bud activity.
SKIN: Sense of Touch

A crossection of the Human Skin

Skin is the largest sensory organ. It is the most sensitive and natural defence against
many external predators. According to an article by Stanford Encyclopaedia of
Philosophy, the sensation of touch through the skin is one of the first senses a human
develops.
The specialised neurons of the skin transmit distinct sensations of touch- pressure,
vibration, light touch, pain, tingle, texture, and temperature change to the brain.
The sensation of touch is tied to abstract concepts of compassion, pain, laughter,
mood change, and even decision-making.
Ageing can affect your skin while impacting the sensation of touch, causing
hypoesthesia (reduced sensitivity or loss of touch)
Care of the skin
Here are some ways to take care of the skin.
Keep yourself physically active: Issues with blood circulation can cause loss of touch.
Physical activities like running, walking, swimming, and exercising, can aid blood
circulation.
Maintain healthy skin hygiene: Take care of your skin and skin problems by having a
bath every day and using good-quality creams and lotions. Hydrate your skin with
plenty of water intake. And use sunblock when venturing out in the sun.
Have a healthy diet: A well-balanced diet can fuel your nerves and brain and keep
your skin healthy
EAR: Sense of hearing

A diagram of the Human ear

The ear is a spiral organ that helps us to hear. This receptor organ for hearing has
three parts.
The external ear
The middle ear
The inner ear
The sound travels through the external ear and auditory canal and reaches the
eardrum or tympanic membrane of the middle ear. The eardrum is a thin connective
tissue sheet that vibrates as the sound waves strike it.
The sound further moves into the three bones of the middle ear, namely, the malleus
(hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). The sound creates vibrations as they
strike these tiny bones and send the vibrations to the organ of the Corti. The hair cells
in the organ of Corti translate the vibrations into electrical impulses that travel to the
brain via the auditory sensory nerves.
Ears also modulate the sense of balance. The middle ear equalises the air pressure to
that of the external atmosphere.
Hearing loss can be due to ageing or due to any medical condition. However, statistics
show that hearing loss is becoming a common concern in India, affecting around 63
million Indians, especially the elderly.
Care of the ears Here are ways to keep your ears away from hearing loss problems.
Avoid the use of any object, hard, soft or fluid on your ear.
Protect the ears from loud noises: Hearing loss damages can be irreparable. Protect
your ears from loud sounds with ear plugs. Also, keep the volumes low while
watching TV or listening to music.
Lessen the background sounds: Minimise the unnecessary background sounds, like
switching off the television when not watching them, avoiding noisy and crowded
places, etc.
Visit a specialist for any hearing problem: If . Hearing devices for specific or partial
hearing loss can minimise ear strain and help in effective hearing