Chapter 1 : Data representation

Why computers use binary to represent all forms of data?

• Any form of data needs to be converted to binary to be processed by a computer. •

Data is processed using logic gates and stored in registers.

Why is hexadecimal used as a beneficial method of data representation?

• Hexadecimal is easier for humans to understand than binary, as it is a shorter representation of

the binary.

The concept of overflow and why it occurs in binary addition

• An overflow error will occur if the value is greater than 255 in an 8-bit register • A computer or a
device has a predefined limit that it can represent or store, for example 16-bit • An overflow error
occurs when a value outside this limit should be returned

Perform a logical binary shift on a positive 8-bit binary integer and understand the effect this has
on the positive binary integer

• Bits shifted from the end of the register are lost and zeros are shifted in at the opposite end of
the register
• The positive binary integer is multiplied or divided according to the shift performed •
The most significant bit(s) or least significant bit(s) are lost

ASCII and Unicode

• Text is converted to binary to be processed by a computer

• Unicode allows for a greater range of characters and symbols than ASCII, including different
languages and emojis
• Unicode requires more bits per character than ASCII

Why a computer represents sound, including the effects of the sample rate and sample resolution

• A sound wave is sampled for sound to be converted to binary, which is processed by a computer •
The sample rate is the number of samples taken in a second
• The sample resolution is the number of bits per sample
• The accuracy of the recording and the file size increases as the sample rate and resolution
increase
• why a computer represents an image, including the effects of the resolution and colour depth

Data storage is measured

– bit – mebibyte

– nibble (MiB) – gibibyte

– byte (GiB) – tebibyte

– kibibyte (KiB) (TiB) – pebibyte

 (PiB)

1
– exbibyte (EiB)

Calculate the file size of an image file and a sound file

• The file size of an image is calculated as:

o image resolution (in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
• The size of a mono sound file is calculated as:
o sample rate (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in seconds)
• For a stereo sound file, you would then multiply the result by two.
o sample rate (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in seconds) x 2

Purpose of data compression

• less bandwidth
• less storage space
• shorter transmission time

Lossy and lossless compression methods

Lossless compression reduces the file size without permanent loss of data, e.g. run length encoding (RLE)

Lossy compression reduces the file size by permanently removing data, e.g. reducing resolution or
colour depth, reducing sample rate or resolution

Chapter 2: Data transmission

Describe the structure of a packet

• A packet of data in a unit of data contains a

– packet header

– payload

– trailer

• The packet header includes the:

– destination address

– packet number

– originator’s address

Describe the process of packet switching

• Data is broken down into packets

• Each packet could take a different route
• A router controls the route a packet takes
 • Packets may arrive out of order
• Once the last packet has arrived, packets are reordered

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Serial :

• a single wire
• one bit at a time
• over long distances, up to 100 meters
• cheap
• Safer transmission

Parallel:

• several wires
• multiple bits transmitted all at once
• data quicker than serial transmission
• shorter distances of around 5 meters
• Less safe transmission

Simplex : one direction

Full-duplex : both directions at the same time

Half-duplex : both directions but only one direction at a time

USB
Benefits Drawbacks

Devices plugged into the computer are Standard USB only supports a maximum
automatically detected and device Cable length of 5m; beyond that, USB hubs
Drivers are automatically loaded up are needed to extend the cable length

Connections can only fit one way Even though USB is backward compatible,
preventing incorrect connections being Very early USB standards (V1) may
made Not always be supported by the latest computers

It has become an industry standard, which

means considerable support is available

Can support different data transmission rates Even the latest version 3 (V3) and version
(from 1.5mbps to 5gbps) 4 (V4) USB-C systems have a data transfer
Rate which is slow compared to, for
USB protocol notifies the transmitter to re- Example, ethernet connections (note:
transmit data if any errors are detected; this USB V2 has a maximum data transfer
leads to error free data transmission rate of
480mbps.)
 It is relatively easy to add more USB
ports if necessary, by using USB hubs

USB is backward compatible (that is, older

versions are still supported)

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Checksum

• when a block of data is about to be transmitted, the checksum is calculated from the block of
data

• the calculation is done using an agreed algorithm (this algorithm has been agreed by sender and
receiver)

• the checksum is then transmitted with the block of data

• at the receiving end, the checksum is recalculated by the computer using the block of data (the
agreed algorithm is used to find the checksum)

• the re-calculated checksum is then compared to the checksum sent with the data block

• if the two checksums are the same, then no transmission errors have occurred; otherwise a
request is made to re-send the block of data.

• Value is calculated from the data using an algorithm. Value is transmitted with the data. Value
recalculated by receiver using same algorithm. If checksum values are different there is an
error

• A value is calculated from the data using an algorithm. The value is appended to the data to be
transmitted. Value is recalculated after transmission and compared. If the values match the
data is correct. If the values do not match the data is incorrect.

Check Digit

• A digit added when transmitting data from a calculation performed on the digits in the data. •
check digit is used to detect errors in data entry and identify.

• international standard book numbers (ISBN) and bar codes

Parity Checks

• Uses the number of 1-bits in a byte

Two Types -

• Even - Even number of 1-bits

• Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits

Limitations with Parity Checks

 • Two bits may change during transmission; therefore, an error is not found.
• Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified.

Parity Blocks

• To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks would be used.

• Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows and columns.

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Parity bits are used to detect errors

Parity can be set to odd or even. Sender and receiver agree on parity to use . Data is split into bytes
of 7 bytes. Sender counts the number of 1s in each byte. Each byte is assigned a parity bit to match
the odd or even parity. The receiving device recounts the number of 1s in each byte and compares
to parity used and if it does not match the parity, an error is identified. In parity block check the
location of the error(s) can be identified at the intersection.

Echo Check

• Once the data has been sent, the receiver will send the data back to the sender for verification. •
The sender would compare the received and original data for errors.
• The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error occurred when sending the data or
sending the data back for verification.

ARQ

• Uses acknowledgement and timeout

• Sender starts a timer when data is transmitted
• Receiver uses an error checking method to check whether the data has been received accurately •
If no error detected a positive acknowledgement is returned to sender
• If error detected negative acknowledgement is returned to sender
• If sender gets no acknowledgement within the set time it resends the data

Encryption

• Encryption is a process of turning the data into an unreadable form, so it doesn’t make sense to
hackers and other attackers.
• Plaintext is the original data that is being sent.
• Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption.
• Encryption converts plain text to ciphertext by using algorithm.

Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption

Symmetric Encryption:

It uses an encryption key for the encryption process, The same key is used for both encrypting and
decrypting the data.
Asymmetric Encryption:

• Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is available to everyone whereas the private
key is only available to the user.
• The receiver would have the private key and they would send the public key to the sender. The
sender can encrypt the message with the public key and the data can be on decrypted using the
private key.

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Chapter 3: Hardware
Role of CPU

• The CPU processes instructions and data that are input into the computer so that the result can
be output.

What is meant by a microprocessor?

A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip.

Units: arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control , unit (CU)

Registers: program counter (PC), memory, address register (MAR), memory data register, (MDR),
current instruction register (CIR) and accumulator (ACC)

Role of a register in the CPU

• To store holds data, address and instruction temporarily.

Core
• One core is made up of an ALU, a control unit and the registers.
• The number of cores, size of the cache and speed of the clock can affect the performance of a
CPU
Purpose of a core in the CPU

• To perform a fetch-decode-execute cycle

• To execute an instruction

CPU has more cores and effect this has on the performance

• It may increase the performance because more instructions can be processed simultaneously.

Buses: Address bus, Data bus and Control bus

Address bus - Carries addresses between components in the CPU.

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Data bus - Transmit data between components in the CPU.

Control bus - Transmits control signals from the control unit to other components in the

CPU.

Purpose of the control unit (CU)

• It sends control signals that manage the transfer of data and instructions within the CPU. •
It decodes an instruction using an instruction set.

MDR and the ALU are used in the fetch–decode–execute cycle

• Data fetched from RAM is stored in the MDR.

• Data from MDR is sent to ALU to be executed.
• ALU performs calculation and logical operations on data.
• ALU has a built-in register, accumulator where it stores interim results of calculations. •
After calculations, ALU sends data to MDR.
• Data is sent from MDR to be written to RAM.
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PC contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched

This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus

The instruction at the address is copied into the MDR temporality

The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR

If the instruction contains an address, it is placed in the MAR

The value in the PC is incremented, pointing to the next instruction to be fetched.

The instruction is decoded and then executed

Purpose and use of an instruction set for a CPU

 • An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by a CPU and the
commands are machine code.

Embedded system

An embedded system is used to perform a dedicated function, e.g. domestic appliances, cars, security
systems, lighting systems or vending machines.

This is different to a general-purpose computer that is used to perform many different functions, e.g. a
personal computer (PC) or a laptop.

Input devices
Barcode scanner
Advantages of using barcodes to the management

• l Much easier and faster to change prices on stock items.

• l Much better, more up-to-date sales information/sales trends.
• l No need to price every stock item on the shelves (this reduces time and cost to the
management).
 • l Allows for automatic stock control.
• l Possible to check customer buying habits more easily by linking barcodes to, for example,
customer loyalty cards.

Advantages of using barcodes to the customers

• l Faster checkout queues (staff don’t need to remember/look up prices of items). •

l Errors in charging customers is reduced.
• l The customer is given an itemised bill.
• l Cost savings can be passed on to the customer.
• l Better track of ‘sell by dates’ so food should be fresher.

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Digital camera

• Controlled by microprocessor which automatically adjusts the shutter speed, focus the image,
etc.
• Photo is captured when light passes through the lens onto a light sensitive cell. •
Cell is made up of pixels.
• Number of pixels determines size of the file.

Keyboard

• Connected to computer with a USB connection or by wireless connection.

• Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a digital signal.
• Slow method.
• Prone to errors.
Benefits and drawback of concept keyboard and normal keyboard
Normal keyboard

Benefits

• keyboards are very simple to use

• If a person is trained to type fast then inputting data using a keyboard can be very efficient

Drawbacks

• Easy to make mistake when using a keyboard to input data

• If a person is not trained to type fast then inputting data using a keyboard can be slow.

Concept keyboard

Benefits

• Much faster for making non-text selections such as menu choices on the till of a fast-food outlet. •
The keyboard is waterproof which can be useful where there is a dirt or the risk of splashes.

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Drawbacks

• Poor for text or numeric input - although some keyboards do include a numeric keypad so the
operator can enter the amount sold.
• Limited to options shown on keyboard.

Recognises a letter pressed on the keyboard:

• There is a membrane or circuit board at the base of the keys

• key is pressed and this completes a circuit as shown
• The CPU in the computer can then determine which key has been pressed
• The CPU refers to an index file to identify which character the key press represents •
Each character on a keyboard has a corresponding ASCII value

Microphone
 • Used to input sound to a computer
• When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates producing an electric signal • The
signal goes to a sound card and is converted into digital values and stored in computer • Voice
recognition, voice is detected and converted into digital

Optical mouse

• An optical mouse is an example of a pointing device.

• It uses tiny cameras to take 1500 images per second.
• Unlike an older mechanical mouse, the optical mouse can work on virtually any surface. • A red LED
is used in the base of the mouse and the red light is bounced off the surface and the reflection is
picked up by a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS). • The CMOS generates electric
pulses to represent the reflected red light and these pulses are sent to a digital signal processor
(DSP).
• The processor can now work out the coordinates of the mouse based on the changing image
patterns as it is moved about on the surface.
• The computer can then move the on-screen cursor to the coordinates sent by the mouse.

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Benefits and drawback of wired and wireless mouse

Benefits

• no signal loss since there is a constant signal pathway(wire)

• cheaper to operate(no need new batteries or charge batteries)
• fewer environmental issues(no need to dispose of old batteries)
• very simple to use
 • lets the user efficiently navigate around a screen

Drawbacks

• user needs a flat surface next to the computer to move the mouse around in. • if dirt
covers the optical laser or roller ball gets clogged with dirt,mouse can stop working properly.

QR code scanner

• Another type of barcode is the QR codes

• Made up of a matrix of filled in dark squares on a light background
• Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
QR Code Bar Code

Hold more information, normally store normally store up to 30 numbers

about 7000

Fewer error but it contain Data which is duplicated

built-in-error-checking system.

Can available with some damaged or scratch Cannot available while the badly printed
or damaged barcode

Easier to read by the smart phone camera Need Laser or LED scanners

Easy to transmit QR codes either as

text messages or images

Encrypt QR codes gives greater protection Less protection

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QR

• Scanned using app on mobile device.

• It is the camera that is used to scan the image.
• The three large squares are used to define the alignment of qr code.
• Black squares reflect less light and white squares reflect more light.
• The app processes the image.
• Each small pixel is converted to a binary value.
Advantage of a QR code Disadvantage of a QR code

QR codes are a very efficient method of QR codes are not yet as common as barcodes.
storing information and linking to it. There may be some people that do not know
what they are for
 QR codes can store a variety of information If QR codes are used for advertising or for
including links to websites, images, videos and distributing information, people need to have
messages the ability to read them, such as using a
smartphone.

Even if some areas of a QR code are missing or More than one QR format is available. QR
covered up, the code can often still be read codes can be used to transmit malicious
codes – known as at tagging.

Resistive

• The screen is made up of (two) layers/multiple layers

• The user pushes the top layer into the bottom layer // The user pushes the layers together •
The layers create a circuit (when pushed together)
• Causing electricity to flow
• Allowing the co-ordinates/location of the users touch to be calculated
Advantages Disadvantages

Resistive screens allow for the use of a stylus Multi-touch is not possible

It is possible to use whilst wearing gloves Average durability - Easily scratched

It is a cheaper technology than Poor visibility in bright sunlight

other touchscreen types

Good resistance to dust and water Low touch sensitivity

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Capacitive

• Conductive layer
• An electric field is created
• Sensor(s) around the screen the electrostatic field
• When touched charge is transferred to finger
• Co-ordinates used to calculate touch
Advantages Disadvantages

Medium cost - more than resistive but Capacitive touchscreens only allow touch to
less than others be made with bare fingers, gloves will not
work as it will affect the electricity. (Some
special stylus are available)

Multi-touch is possible
 Very durable - A lot of force is required
to break the glass

Infra-red

Infra-red heat

• Use glass as the screen material

• Needs warm object to carry an input operation

Infra-red optical

• Uses glass as screen material

• Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
• Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is touched

Advantages compared to the other two technologies

• Allows multi-touch facilities

• Has good screen durability
• The operability isn’t affected by a scratched or cracked screen.

Disadvantages compared to the other two technologies

• The screen can be sensitive to water or moisture

• It is possible for accidental activation to take place if the infrared beams are disturbed in some
way
• Sometimes sensitive to light interference.

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Two-dimensional (2D) Scanner

• Used to input hard-copy documents

• The image is converted into an electronic form which can be stored in the computer o
Document is placed on a glass panel
o A bright light illuminates the document
o A scan head moves across the document until the whole page is scanned. And image of the
document is produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors
o The lens focuses the document image
o The focused image now falls onto a charge couple device (CCD) which consists of a numbers
of integrated circuits
o Software produces a digital image from the electronic form
• Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which converts scanned documents into a text
 file format
• If the original document was a photo/image, then the scanned image forms an image file such as
JPEG

Three-dimensional (3D) scanners

• 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-dimensional image. • Scanners take images
at several points, x, y and z (lasers, magnetic, white light). • The scanned images can be used in
Computer Aided Design (CAD) or to a 3D printer to produce a working mode.
Advantages of 3D Scanner Disadvantage of 3D Scanner

The technology can scan through clothing Repeated exposure to x-rays can be harmful
and other materials

3D scanning provides accurate 3D

computer models

Used in :

• Security measure in airport

• Physical model or replica

Output device

Actuator

• Used in many control applications involving sensors and devices (ADC and DAC)

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Digital light processing (DLP) projector

• Uses millions of micro mirrors

• the number of micro mirrors and the way they are arranged on the DLP chip determines the
resolution of the image
• When the micro mirrors tilt towards the light source they are on
• When the micro mirrors tilt away from the light source they are off
• This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
• A bright white light source passes through a colour filter on its way to the DLP chip •
White light splits into primary colours

LCD Projectors
 • Older technology than DLP
• A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
• This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-coated mirrors; these reflect the light
back at different wavelengths
• When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light has wavelengths corresponding to red,
green and blue
• These three different light pass through three LCD screens; these screens show the image to be
projected as millions of pixels in grayscale
• When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, a red, green and blue version of the
grey image emerges
• Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto the screen

LCD projector and a Digital Light Projector (DLP)

• More visible pixels // higher resolution

• Higher colour contrast (in ambient lighting) // more vivid colours
• Colours are (often) more accurate
• Image (usually) appears brighter (with same wattage)
• Will be stationary so does not need the portability of DLP
• Does not need the compactness of DLP
• Cost of purchase (usually) less
• Run quieter
• Any surface can be used as a display
• Uses less power
• Produces less heat
• Does not give the rainbow effect DLP often gives
• Longer lasting lamps

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Inkjet printer
Advantage of inkjet printer Disadvantage of inkjet printer

They are cheaper to buy than most other printers They are expensive to run as they can use a
lot of ink, which is expensive to buy

Image quality can be excellent when used Image quality can be poor when printing
with photographic paper on ordinary paper

It is difficult to print on both sides of paper

 They are slow at printing

Laser printer
Advantage of Laser printer Disadvantage of Laser printer

They are cheap to run as toner cartridges They are expensive to buy as laser technology
last much longer is expensive

Text printing quality is generally excellent Image printing quality on photographic

paper is not as good as an inkjet printer

They are very quick at printing They normally have a larger footprint than
an equivalent inkjet printer

They are suitable for duplex printing.

This reduces paper costs.

Light emitting diode (LED) screen

• Light emitting diodes (LED) is a display is made up of pixels that are arranged together as a
matrix.
• Each is formed of three LEDs filters.
• Shades of color are achieved by mixing red, blue and green.
• The screen can be back-lit.

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Benefit of LED
Liquid crystal display (LCD) screen

Benefit of LCD

Speaker

• Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a DAC then through amplifier and then
emerges from loudspeaker
• Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the speaker at different frequencies

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 Advantages of speakers Disadvantages of speakers

They allow a variety of information to be Built-in speakers often give low quality
provided to the user sound reproduction

They can aid a disabled user when The sound produced may disturb other users
operating a device

They are useful to warm a large amount A sound card with a digital-to-analogue
of people at once about an emergency convertor is needed to convert
information to a form a speaker can
output

3D Printers

• Used for models of materials

• Produce solid objects that work
• Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic powder
• A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
Advantages of 3D printers Disadvantages of 3D printers

Bespoke items or prototypes can be made quickly 3D printing is quite expensive

Just about any shape can be printed Printed items might not be as durable
as a similar manufactured product

Costs to a designer can be reduced as they Dangerous items may be printed

can easily change a design, re-print it and
test it without having to have the object
manufactured

Designs can easily be shared by sharing the Copyright issues may exist if a
digital file copyright design is printed

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Sensor

– acoustic – gas – level – moisture – pH – proximity –

– accelerometer – – humidity – – light – pressure temperature
flow infra-red – magnetic field
 20
Data storage

Primary storage
 • Primary storage is directly accessed by the CPU.
• Random access memory (RAM)

• Read only memory (ROM)

RAM ROM

RAM is like a whiteboard. It can be written to, ROM is like a book. Once written, it can
read from, erased, or left as it is, Its contents usually only be read from. Its contents are
are temporary mostly permanent.

RAM is volatile. It loses its content when power ROM is non-volatile. It remains its
is switched off. contents when the power is switched
off.

In embedded devices, RAM holds data for ROM holds firmware and bootstraps.
processing. In general purpose computers,
RAM hold the operating system, running
programs and data for processing.

Depending on the device, RAM can range ROM tends to be much smaller in capacity.
in capacity from a few bytes to several
gigabytes.

Secondary storage

• Secondary storage is not directly accessed by the CPU and is necessary for more permanent
storage of data

Hard disk drives (HDD)

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Solid Sate Drive (SSD) and

How it stores data

SSD vs HDD

Drawback of SSD
• Drawback of SSD is the questionable longevity of the technology
• Only 20 GB write operations per day over a three-year period – this is known as SSD endurance. •
For this reason, SSD technology is not used in servers.

Virtual memory

• a memory management system that makes use of secondary storage and software to enable a
computer to compensate for the shortage of actual physical RAM memory.

Benefits

• Programs can be larger than physical memory and still be executed

• There is no need to waste memory with data that isn’t being used (e.g. During error handling) •
It reduces the need to buy and install more expensive RAM memory.

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Drawback
 • disk thrashing
• the execution of a process comes to a halt since the system is so busy, this is known as the thrash
point

A student is using software to create 3D models. This process often requires the use of

virtual memory.

Explain why virtual memory is needed for this process.

• To extend the RAM capacity. Because when the physical RAM is full the 3D modelling software
may stop or crash. To allow the computer to process the large amount of data required for 3D
modelling so VM is needed.

The computers also use virtual memory. Describe how virtual memory is created and used.

• The hard drive is partitioned to create virtual memory when RAM is full. Pages of data that are
not required are transferred from RAM to virtual memory. When the data is required again the
pages are transferred back to RAM.

A computer has pages A, B and C that are stored in RAM. Page D needs to be sent to the RAM but the
RAM is full.

Page B is not needed immediately.

Explain how virtual memory can be used in this scenario.

• The secondary storage can be partitioned to create the virtual memory and page B sent to the
virtual memory which makes space for page D in RAM. Once page B is not required immediately.
Pages A, C and D have been processed. Page B can be sent from the virtual memory back to RAM
when it is required.

Cache – is temporary memory using static RAM to hold frequently used data/instructions by the CPU
thereby increasing CPU performance.

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Cloud storage
 • Storage consisting of servers that are often in a remote location. That are often maintained by a
third-party company. Storage that is normally accessed using the internet.

Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud storage provider are
different companies

Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a company firewall;
customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a single entity

Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above environments; some data resides in the private
cloud and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a public cloud storage provider.

Benefit

• Can be accessed at any time from any device anywhere in the world provided internet access is
available.
• No need to carry an external storage device
• Remote back-up of data so to prevent data loss or disaster
• Failure of hard disk or back-up device, cloud storage will allow recovery of their data. •
Offers almost unlimited storage capacity

Drawback

• Slow or unstable internet connection have many problems accessing or downloading data. •
Costs can be high if there is a large storage capacity.
• Potential failure
• Security issue because data are stored in the third-party company. So, they can steal or selling.

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Network hardware

Network interface card (NIC)

• It is part of the device hardware and contains the Media Access Control (MAC) address
generated at the manufacturing stage.

Media access control (MAC) address

Describe what is meant by a MAC address.

• MAC address is used to identify a device on the network generated by the manufacturer. •
It is a unique address.
• It is a static address that does not change.
• The first part is the manufacturer ID.
• The second part is the serial number.
• MAC addresses are usually written as hexadecimal.
• MAC addresses are created using the manufacturer code and the serial code.

Internet protocol (IP) address

• An IP address is allocated by the network and they can be static or dynamic.

Characteristics of an IP address

• consists of values between 0–255 / 0–FFF

• values are separated by full stops / colons
• it is a unique address
• can be static or dynamic
• can be public or private
• can be IPv4 / have four groups of digits
• can be IPv6 / have eight groups of digits

What is meant by a dynamic IP address?

• It can be used to uniquely identify a device on a network. Dynamic IP address can change each
time the device is connected to the network.

Router

• A router sends data to a specific destination on a network

• A router can assign IP addresses
• A router can connect a local network to the internet

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Chapter 5: Software
• System software provides the services that the computer requires, including operating system
and utility software.
• Application software provides the services that the user requires.
Role and basic functions of an operating system

• managing files
• handling interrupts
• providing an interface
• managing peripherals and drivers
• managing memory
• managing multitasking
• providing a platform for running applications
• providing system security
• managing user accounts

Firmware

• Firmware is a type of computer software. It provides the low level control needed for a
particular piece of hardware to work correctly.
• Firmware is found in many hardware devices such as TV remotes, cameras, routers, scanners,
computers etc.
• The firmware software is stored in a special dedicated memory chip embedded inside the
hardware.

Application Software
Runs on

Operating System
Runs on

Firmware

Is loaded by the

Bootstrap

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Interrupts

• Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s doing and service a task •
Ensures important tasks are dealt on priority basis
 • Can be a software or a hardware interrupt

Purpose of interrupts

Why interrupts are needed

• Software interrupts include division by zero and two processes trying to access the same memory
location.
• Hardware interrupts include pressing a key on the keyboard and moving the mouse.
Compiler

• A compiler translates the whole code at once before executing it, producing an executable file. •
A compiler provides an error report for the whole code if errors are detected .

Interpreter

An interpreter translates and executes the code line-by-line.

An interpreter stops execution when an error is found.

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 Compiler Interpreter

A compiler translate the whole of the source An interpreter translate the source
code in one go program line by line

The compiler will run through the program Can make debugging a program
and produce a report of all the errors it easier because they can track errors
detects line by line

It is faster It is slower

It is more efficient It is less efficient

It consumes less time It consumes more time them compiler

Compilers are larger in size Interpreters are smaller than compiler

The compiler is output as an executable file Interpreter can't produce exe file

Low level language High Level Language

Example include machine code and Examples include C, Java and Python
assembly language

Difficult for humans to understand but can Much easier for humans to understand
be easily executed by a computer; a and much closer to natural language
computers’ native language

Needs an assembler to be processed Needs to be translated by a complier or

an interpreter

One line of code does one thing One line of code can do several things

Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

• Software that provides useful functions for a programmer writing a computer program. • A suite
of programs used to write and test a computer program written in a high-level language.

Common functions of an IDE

• code editors
• a translator
• a runtime environment with a debugger
• error diagnostics
• auto-completion
• auto-correction
 • an auto-documenter and prettyprinting

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Chapter 5: The internet and its uses

Difference between the internet and the world wide web

• The internet is the infrastructure.

• The world wide web is the collection of websites and web pages accessed using the internet.
Internet World Wide Web (WWW)

It is a large global network formed by millions It is an information system where data

of smaller networks. is stored for people to access.

It is an entire infrastructure. It is a particular service inside an

infrastructure.

It is hardware-oriented. It is software oriented.

It is independent of the world wide web. It is dependent on the internet.

It functions using an IP address. It functions using HTTP.

Uniform resource locator (URL)

A URL is a text-based address for a web page; it can contain the protocol, the domain name and the web
page/file name

File name
Protocol Web server name

hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) and hypertext transfer protocol secure (HTTPS) Web browsers

are software that allow users to access and display web pages on their device screens. Functions of

a web browser

• The main purpose of a web browser is to render hypertext markup language (HTML) and display
web pages

• Functions include:

o storing bookmarks and favourites

 o recording user history
o allowing use of multiple tabs
o storing cookies
o providing navigation tools
o providing an address bar

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Domain Name Server (DNS)

The Domain Name Server (DNS) (also known as domain name system) is a system for finding IP
addresses for a domain name given in a URL.

DNS servers contain a database of URLs with the matching IP addresses.

(1) The user opens their browser and types in the URL (www.hoddereducation.co.uk) and the browser
asks the DNS server (1) for the IP address of the website.

(2) In this case, let’s assume the DNS server can’t find www.hoddereducation.co.uk in its database or its
cache, so it sends out a request to a DNS server (2).

(3) The DNS server (2) finds the URL and can map it to 107.162.140.19; this IP address is sent back to the
DNS server (1) which now puts this IP address and associated URL into its cache/database.

(4) This IP address is then sent back to the user’s computer.

(5) The computer now sets up a communication with the website server and the required pages are
downloaded. HTML files are sent from the website server to the computer. The browser interprets the
HTML, which is used to structure content, and then displays the information on the user’s computer.

Web server

• To store the web pages and information.

Cookie
 • Cookie is a small text file sent from a website to a user’s browser.

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There are two types of cookie:

• Session cookie
• Persistent (or permanent) cookie.

Session cookie – a cookie that is stored temporarily on a computer; it is deleted when the browser is
closed or the website session ends. They keep a user’s items in a virtual shopping basket.

Persistent cookies – a cookie that is stored on the user’s hard drive and only deleted when the expiry
date is reached or the cookie is deleted by the user. It remember a user’s log in details (so that they can
authenticate the user’s browser).

Cookies are used for functions, including:

• saving personal details

• tracking user preferences
• holding items in an online shopping cart
• storing login details

Digital currency

• Currency (a system of money) that exists in electronic form only; it has no physical form and is
essentially data on a database

Cryptocurrency

• A form of digital currency that uses a chain of decentralised computers to control and monitor
transactions
• Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of transactions.
• Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses Blockchain Network

Blockchain

• Blockchain, in its basic form, is a digital ledger, that is a time-stamped series of records that cannot
be altered.
• Blockchain Network involves several interconnected computers where the transaction data is
stored
• Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would be sent to all the computers and the data
can’t be changed without the consent of all the network members
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• Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created.
• The block would contain -
• Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of money and more
• Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm
• Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block in the chain
• The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point to any previous block (Previous Hash
Value - 0000)

Cyber security

Brute-force attack

• A ‘trial and error’ method used by cybercriminals to crack passwords by finding all possible
combinations of letters, numbers and symbols until the password is found.

Data interception

• An attempt to eavesdrop on a wired or wireless network transmission; cybercriminal often use

packet sniffing or access point mapping / wardriving to intercept data

Distributed denial of service (DDOS) attack

Hacking –the act of gaining illegal access to a computer system without the owner’s

permission Phishing

• Sending out legitimate-looking emails designed to trick the recipients into giving their personal
details to the sender of the email

Pharming

• Redirecting a user to a fake website in order to illegally obtain personal data about the user
without their knowledge; unlike phishing, pharming is initiated without needing any action by
 the user

Social engineering

• Manipulating people into breaking normal security procedures (such as giving away their
password) in order to gain illegal access to computer systems or to place malware on their
computer

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Access levels – different levels of access in a computer ystem allowing a hierarchy of access levels
depending on user’s level of security

Anti-spyware – software that detects and removes spyware programs installed on a system; the software
is based on typical spyware rules or known file structures

Authentication – the process of proving a user’s identity by using something they know, something they
have or something unique to them

Biometrics – type of authentication that uses a unique human characteristic, such as fingerprints, voice
or retina blood vessel pattern

Two-step verification – a type of authentication that requires two methods of verification to prove the
identity of a user

Patch – an update for software that is developed to improve the software and/or to remove any bugs.

Firewall – software or hardware that sits between a computer and an external network (for example, the
internet); the firewall monitors and filters all incoming and outgoing traffic

Proxy server – a server that acts as an intermediary server through which internet requests are
processed; it often makes use of cache memory to speed up web page access

Privacy settings – controls available on social networking and other websites which allow users to limit
who can access their profile or what they are allowed to see

Secure sockets layer (SSL) – a security protocol used when sending data over a network (such as the
internet)

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SSL certificate – a form of digital certificate which is used to authenticate a website; providing the SSL
certificate can be authenticated, any communication or data exchange between browser and website
is secure

Chapter 6 : Automated and emerging technologies

Robotics

• Robotics is a branch of computer science that incorporates the design, construction and operation
of robots
• Examples include factory equipment, domestic robots and drones

Characteristics of a robot

– a mechanical structure or framework

– electrical components, such as sensors, microprocessors and actuators

– programmable

Artificial intelligence (AI)

• AI is a branch of computer science dealing with the simulation of intelligent behaviours by

computers

Characteristics of AI

• collection of data and the rules for using that data,

• the ability to reason, and
• can include the ability to learn and adapt

Expert system – a form of AI that has been developed to mimic a human’s knowledge and

expertise. Expert systems have a knowledge base, a rule base, an inference engine and an

interface

Applications that use expert systems:

 • oil and mineral prospecting
• diagnosis of a patient’s illness
• fault diagnostics in mechanical and electronic equipment
• tax and financial calculations
• strategy games, such as chess
• logistics (efficient routing of parcel deliveries)
• identification of plants, animals and chemical/biological compounds

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Expert systems have many advantages:

• They offer a high level of expertise

• They offer high accuracy
• The results are consistent
• They have the ability to store vast amounts of ideas and facts
• They can make traceable logical solutions and diagnostics
• It is possible for an expert system to have multiple expertise
• They have very fast response times (much quicker than a human expert)
• They provide unbiased reporting and analysis of the facts
• They indicate the probability of any suggested solution being correct.

Expert systems also have disadvantages:

• Users of the expert system need considerable training in its use to ensure the system is being
used correctly
• The set up and maintenance costs are very high
• They tend to give very ‘cold’ responses that may not be appropriate in certain medical situations •
They are only as good as the information/facts entered into the system
• Users sometimes make the very dangerous assumption that they are infallible
Machine learning is when a program has the ability to automatically adapt its own processes and/or
data.

Machine learning is a sub-set of artificial intelligence (AI), in which algorithms are ‘trained’ and learn
from their past experiences and examples.

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Difference between AI and machine learning

Machine Learning can be supervised or unsupervised.

Supervised means that user is telling the program what its data means, for example, in the image
recognition example the user says this image shows a horse.

Unsupervised means that data is input and then the program learns from the data. [Clustering: the data
is plotted on a graph, and then the program identifies which items of data are close to each other. In
image recognition, the shapes in the images could be input and then the features plotted, the program
can then group the images according to these features. This is done without and human interaction
needed]
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