CR0P AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT

PRINCIPLES OF GENETICS

What is genetics?it is a branch of science concerned with the mechanisms by which characteristics/traits
are passed from parents to the offspring.The passing of characters/traits from one generation to the
next(parents to offsprings) is called inheritance or heredity.

In short Genetics is the scientific study of inheritance/heredity.

LANGUAGE OF GENETICS(TERMS USED IN THE STUDY OF GENETICS)

1.gene-the basic unit of inheritance located in chromosome within nucleus of a cell.A gene determines
the inheritance of a particular trait or group of traits.It is made up of DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid).In
genetics genes are usually represented/denoted by letters of alphabets for any particular trait.

E.g T-tall,t-short,W-white,w-black.

2.alleles-Different forms of a gene occupying corresponding position on homologous chromosomes and

controlling the same character,so an allele is one of the alternative forms of a gene.

3.trait-particular characteristic under the control of a pair of allele,e.g height,shape,colour

4.chromosomes-They are tiny thread/rod like structures containing genes located in the nucleus of a cell
and made up of nucleoproteins,Chromosomes always occur in pairs and their number is
fixed(constant).The chromosome number differ from one species to another and the chromosome
number is the same in all body cells. e.g human beings-46,cattle-30

5.homozygous-a state condition of having identical pair of allele/genes for a particular trait.eg-
AA,aa,TT,tt

6.heterozygous-a state/condition of having non identical pair of alleles for a particular trait e.g Aa,Tt

7.dominance-a condition whereby a gene or an allele expresses itself in the presence of an alternative
allele. i.e it suppresses the effect of another one.Bb;B is dominant over b so it means the effect of B wil
be expressed.Given that B-black and b-white ,black wil be expressed and white suppressed.

8.recessive-is a condition whereby the effect of a gene is musked by the presence of another gene
which is dominant.The effect of a recessive allele can only be expressed when it is in a homozygous
state.e.g-aa

9.complete dominance-refers to instances in which the effect of one of the two alleles for a particular
trait is fully expressed in a phenotype of a heterozygote.complete musking/suppression of the effect of a
recessive gene.e.g Tt-tall,if T-tall,t-short,therefore T is completely dominant over t.

10.Co-dominance-Refers to instances in which the effects of two alleles/genes for a particular trait are
expressed independently in a heterozygous individual.e.g in shorthorn cattle,mating a pure breeding

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white cow with a pure breeding red bull will result in offspring that have a mixed red and white
coat(roan).In plants a pure bred plant with red flowers is crossed with a pure bred plant with white
flowers,the offsprings are all pink.

11.genotype-refers to the genetic constitution/makeup of an organism or the sum total of genes

obtained from both parents.e.g AA,Aa,aa e.t.c

12.phenotype-physical expression /observable characteristics of an organism due to its genotype.i.e

physical expression of genes.examples of phenotypes include black,tall,round e.t.c

SIMPLE GENETIC CROSSES

When two individuals mate,the genes carried on the chromosomes combine to determine the
characteristics of the new individual.It is possible to predict the outcome of the cross between male and
female using a punnet square.Crosses that involve one trait of interest are called monohybrid crosses.

PROBLEM 1

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Given that in plants the gene for tallness is dominant over the gene for shortness.Two heterozygous
plants were cross pollinated.By the use of a punnet square or otherwise

a.state the genotypes and deduce the genotypic ratio for the F1 generation

b.give the phenotypes and deduce the phenotypic ratio for the F1 generation

Let tall-T and short- t

Therefore parents crossing involve Tt * Tt

TT Tt
TT tt

a.genotypes are TT,TT,Tt,tt genotypic ratio 1Tt:2TT:1tt 1:2:1

b.phenotypes are tall,tall,tall,short phenotypic ratio 3tall:1short 3:1

PROBLEM 2

In pea plants the gene for round seeds(R) is dominant over wrinkled (r)seeds.A heterozygous round
seeds pea plant is crossed with wrinkled seeds pea plant.Predict the

a.genotypes and genotypic ratio of F1 generation

b.phenotypes and phenotypic ratios of F1 generation

Parents crossing involve Rr * rr

Rr rr
Rr rr

a.genotypes are Rr,Rr,rr,rr genotypic ratio 2Rr:2Rr 2:2 therefore 1:1

b.phenotypes are round,round,wrinkled,wrinkled phenotypic ratio 2 round:2wrinkled 1:1

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ASSIGNMENT

1.If R-red flowering plants r-white flowering plants ,State the possible genotypes for the following

a.red flowering b.white flowering c.true breeding red flowering d.true breeding white flowering

Given that a true breeding red flowering plant was crossed with a true breeding white flowering plant to
produce the F1 generation.The F1 generation plants were crossed amongst themselves to come up with
the F2 generation.By the use of a punnet square or otherwise predict the genotypes,genotypic
ratio,phenotypes and phenotypic ratio of F2 generation.

2.In cattle a gene for horned(H) is dominant over gene for polled(h).A heterozygous horned bull is
mated with a polled cow to obtain the F1 generation.Given that four offsprings were obtained in the F1
generation,What percentage of offsprings were most likely to be a.polled b.horned.

CELL DIVISION

There are two types of cell division.Mitosis and Meiosis

MITOSIS

It is a process of cell division occurring in somatic cells and leading to growth in wich a full set of
chromosomes(Diploid/2n) from parent cell is passed to two daughter cells that results.Somatic cells are
cells of the body other than those for reproduction(gametes/reproductive cells)

46(2n)
Mother cell

Daughter cells
46(2n) 46(2n)

MEIOSIS(REDUCTION DIVISION)

It is a process of cell division occurring in cells of the reproductive organs leading to formation of four
gametes e.g sperm,ovum,ovule,pollen in wich the gametes(daughter cells) contain half the number of
chromosomes(haploid/n) as compared to their mother cells.

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 Mother cell
46(2n)

23(n)
23(n)
23(n) 23(n) Daughter cells

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Responsible for growth Responsible for formation of gametes
Occurs in somatic cells Occurs in gamete forming cells
Result in two daughter cells Results in four daughter cells
Daughter cells contains a full set of Daughter cells contains half the number of
chromosomes/diploid(2n) chromosomes /haploid(n)as their parent cells

VARIATION

This refers to differences in characteristics between individuals of the same species.Offsprings of the
same parents may differ slightly from each other and from parents. No two individuals of the same
species are exactly the same.

There are two types of variation and these are CONTINUOS and DISCONTINUOS variations.

CONTINUOUS VARIATION

It exists in characteristics that have intermediate forms between two extremes.e.gheight.There are
possible intermediates between very tall and very short i.e there are no distinct categories of height, tall
or short.Other examples include weight, skin colour, intelligence.Continuosly variable characteristics are
greatly influenced by the environmente.g A plant may have genes for large fruits but not get enough
water, minerals or sunlight to produce large fruits.

DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION

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It occurs in traits that take the form of distinct,alternative forms with no intermediates.e.g blood
groups,sex in most organisms(male or female).Discontinuos variations cannot usually be altered by the
environment.

CAUSES OF VARIATION

a.genetic factors

b.environmental factors

a.GENETIC FACTORS

These can be inherited and are passed from generation to generation.

i.new gene combinations resulting from mating of parents,Tt *Tt- TT,Tt,Tt,tt

tt-short and differs from either parents and other offsprings

Co –dominance-a situation whereby the phenotype of the offspring shows a mixture of effects of two
genes so the offspring is different from either parents.e.g roan colour in cattle.

ii.mutations-It is a spontaneous change in a gene or a chromosome.It occurs naturally or can be induced

by artificial means.Many high yielding crops has a arisen as a result of mutations in which the whole
chromosome set has been doubled.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Environment refers to the sum total of conditions affecting an organism.An organism is as a product of

Its genotype and its environment. Phenotype=environment +genotype

Conditions within the environment can prevent or help an individual achieve its full genetic
potential.The traits expressed as aresult of the environment are said to be acquired and cannot be
passed on to the offspring or next generation.Example of these factors include climate,soil type,pests
and diseases,feed type,fertelizers e.t.c

BREEDING

What is breeding? It is the development of new plant types or animals with unproved traits by
controlled making of parent organize.

The main aim of breeding is to transmit the most desirable traits (genes) to the offspring. Only the best
individuals should be chosen for breeding because they pass half of their genes to their offspring.
Breeding is vital in improving crop and livestock through development of new variety and breeds. The
techniques involved include selection, cross-breeding, inbreeding, upgrading and hybridization.

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IMPORTANCE OF BREEDING

1. Develops new breeds and cultivars

2. Maintain pure breeds or line for their desirable traits
3. To achieve high quality produce
4. Result in high yield of product e.g. meat, milk, wool, eggs
5. Develops plant and animals which are resistant to certain parts and diseases
6. Develop organisms which show resistance against drought, cold and other adverse weather
conditions.

BREEDING METHODS

Cross-Breeding

It is a method of breeding that involves mating pure breed animals of different breeds within the same
species. The offspring produced is HETEROZYGONS and is called a hybrid e.g. Tswana cow x Brahman
bull.

Advantages

1. Results in Hybrid vigour (heterosis) in the offspring. Hybrid vigour means that the offspring
shows letter characteristics than either of the parents. i.e. increased growth rate, increased
production, increased fertility etc.
2. New breeds can be developed.
3. Increases genetic variation in offspring.
4. undesirable - traits in either parent can be hidden in the offspring by the dominant gene
supplies by the other.

Disadvantages

1. Hybrids do not breed “true to type”.

2. Requires great skill and I knowledge to get desired hybrid.
3. it is expensive (need pure-bed male)
4. Individuals to be crossed must belong to same species.

Hybridization (cross-breeding in plants usually)

This is a process in which cross-breeding technique is used to produce hybrids, hybrids. It involves
crossing two or more distinct parent lines or cultivars to produce hybrids with new and superior
combination of traits. Selection usually follows hydridization to isolate the superior combinations and to
discord undesirable plants. When desirable traits are fully developed in a hybrid and can be propagated
repetitively, then no further selection is necessary. Hybridization is not applicable to plants propagated
only by asexual using conventional breeding techniques.

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Advantages and disadvantages similar to those under cross-breeding.

INBREEDING

Inbreeding refers to the method of breeding that involves making of closely related individuals of the
same species e.g. mother x son, father x daughter, brother x sister grand children x grand parents.
Inbreeding results in a homogenizes population. The so called pure-lines are obtained through this
method.

Advantages

1. Allows bad traits to surface, so that they can be eliminated by selection.

2. Leads to inform population which breed time to type i.e. source of pure lines for cross-breeding
and hybridization programmes.
3. Concentrates desirable traits in the progeny.
4. Increases homozygosis; reduces genetic variation.

Disadvantages

1. Often gives rise to deformed animals.

2. Results in fixing undesirable fruits in the offspring
3. ….lead to decline in hybrid vigour/quality and performance.

UPGRADING

It is a form of cross-breed females are back crossed to pere-breed males of superior breed of for several
generations. Consider a situation where a former intends to upgrade Tswana cattle using Tuli bulls.
Cross-breed females of F1,F2,F3, ….. Fn (N is the number of generation) crossed with same Tuli bulls. At
every successive generation the Tswana traits are halved and replaced by desirable traits from the Tuli.

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slap half page for diagram

Advantages

1. Simplest and cheapest way to improve a hard of cows of inform breed.

2. Improved quality of offspring.
3. No special knowledge and skills are needed by a farmer to do it.
4. Artificial insemination method can be used.
Disadvantages

1. It takes a long time to achieve the desired level of upgrade.

2. If artificial insemination (AI) is not available the farmer must own or have pure-breed bull of a
given breed and so it is expensive.
3. Male animals from the first generation cannot be used for animals from the first generation
cannot be used for breeding purposes, they have a higher percentage of undesirable genes
untracked from the mother.
SELECTION

This is the process of choosing the superior (best) individuals to serve as parents for future generations
in a breeding programme. Some animals in a breeding hard are retained for breeding purpose and
others are sold for meat production. Those that are retained are supposed to be carriers of desirable
genes that make them produce better and the rejected ones are supposed to be carriers of undesirable
genes that depress their productivity.

Selection of superior animals is based on individual records of performance and knowledge of the
relatives of the animals t be selected. As such selection is greatly ….. by keeping a ….. records of the
performance of animals and also monitoring the performance of its progeny or offspring.

Mass-selection- based solely on individual merit

Pedigree-selection – focuses on the quality of the ancestors rather than the quality of individual itself.

Family selection – based on qualities of collateral relatives such as full – or half siblings

Progeny selection – based on the records of their progeny

Pure – line selection – involves continued inbreeding and selection for one or several desirable traits to
produce a genetically homogenous population.

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NATURAL SELECTION

It occurs in animals living under natural conditions. There is no interference by man. In nature stronger
and healthier male animals tend to defect worker animals and as such serve females. Their characteristic
will due be passed to their offspring and characteristics of weather (depended) animals are eliminated.
Natural selection hared on the ………. Of ‘survival of the ……..’.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

The former chooses animals to serve as parents for future generations by basing on their phenotypes
(observation of physical characteristics) and the use of carefully kept records for tracks such as skin
colour, temperament, milk production etc.

SCIENTIFIC SELECTION

Animals are selected on the basis of their physical characteristics and their genotypes. (genetic make
up). Observation of genotypes reguires knowledge of genetic science.

BIOTECHNOLOGY

What is biotechnology? It is the application of pilant and animal cells micro-organisms and natural
substances to produce food and other useful substances.

There are two types of biotechnology, this are

1) Traditional biotechnology
Modern biotechnology.

Traditional Biotechnology (old or ancient)

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It is a type of biotechnology that does not require any knowledge of science (genetics, genetic enfen…..,
biochemistry or molecular biology) farmers have been using traditional biotechnology for centuries in
food processing and agriculture.

Examples of traditional biotechnology in agriculture

- Fermentation technology (silage making).

- Breeding systems e.g. inbreeding, crossbreeding, upgrading, artificial insemination (AI),
embryo transfer hybridization, grafting, budding, layering, tissue culture etc.

Modern biotechnology (‘new’ or recent) this makes use of knowledge of science (genetics, genetic
en……, biochemistry or molecular biology? It operates at molecular level whereby individual genes for
specific desired traits are transferred into target organisms using recombinant DNA technology.

GENETIC ENGENEERING

What is genetic engineering? It is the transfer of genes for specific desired traits from one organism
(donor) into another target organism (recipient) using recombinant DNA technology. The recipient
organism will exhibit or show new traits/characteristics and it is said to be a GENETICALLY MODIFIED
ORGANISM(GMO) or transgenic.

Examples of modern biotechnology in agriculture

- Vaccine production (rDNA vaccines)

- Transgenic plants (genetically modified/engineered).
e.g. insect resistance crops, herbicide resistance crops, frost tolerant crops, delayed
ripening of fruits, drought tolerant crops, etc.

- Transgenic animals (genetically modified/engineered)

e.g. fast growth, high milk yield.

Application of biotechnology in agriculture

Insect resistance crop-the bacterium bacillus thuringiensis produces a toxin which kills the larvae of
certain insect. The gene which produces the toxin is transferred to maize and the maize will then
produce the same toxin (transgenic). The maize will show increased resistance to attack by insect larvae.

Advantages of Biotechnology in Agriculture

1. Increases crop and livestock production in transgenic

2. Produces products of long shelf life.
3. Vaccine production for control and prevention of diseases of livestock.
4. Preservation of fodder.

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 5. Better use of agricultural waste e.g. biogas production.
6. Accelerated face of agricultural research and development.

Disadvantages of Biotechnology in agriculture.

1. Risk of causing harm to non target organisms.

2. Risk of creating super weeds
3. Loss of biodiversity
4. It is expensive (modern) and need skilled ……..

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