1

Computer Networks

B.Sc Semester – V
(DSCC-11) Computer
Networks
Unit Contents 56hrs/
sem

Unit I Introduction: Computer Network: Definition, Goals, Structure; Broadcast and Point- 14
To-Point Networks; Network Topology and their various Types; Types of Network,
Network software, Design issues for the layers, Connection-oriented vs. Connectionless
service, Applications of Computer network, Protocols and Standards, The OSI
Reference Model, The TCP/IP Protocol suite, Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP
Reference model.

Unit II Physical Layer: Functions of Physical Layer, Analog signals, Digital signals, 14
Transmission Impairment, Data Rate Limits, and Performance.
Data Transmission Media: Guided Transmission Media, Magnetic Media, Twisted
Pairs, Coaxial Cable, Power Lines, Fiber Optics, Wireless Transmission, Electromagnetic
Spectrum, Radio Transmission, Microwave Transmission, Infrared Transmission, Light
Transmission, Digital Modulation and Multiplexing, Public Switched Telephone
Networks. Switching: Circuit switching, Message switching & Packet switching

Unit III Data Link Layer: Functions of Data Link Layer, Data Link Control: Framing, Flow and 14
Error Control, Error Detection and Correction, High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) &
point — to — Point protocol (PPP), Channel Allocation Problem, Multiple Access:
Radom Access (ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD,
CSMA/CA), controlled access
(Reservation, Polling, Token Passing), Channelization (FDMA, TDMA, CDMA), Wired
LAN: Ethernet Standards and FDDI, Wireless LAN: IEEE 802.1 Ix and Bluetooth
Standards.

Unit IV Transport Layer: Functions of Transport Layer, Elements of Transport Protocols: 14

Addressing, Establishing and Releasing Connection, Flow Control and buffering, Error
Control, Multiplexing and de-multiplexing, Crash Recovery,
User Datagram Protocol (UDP): User Datagram, UDP Operations, Uses of UDP, RPC,
Principles of Reliable Data Transfer: Building a Reliable Data Transfer Protocol,
Pipelined Reliable Data Transfer Protocol, Go Back-N(GBN), Selective Repeat(SR).
Application layer : Functions of Application layer, Application Layer Protocols: DNS,
DHCP, WWW, HTTP, HTTPs, TELNET, FTP, SMTP, POP, IMAP
 2
Computer Networks

UNIT I
Communication Network
A communication system for connecting computers/hosts.
• A computer network is a number of computers ( also known as nodes) connected by some
communication lines.
• Two computers connected to the network can communicate with each other through the other
nodes if they are not directly connected.
• Some of the nodes in the network may not be computers at all but they are network devices( Like
switches, routers etc.) to facilitate the communication.

Uses of the Computer Network

• Exchange of information between different computers. (File sharing)
• Interconnected small computers in place of large computers.
• Communication tools (voice , video)
• Some applications and technologies are examples of Distributed system. (Railway
reservation system, Distributed databases etc).

Advantages of Computer Network

 Increased storage capacity: You will be able to access files and multimedia, such as music and
images, which are stored remotely on another computer or network-attached storage.
 Higher information security: As a result of granting authorization to computers, computer
networks can provide a sense of security. Most of the time, authorization is done using a user ID and
password. Thus, it ensures that someone can only log in if their information matches details in the
database.
 Easy sharing of files: The data you store on other devices can be shared with other users and
accessed remotely if they are connected.
 Faster resources sharing: You can also save money by using networked resources like printers,
scanners, copiers, etc. or by sharing software among multiple users.
 Enhanced data reliability: There is no question that the information contained in the central server
is more reliable. It is also possible to access similar kinds of data by using another computer if the
information on one PC happens to be lost for any reason. Thus, there are no disruptions in the office
environment, leading to a smooth operation.
 Improved communication: Customers, suppliers and the staff can easily share information and
contact one another via email, chat or calls made over the network.
 Better collaboration: Collaboration in the business world is made easier with the use of computers
and a computer network. All these tasks can be performed comfortably, whether it’s connecting teams,
arranging social gatherings, or acquiring personal responses.
 Higher connectivity: It allows individuals to stay connected no matter where they are. With the
advent of video calling apps and Google documents, we can see live examples of how we can connect
with our friends and colleagues in these testing times.
 Enhanced flexibility: Computer networks are flexible for several reasons. They provide users with
the opportunity to explore anything they need to know.
 Reliability: Computer networking ensures information backup for uninterrupted functioning. So, you
need not worry about device and equipment crash anymore.
 3
Computer Networks

Goals of Computer Networks

The following are some important goals of computer networks:

1. Communication: The primary goal of computer networks is to facilitate communication and data
exchange between different devices and systems. This communication can be in the form of text, voice,
video, or any other data type. Networks enable users to send messages, share files, access websites, and
more.
2. Resource Sharing – Computer networks allow for the sharing of hardware and software resources.
This includes sharing of printers, files, databases, and other peripherals or services. Sharing resources
can lead to cost savings and increased efficiency within an organization. Ex. A group of office
workers can share a common printer, fax, modem, scanner, etc.

3. Data Access and Retrieval: Networks provide a means to access and retrieve data from remote
locations or servers. This is especially important for distributed systems where data is stored on multiple
devices or in different geographic locations.

4. High Reliability – If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be replicated on two or more
machines. If one of them is not available, due to hardware failure, the other copies could be used.

5. Inter-process Communication – Network users, located geographically apart, may converse in

an interactive session through the network. In order to permit this, the network must provide almost
error-free communications.

6. Flexible access – Files can be accessed from any computer in the network. The project can be begun
on one computer and finished on another.

7. Security– Computer networks must be secure to protect against unauthorized access, data breaches,
and other security threats. This includes implementing measures such as firewalls, antivirus
software, and encryption to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.

8. Performance– Computer networks must provide high performance and low latency to ensure that
applications and services are responsive and available when needed. This requires optimizing network
infrastructure, bandwidth utilization, and traffic management.

9. Scalability- Computer networks must be designed to scale up or down as needed to accommodate

changes in the number of users, devices, and data traffic. This requires careful planning and
management to ensure the network can meet current and future needs.

10. Cost-Effectiveness: Building and maintaining a network can be costly. One of the goals is to ensure
that the benefits of the network outweigh the expenses. This includes minimizing infrastructure costs,
energy consumption, and maintenance expenses.

11. Accessibility: Ensuring that the network is accessible to all users, including those with disabilities, is
an important objective. Accessibility considerations may involve designing user interfaces and
protocols that accommodate a wide range of users.
 4
Computer Networks

COMPONENTS INVOLVED IN A NETWORK PROCESS

The five components are:

1. Message - It is the information to be communicated. Popular forms of information include text,
pictures, audio, video, etc.
2. Sender - It is the device that sends the data messages. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, etc.
3. Receiver - It is the device that receives the data messages. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, etc.
4. Transmission Medium - It is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
Some examples include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, radio waves etc.
5. Protocol - It is a set of rules that governs data communications. It represents an agreement between
the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating.

Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway that transfers
data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn
between two points. For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same
link at the same time. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of
wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible.
When we change television channels by infrared remote control, we are establishing a point-to-point
connection between the remote control and the television's control system.

Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single
link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If
several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it
is a timeshared connection.

Classification of Computer Networks

1. Based on Transmission Mode
Transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There are three
 5
Computer Networks

types of transmission modes.

 Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors
are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept
output.

 Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa The half- duplex mode is
like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. Eg., Walkie-talkies

 Full-Duplex: In Full-Duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The Full-
duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices. The most common example of
the full-duplex mode is a Telephone network. When two people are communicating with each other by
a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

2. Based on Time in Transmission Type

 Synchronous Transmission : In synchronous Transmission, both the sender and the receiver use the
same time cycle for the transmission. We send bits one after another without start/stop bits or gaps. It
is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits. Bit stream is delivered with a fixed delay and
given an error rate. Each bit reaches the destination with the same time delay after leaving the source.

 Asynchronous Transmission: In Asynchronous Transmission we send one start bit at the beginning
and one stop bit at the end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte. Bit stream is divided
into packets. Packets are received with varying delays, so packets can arrive out of order. Some
packets are not received correctly.

3. Based on Authentication
 Peer to Peer Connection: In peer-to-peer networks, there are no dedicated servers. All the
computers are equal and, therefore, are termed as peers. Normally, each computer functions as both a
client and a server. No one can control the other computers.

 Server Based Connection: Most networks have a dedicated server. A dedicated server is a computer
on a network which functions as a server, and cannot be used as a client or a
 6
Computer Networks

workstation. A dedicated server is optimized to service requests from network clients. A server can
control the clients for its services.

4. Based on Geographical location

LAN (Local Area Network)

“It's a group of computers which all belong to the same organization, and which are linked within a
small geographic area using a network, and often the same technology “. Because LANs are
geographically small, they use cables or low power radio (wireless) for communications. They are widely used
to connect personal computer and workstations in company offices and factories to share resources and
exchange information. LAN’s are distinguished from other kind of networks by three characteristics.
a) Their size b) Their transmission c) Their topology.

By expanding the definition of a LAN to the services that it provides, two different operating modes can be
defined:
 In a "peer-to-peer" network, in which communication is carried out from one computer to another,
without a central computer, and where each computer has the same role.
 In a "client/server" environment, in which a central computer provides network services to users.
It has servers and clients.
 The server is a computer that manages shared resources (hardware, software, data). It is a
powerful computer with large RAM and secondary storage capacity.
 LAN has number of micro computers called clients, request the server for services.

Features of LAN
1. Networking limited to a small geographical area (less than 1km radius)
2. High speed data transfer.
3. Data error rate is very less since data is transferred to limited distance.
4. Managing local area networks is easy as only a single technology and symmetrical
topology is used.
5. Only limited number of computers connected in a LAN network.

MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks)

MANs connect multiple geographically nearby LANs to one another (over an area of up to a few dozen kilo
meters) at high speeds i.e., it covers a large metropolitan city. Thus, a MAN lets two remote nodes
communicate as if they were part of the same local area network. A MAN is made from switches or routers
connected to one another with high-speed links (usually fiber optic cables).
WANs (Wide Area Network / extended network/ long Haul Network)
It is a computer network that covers a large geographical area which could extend through out a country. The
computers in this network are connected via dedicated lines or satellite links. A WAN is a geographically –
dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called router connects LANs to a WAN. WAN can be
implemented using private or public networks. In a private network an organization takes on leased telephone
lines to connect such sites into a network. It is also possible to connect computers in different locations using
microwave or satellite transmission. Public networks are installed by the government owned
telecommunication agencies. Most organizations use private networks for communication.
EG: INDONET, NICNET, SBINET, WELCOMENET are some of the private networks in India.
 7
Computer Networks

5. Based on Reliability

Reliability is maintained by authentication.

S.NO Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Connection-oriented service is related to the Connection-less service is related to the postal

1. telephone system. system.

Connection-oriented service is preferred by Connection-less Service is preferred by bursty

2. long and steady communication. communication.

Connection-oriented Service is necessary. Connection-less Service is not compulsory.

3.

4. Connection-oriented Service is feasible. Connection-less Service is not feasible.

In connection-oriented Service, Congestion In connection-less Service, Congestion is

5. is not possible. possible.

Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not give a

6. guarantee of reliability. guarantee of reliability.

In connection-oriented Service, Packets follow In connection-less Service, Packets do not

7. the same route. follow the same route.

Connection-oriented services require a Connection-less Service requires a bandwidth

8. bandwidth of a high range. of low range.

9. Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Connection-oriented requires authentication. Connection-less Service does not require

10. authentication.

LAN COMPONENTS
Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software. Some
important network components are NIC, Repeater, hub, Bridge, switch, router and Gateway.
Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some network components can also be removed. For
example, the wireless network does not require a cable.
Network interface card
NIC is an adapter circuit board installed in a computer to provide a physical connection to the a network.
NIC allows computers to be joined together in a network, typically a Local Area Network (LAN). An NIC is
also known as a network interface controller (NIC), network interface controller
 8
Computer Networks

card, expansion card, computer circuit board, network card, LAN card, network adapter, or network adapter
card (NAC). It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s. There are two types of NIC:
 Wired NIC - The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used
with wired NIC to transfer data.
 Wireless NIC - The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless
network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.
HUB
A hub is an electronic device to which multiple computers are attached usually using twisted pair cables. They
are good for very small networks and for shortening up distances that data packets have to travel. When
computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to the Hub through cable.
Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will check whether the request belongs to
them or not. If not, the request will be dropped. Hubs can be wireless and allow wireless users to connect to
the network.
Bridges
A bridge is a computer networking device that builds a connection with the other bridge networks that use the
same protocol. It works at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model connects the different networks together and
develops communication between them. It connects two local-area networks; two physical LANs into larger
logical LAN or two segments of the same LAN that use the same protocol.
Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch contains more
advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides where the data is transmitted
or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical address present in the
incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It determines
the device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that the switch provides a direct
connection between the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network.
Routers
A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is used to
receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network. A router works in a Layer
3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model. A router forwards the packet based on the information
available in the routing table. It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the
packet.
 9
Computer Networks

Gateway
A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between two networks. A gateway, as the name suggests,
is a passage to connect two networks together that may work upon different networking models. They
basically work as the messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another
system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are
generally more complex than switch or router.
Repeaters
Repeaters are equipment that are used for expansion of a LANs by boosting the signals to accommodate long
distances. A repeater operates at the physical layer. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they
do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at
the original strength.

What is a Topology?
• Network topology refers to the way the computers are physically connected to a network.. They describe
the physical and logical arrangement of the network nodes.
• The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals.

Different Types of Topologies

1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology

Bus Topology
- All the nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) on a bus topology are connected by one single
cable.
- A bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. All nodes (file server,
workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.
- Popular on LANs because they are inexpensive and easy to install.

Advantages Disadvantages
• It is Cheap, easy to • The cable length is
handle and implement. limited. This limits the
• Require less cable number of stations that can be
• It is best suited for small connected.
networks. • This network topology can
perform well only for a
limited number of nodes
 10
Computer Networks

Ring Topology
- In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes.
- All messages travel through a ring in the same direction.
- A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
- To implement a ring network we use the Token Ring technology
- A token, or small data packet, is continuously passed around the network. When a device needs to
transmit, it reserves the token for the next trip around, and then attaches its data packet to it.

Advantages Disadvantage
• Very orderly network where every • The failure of a single node of the
device has access to the token and the network can cause the entire network
opportunity to transmit. to fail.
• Easier to Mange than a Bus • The movement or changes made to
Network network nodes affects the
• Good Communication over long performance of the entire network.
distances
• Handles high volume of traffic

Star Topology
- In a star network, each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) is connected to a central device
called a hub.
- The hub takes a signal that comes from any node and passes it along to all the other nodes in the network.
- Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its destination.
- The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network.
- The star topology reduces the chance of network failure by connecting all of the systems to a central
node.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy to manage • Requires more cable length
• Easy to locate problems than a linear topology.
(cable/workstations) • If the hub or concentrator fails,
• Easier to expand than a bus or nodes attached are disabled.
ring topology. • More expensive because of
• Easy to install and wire. the cost of the concentrators.
• Easy to detect faults and to
remove parts.

Tree Topology
• A tree topology (hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection of star networks arranged in a
hierarchy.
• This tree has individual peripheral nodes which are required to transmit to and receive from one other only
and are not required to act as repeaters or regenerators.
 11
Computer Networks

• The tree topology arranges links and nodes into distinct hierarchies in order to allow greater control and
easier troubleshooting.
• This is particularly helpful for colleges, universities and schools so that each of them connect to the big
network in some way.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Point-to-point wiring for • Overall length of each segment
individual segments. is limited by the type of cabling
• Supported by several used.
hardware and software • If the backbone line breaks, the
vendors. entire segment goes down.
• All the computers have • More difficult to configure and
access to the larger and their wire than other topologies.
immediate

Hybrid Topology
• A combination of any two or more network topologies.
• A hybrid topology always accrues when two different basic network topologies are connected.
• It is a mixture of above mentioned topologies. Usually, a central computer is attached with sub-
controllers which in turn participate in a variety of topologies
Advantages Disadvantages
 It is extremely flexible. • Expensive
 It is very reliable

Mesh Topology
• In this topology, each node is connected to every other node in the network.
• Implementing the mesh topology is expensive and difficult.
• In this type of network, each node may send message to destination through multiple paths.
• While the data is travelling on the Mesh Network it is automatically configured to reach the
destination by taking the shortest route which means the least number of hops.

Advantage Disadvantage
• No traffic problem as there are • There is mesh of wiring
dedicated links. which can be difficult to
• It has multiple links, so if one manage.
route is blocked then other routes • Installation is complex as
can be used for data each node is connected to
communication. every node.
• Points to point links make fault • Cabling cost is high.
identification easy.

Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies

 Most networks are organized as a series of layers or levels, each one built on its
predecessor. This reduces design complexity.
 12
Computer Networks

 Each layer offers certain services to higher layers, hiding details of how the services are
implemented.
 Entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called peer
processes.
 Peer processes communicate using the protocol.
 Actually, data is not transferred directly from layer n on one machine to layer n on another.
 Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below it, until the
lowest layer is reached.
 Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication occurs.
 The interface between each pair of adjacent layers defines which primitive operations and services
the lower layer offers to the upper one.
 The set of layers and protocols is called the network architecture.
 A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a protocol stack.
 This specification must be precise enough to allow implementers to write a program or to build
hardware so that it will correctly obey the appropriate protocol.
 Essential notion here is the relation between virtual and actual communication, and the
difference between protocols and interfaces.
 Peer processes appear to perform “horizontal” communication. They actually communicate through
lower layers.
 This abstraction technique makes it possible to partition the design of the complete network into
smaller manageable design problems.

Design Issues for the Layers

 Reliability is the design issue of making a network that operates correctly even though it is made up
of a collection of components that are themselves unreliable.
 Each layer must have a mechanism for making and breaking connections.
 Some form of addressing is also required.
 Data transfer rules vary:
o Simplex communication: data can travel in only one direction.
o Half duplex: data can travel in either direction, but not at the same time.
o Full duplex: data can travel in both directions at the same time.
 Protocol must determine how many logical channels the connection corresponds to.
 Many provide two: one normal, one urgent.
 Error detecting or correcting codes must be agreed on.
 Receiver must be able to inform transmitter of which messages have been correctly
received.
 If order of messages is lost, protocol must make provisions for receiver to reassemble message
properly.
 Must stop fast sender from swamping slow receiver with data.
 Processes cannot accept arbitrarily long messages, so messages must be disassembled, transmitted
and reassembled.
Too small message size is inefficient.
- When it is inconvenient or expensive to setup a separate connection for each pair of
communicating processes, multiplexing and de-multiplexing can be used.
- It allows the use of a single connection for multiple unrelated conversations.
 13
Computer Networks
- When there are multiple paths between source and destination, a route must be chosen. This topic is
called routing.

PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Protocols:

In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is anything
capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send bit streams to each
other and expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A
protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and
timing.
o Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which
they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the
address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to
be the message itself.
o Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular
pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For example, does
an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?
o Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they
can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at
only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.

Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and telecommunications
technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and
other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in
international communications.

Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and
de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
o De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as
standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto standards are often established
originally by manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new product or technology.
o De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de jure
standards.

ISO/OSI REFERENCE MODEL

Open System Interconnection, an ISO standard for worldwide communications that defines a networking
framework for implementing protocols in seven layers. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is
developed by ISO (International organization for standardization) in 1984.
 14
Computer Networks

OSI reference model is a logical framework for standards for the network communication. OSI reference
model is now considered as a primary standard for internetworking and inter computing. Today many network
communication protocols are based on the standards of OSI model. In the OSI model the network/data
communication is defined into seven layers.

1. Physical Layer:
physical layer is the bottom layer of the OSI reference model. The physical layer has four important
characteristics.
 Mechanical. Relates to the physical properties of the interface to a transmission medium. Typically,
the specification is of a pluggable connector that joins one or more signal conductors, called circuits.
 Electrical. Relates to the representation of bits (e.g., in terms of voltage levels) and the data
transmission rate of bits. It defines the voltage, current, modulation, bit synchronization, connection
activation and deactivation, and various electrical characteristics for the transmission media (such as
unshielded or shielded twisted-pair cabling, coaxial cabling, and fiber-optic cabling).
 Functional. Specifies the functions performed by individual circuits of the physical interface
between a system and the transmission medium.
 Procedural. Specifies the sequence of events by which bit streams are exchanged across the physical
medium.

2. Data Link Layer:

The physical layer provides only a raw bit-stream service, the data link layer attempts to make the physical
link reliable while providing the means to activate, maintain, and deactivate the link .
 15
Computer Networks

For LANs, the Project 802 standards of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) separate
the data-link layer into two sublayers:
 The logical link control: (LLC) layer, the upper of the two layers, which is responsible for flow
control, error correction, and resequencing functions for connection-oriented communication, but
which also supports connectionless communication
 The media access control (MAC) layer, the lower of the two layers, which is responsible for
providing a method for stations to gain access to the medium

Functions:

- Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
- Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data
link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver address is the address of the
device that connects the network to the next one.
- Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which
data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
- Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to
detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize
duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
- Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols
are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time

3. Network Layer:
Layer 3 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model for networking. The network layer is
responsible for functions such as the following:
• Logical addressing and routing of packets over the network
• Establishing and releasing connections and paths between two nodes on a network
• Transferring data, generating and confirming receipts, and resetting connections.

The network layer also supplies connectionless and connection-oriented services to the transport layer above
it. The network layer functions closely with the physical layer (layer 1) and data-link layer (layer 2) in most
real-world network protocol implementations.

On TCP/IP-based networks, IP addresses and network numbers are used at the network layer, and IP routers
perform their routing functions at this layer. An example of an OSI model network layer protocol is the X.25
packet-switching network layer protocol, which is built on the X.21 physical layer protocol.

4. Transport Layer:
Layer 4 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. The transport layer is responsible for
providing reliable transport services to the upper-layer protocols. These services include the following:
 Flow control to ensure that the transmitting device does not send more data than the receiving
device can handle.
 Packet sequencing for segmentation of data packets and remote reassembly.
 16
Computer Networks

 Error handling and acknowledgments to ensure that data is retransmitted when required.
 Multiplexing for combining data from several sources for transmission over one data path.
 Virtual circuits for establishing sessions between communicating stations.
 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) of the TCP/IP protocol suite resides at the
transport layer.

5. Session Layer:
Layer 5 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, which enables sessions between
computers on a network to be established and terminated. The session layer does not concern itself with issues
such as the reliability and efficiency of data transfer between stations because these functions are provided by
the first four layers of the OSI reference model.
Functions:
 Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half- duplex (one way at a time) or full-
duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
 Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points,
to a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged
independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that
need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.

6. Presentation Layer:
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems .
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
 Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information
in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to bit streams
before being transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation
layer is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The presentation
layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format into a common format.
The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver-
dependent format.
 Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption
means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the resulting
message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back
to its original form.
 Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and
video.

7. Application layer:
Layer 7 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, in which network-aware, user- controlled
software is implemented—for example, e-mail, file transfer utilities, and terminal access. The application layer
represents the window between the user and the network. Examples of protocols that run at the application
layer include File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), telnet, and similar protocols
that can be implemented as utilities the user can interface with.
 17
Computer Networks

 File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the
local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
 Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
 Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.

Summary:
Physical Layer: How to transmit bits.
Data Link Layer: How to transmits frames Network:
How to route packets to the node. Transport: How to
send packets to the applications. Session: Manage
connections.
Presentation: Encode/Decode messages, security.

The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used in the
current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible communication
over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the source and destination or the
internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:

Overview of TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by Department of
Defense’s Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of network
interconnection to connect remote machines.
The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP reference model were:
 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.
 18
Computer Networks

 The network was robust, and connections remained intact until the source and destination machines
were functioning.
The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets) another
application running on different computer.
Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
1. Lowest layer of the all.
2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer
1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer is
called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion
Layer 3: Transport Layer
1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more efficiently
by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack. Some of
them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.. The early ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer
(FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP). The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one machine to log onto a
distant machine and work there. The file transfer protocol provides a way to move data efficiently from one
machine to another. Electronic mail was originally just a kind of file transfer, but later a specialized protocol
(SMTP) was developed for it. Many other protocols
 19
Computer Networks

have been added to these over the years: the Domain Name System (DNS) for mapping host names onto their
network addresses, NNTP, the protocol for moving USENET news articles around, and HTTP, the protocol
for fetching pages on the World Wide Web, and many others.

Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP Reference model

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard, 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols
acting as a communication gateway between the around which the Internet has developed. It is a
network and end user. communication protocol, which allows connection of
hosts over a network.

2. In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
delivery of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP
model is more reliable.

3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.

4. OSI model has a separate Presentation layer and 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate
Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.

5. Transport Layer is Connection Oriented. 5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented and
Connection less.

6. Network Layer is both Connection Oriented and 6. Network Layer is Connection less.
Connection less.

7. OSI is a reference model around which the 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the
networks are built. Generally it is used as a guidance OSI model.
tool.

8. Network layer of OSI model provides both 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
connection oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.

9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.

10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
replaced as the technology changes.

11. OSI model defines services, interfaces and 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are
protocols very clearly and makes clear distinction not clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
between them. It is protocol independent.