land

Article
A Regional Perspective on Urbanization and
Climate-Related Disasters in the Northern Coastal
Region of Central Java, Indonesia
Iwan Rudiarto * ID
, Wiwandari Handayani and Jawoto Sih Setyono
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Diponegoro University, Semarang 50275, Indonesia;
[email protected] (W.H.); [email protected] (J.S.S.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +62-24-76486821

Received: 4 January 2018; Accepted: 10 March 2018; Published: 12 March 2018

Abstract: Indonesia, as an archipelagic nation, has about 150 million people (60%) living in coastal
areas. Such communities are increasingly vulnerable to the effects of change, in the form of sea level
rise and stronger, more intense storms. Population growth in coastal areas will also increase the
disaster risk mainly because of climate change-related effects such as flooding, droughts, and tidal
floods. This study examines the dynamic changes of urban population and urban villages in three
decadal periods, from 1990, 2000, to 2010. To highlight different disasters that are increasingly tied
to climate change, the analysis was conducted in the northern coastal area of Central Java province
using village potential (PODES) data, which are routinely collected by the government. Results show
that about 41% of people in Central Java province live in the northern coastal region and 50% live in
urban areas. The numbers of hazard events within a distance range of 0–40 km from the shoreline
are: flooding (non-tidal)—335; tidal flooding—65; and droughts—28. Based on this study, about half
of flood disasters (non-tidal) occurred within 10 km of the shoreline, while tidal flooding accounted
for 80%. Most of the climate-related disasters were found in rural areas at low levels of population
growth, while in urban areas the disasters were found to be associated in less than 1% and in more
than 3% of population growth.

Keywords: population growth; climate-related disasters; hazard events; northern coast of

Central Java

1. Introduction
Climate change is a global phenomenon increasingly associated with negative impacts on human
activities and society. A growing body of research also shows that climate change constitutes a serious
threat to the sustainability of urban development in many countries, especially with a large number
of cities located in coastal (low-lying) areas experiencing increasing risk to human development
and economic losses [1,2]. Climate change has a significant impact on natural disasters around
the world. Natural disasters include biological, meteorological, geophysical, hydrological, and
climatological phenomena [3]. Climate-related disasters are mostly related to hydro-meteorological
events and include floods, tidal flooding, landslides, windstorms, heatwaves, and fires [4,5]. Floods and
droughts are regarded as the most frequent disasters occurring all over the world, especially in Asia.
Floods and droughts happen naturally due to the evaporation process, but the risks are compounded
by human activities. In terms of climate change, floods take place mainly because of heavy rainfall,
and inundations also occur due to tidal flooding from sea-level rise. Changing rainfall pattern happens
as a result of changing precipitation associated with climate change. Similarly, drought is defined as a
situation of deficiency in water supply, which can also be due to the impact of changing precipitation
patterns. In coastal Bangladesh, for instance, high rainfall and rising seas have also caused a severe

Land 2018, 7, 34; doi:10.3390/land7010034 www.mdpi.com/journal/land

Land 2018, 7, 34 2 of 15

problem for different coastal areas, including impacts such as salinity [6]. There are also similar issues
taking place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil [7], and Vietnam [8].
Most climate-related disasters, such as floods, tidal flooding, and windstorms, affect coastal
areas. The coastal area is a dynamic area where there is an interaction between land, water, and
the atmosphere, with human activity also playing a part [9]. Due to this dynamic character, coastal
areas are also considered preferable to inland areas in terms of settlement. High population density,
infrastructure development, and other supporting facilities have made the coastal urban areas the
most dynamic areas and a major destination for people to live, and therefore human settlements were
concentrated in this area [10,11]. Urbanization obviously changes the global environment of many
cities across the world and will continue in the future [12,13]. Furthermore, coastal areas are at risk
not only because of climate change impacts but also from the combined impacts arising from rapid
urbanization. More flood events were found in areas where urbanization had taken place and changed
land surface properties [14–16]. We define urbanization as taking place if the share of people who live
in an urban area is higher than the rate of urban population growth [17].
The increasing urban population in coastal areas has indeed reshaped coastal geographies and the
built environment, and it is often found that urbanization processes are not adaptable to future climate
change where potential disruptive effects include the potential for large-scale disasters such as flooding,
overproduction, energy inefficiency, and other environmental threats [18]. The Asian Cities Climate
Change Resilience Network (ACCCRN) Program highlights the experiences of 10 cities planning for
resilience [19]. One of the key findings from the ACCCRN initiatives is that climate change impact
is closely related to the urbanization phenomena. Large and growing populations are increasingly
experiencing higher levels of vulnerability in coastal areas from the impacts of climate change, such as
sea-level rise [20–23]. Migration patterns from rural to urban areas due to disaster risks were found in
developing countries that were characterized by low-income urban settlements with about −30 million
of the poorest people moving from rural to urban areas per year [24,25]. This phenomenon is also
found in most Indonesian cities located in coastal areas, particularly on the island of Java, where
about 60% of Indonesia’s total population lives [26]. From a total of 118 districts/cities on Java Island,
more than half are located in the northern coastal areas [27]. Different activities in these regions have
evolved from basic coastal activities utilizing land and water resources from surrounding areas into
more urbanized activities such as industrial and service sectors [10].
The transformation of activities in the northern coastal areas of Java has led to a concentration
of development and, consequently, the island become more susceptible to various kinds of natural
hazards such as flooding, land subsidence, and coastal inundation [20,28,29]. It is believed that these
are due to urbanization pressures and environmental change. Coupled with the existence of climate
change, environmental degradation as part of the ill effects of the current trend of urbanization in
coastal areas has further deteriorated the environment and created new hazards. Overall, the high
concentration of housing and people has indeed resulted in coastal areas becoming more prone to
various climate change-related coastal disasters. The increased exposure is evident in various ways,
and therefore, climate change impact in coastal areas is of a major concern around the world [30,31].
There are some studies connecting climate change, climate hazards, and urbanization. Most of
them focus on phenomena in particular cities. For instance, spatial vulnerability assessments were
developed for Haikou, a coastal city in China [32]; flood risk assessments due to climate change were
elaborated upon in Addis Ababa City [33]; urbanization and increasing vulnerability were studied
in three Sri Lankan cities [34]; the increasing vulnerability of three different cities of coastal Central
Java was revealed [20]; a study on future urban flooding explored climate change impacts in Can Tho
City, Vietnam [35]; and an examination of climate change phenomena in relation to urbanization was
undertaken in the Yangtze River Delta [18]. So far, the attention has been focused on tools to measure
the vulnerability of a particular city but not to explicitly connect it with urbanization (i.e., differences
in terms of urban and rural status) on a regional level. Therefore, this article is aimed at connecting
climate-related disasters and urbanization from a more regional perspective. The scope of this paper
Land 2018, 7, 34 3 of 15

is how different types of climate-related disasters occur in the northern coastal region of Central
Java in terms of population growth rate, density rate, and distance from the coastline. To highlight
development status, we also provide context for the urban and rural conditions from different periods
to figure Land
out2018,
changes
7, x FORin specific
PEER REVIEWregions in the northern coastal areas of Central Java. 3 of 15

in terms
2. Materials and of population growth rate, density rate, and distance from the coastline. To highlight
Methods
development status, we also provide context for the urban and rural conditions from different
periods to figure out changes in specific regions in the northern coastal areas of Central Java.
2.1. Study Area
The 2. Materialscoastal
northern and Methods
area of Central Java was selected as the study area. Coastal area boundaries
in this research are
2.1. Study Area
defined as the district administrative boundaries. All districts located along
the northern coastal area of Central Java are regarded as the research area. Administratively, there
The northern coastal area of Central Java was selected as the study area. Coastal area boundaries
are 14 cities/regencies in the northern coastal regions, of which four are cities (Tegal, Pekalongan,
in this research are defined as the district administrative boundaries. All districts located along the
Semarang, and Kudus)
northern coastal area and 10 others
of Central Java are regencies
are regarded (Brebes,
as the researchTegal, Pemalang, Pekalongan,
area. Administratively, there are 14 Batang,
Kendal, Demak, Jepara,
cities/regencies Pati,
in the and Rembang).
northern coastal regions,Inoftotal,
which there
four areare 3151
cities villages/urban
(Tegal, villages within
Pekalongan, Semarang,
and Kudus) and 10 others are regencies (Brebes, Tegal, Pemalang, Pekalongan,
192 sub-districts. The northern coastal area of Central Java extends from Rembang Regency in the east Batang, Kendal,
Demak, Jepara, Pati, and Rembang). In total, there are 3151 villages/urban villages within 192 sub-
to Brebes Regency in the west. The total length from east to west is about 427 km, which covers Pemali
districts. The northern coastal area of Central Java extends from Rembang Regency in the east to
Comal area (Brebes–Kendal)
Brebes Regency in the west.forThe
about
total163 km,
length Jratun
from east toArea
west (Kendal–Demak)
is about 427 km, which for 77 km,
covers and Seluna
Pemali
Area (Demak–Rembang) for 187 km
Comal area (Brebes–Kendal) [36].163
for about From
km, the shoreline,
Jratun the study area
Area (Kendal–Demak) for 77covers
km, and about
Seluna30 km, on
average, Area (Demak–Rembang)
stretching from the north for 187
tokmthe[36]. From(see
south the shoreline,
Figure 1 the forstudy area covers about 30 km, on
demarcation).
average, stretching from the north to the south (see Figure 1 for demarcation).
In terms of development, northern coastal areas were considered the most developed region in
In terms of development, northern coastal areas were considered the most developed region in
Central Java. The plains of the northern coast are strategic development locations as they are relatively
Central Java. The plains of the northern coast are strategic development locations as they are
flat and have adequate
relatively flat andinfrastructure
have adequateand access [37].
infrastructure andDevelopment along the along
access [37]. Development northern coast is also due
the northern
to the historical
coast is development
also due to the policies
historicalof the colonial
development period
policies of and extended
the colonial by Indonesian
period and extendedGovernment
by
policy to Indonesian
make the Government
northern part policy
of to make the
Central northern
Java into apart of Central
major Java into a corridor,
development major development
connecting three
corridor, connecting three big cities (Semarang in the middle, Surabaya in the east, and Jakarta in the
big cities (Semarang in the middle, Surabaya in the east, and Jakarta in the west). Figure 1 shows the
west). Figure 1 shows the location of the research.
location of the research.

Figure 1. Study area.

Figure 1. Study area.
2.2. Data Collection
2.2. Data Collection
Village potential (known as Potensi Desa or PODES) data collected by the Central Bureau of
Statistic (BPS) were
Village potential used.asData
(known wereDesa
Potensi classified into twodata
or PODES) majorcollected
areas, i.e.,by
urbanization
the Centraland climate-
Bureau of Statistic
related disasters. Data on urbanization are related to population, density, and urban–rural
(BPS) were used. Data were classified into two major areas, i.e., urbanization and climate-related status
from 1990, 2000, and 2010, while data on climate-related disasters are represented by the number of
disasters.floods,
Data tidal
on urbanization are related to population, density, and urban–rural status from 1990,
floods, and drought events in 2010. Those three kinds of disaster data were identified
2000, andfrom2010,
3151while data onvillages
villages/urban climate-related disasters
exposed to disasters are
in the represented
study area. With the bylarge
the numbers
numberofof floods,
tidal floods, and drought events in 2010. Those three kinds of disaster data were identified from
3151 villages/urban villages exposed to disasters in the study area. With the large numbers of
villages/urban areas, the climate-related disasters in the study area are expected to have a spatial
Land 2018, 7, 34 4 of 15

correlation. As this study aims to show the kind of disasters within the northern coastal area, data
on floods, tidal floods, and drought events in 2010 were used. Updated data are not available yet.
The division of different disasters was intended to show and to compare disasters in different locations.
Concerning the context of this research, the data on population and density growth, as well as built-up
areas, were used to show the frequency of each kind of disaster in different villages and urban areas
distributed in the study area.

2.3. Methods
PODES data were transformed into spatially explicit data with Geographical Information System
(GIS)-based software to show the data availability in each village/urban village. The spatially explicit
data were then classified following the map classification. All spatial explicit data in this study
are managed and organized under GIS as it has better database management capability than other
information systems. The ability of GIS to manage and analyze data is highly reliable since the data
can be spatially arranged into different layers [38]. These different layers of data, representing various
spatial data, can further be combined, analyzed, and visualized into the same format and connected
through a coordinate system.

2.3.1. Map Classification

Map classification was applied for density, urban–rural status, population growth, and distance
from coastline. Data from villages/urban villages were identified and classified to identify built-up
area, population, and density for the respective year. Population density was classified into five
classes and urban–rural status into four classes, identified from the built-up area data in 1990, 2000,
and 2010. Population growth was classified into four classes with different percentage classifications.
Disaster distribution in the study area was described through a distance classification from the coastline,
which was done by a buffering technique in GIS. The intention of distance classification is to show the
distribution of climate-related disasters occurring in the study area. Table 1 shows the classifications
applied in this study.

Table 1. Data classification.

Data Classification
Population Density (persons/km2 ) <100, 101–400, 401–1000, >1000
Urban–Rural Status (number) urban in 2010, urban in 2000–2010, urban in 1990–2000–2010, and rural in 2000–2010
Population Growth (%) <1.00%, 1.00–1.99%, 2.00–3.00%, >3.00%
Distance from Coastline (km) <5 km, 5–10 km, 10–20 km, 20–40 km, >40 km

2.3.2. Population Growth and Density

As mentioned before, data on population in this study were derived from the PODES data
collected and elaborated by BPS. PODES data are census data, surveyed and collected every 10 years
by a national program. Population data were compared from different years to see the growth in
specific periods. Therefore, population growth is the number that shows the population change within
a specific period and is represented as a percentage of the initial population to identify growth rates.
This study used a geometric method in calculating the population growth as applied by BPS. Geometric
growth refers to a situation where successive changes in a population differ by a constant ratio [39].
The geometric population growth (r) is calculated as follows:

r = ( Pt /P0 )1/t − 1, (1)

where,
r = population growth
Pt = Population in year t
P0 = Population in initial year
Land 2018, 7, 34 5 of 15

t = time period between initial year and year t (in years).

If population growth is about the changing number of population within a specific period, density
is more focused on the population and the total area in a specific location. Population density is the
number of people per unit in a specific area [40]. The intent of density calculation is to measure the
number of people living in an area and distinguish which locations are denser compared to others.
The population density (d) is determined as follows:

P0
d=( ), (2)
A

where, d = density rate (people/km2 )

P0 = Number of Population
A = Total Area (km2 ).

2.3.3. Rural–Urban Status

Rural–urban status in this study was derived from variables and criteria that have been applied
by BPS in determining rural–urban status in PODES data (1990, 2000, and 2010). These variables are
population density, percentage of farming households, percentage of households served by electricity,
percentage of households served by telephone network, access to main urban facilities, and access to
supporting facilities. Variables and criteria in classifying rural–urban status are shown in Table 2 [39].

Table 2. Variables and criteria for rural–urban classification.

Variables (in Village Level) Score

Population density (people per km2 )
1
<500, 50–1250, 1250–2500, 2500–4000, 4000–6000, 600–7000, 7000–8500, >8500 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8
Percentage of farming households
2
>70.00, 50.00–70.00, 30.00–50.00, 20.00–30.00, 15.00–20.00, 10.00–15.00, 5.00–10.00, <5.00 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8
Percentage of households served by electricity
3
>90.00, <90.00 1; 0
Percentage of households served by telephone network
4
>8.00, <8.00 1; 0
Accessibility to main urban facilities
a. Kindergarten: distance < 2.5 km; distance > 2.5 km 1; 0
b. Junior high school: distance < 2.5 km; distance > 2.5 km 1; 0
c. High school: distance < 2.5 km; distance > 2.5 km 1; 0
d. Permanent/semi-permanent traditional market: distance < 2.5 km; distance > 2.5 km 1; 0
5
e. Cinema: distance < 2.5 km; distance > 2.5 km 1; 0
1; 0
f. Modern shops: distance < 2.5 km; distance > 2.5 km
1; 0
g. Hospital: distance < 5 km; distance > 5 km
1; 0
h. Hotel and amusement facilities: available; not available
Total score 1–5 h
Availability to supporting facilities (only for urban villages)
- Street lighting: available; not available 1; 0
6 - Bank: available; not available 1; 0
- Public phone/telephone booth: available; not available 1; 0
1; 0
- Supermarket: available; not available
Notes:
- Percentage of farming households is the result of dividing the number of farming households by the total number of
households, multiplied by one hundred (100). The smaller the percentage, the greater the score.
- Percentage of households served by electricity is the result of dividing the number of households served by electricity
by the total number of households, multiplied by one hundred (100).
- Percentage of households served by telephone network is the result of dividing the number of households served by a
telephone network by the total number of households, multiplied by one hundred (100).
- Accessibility to main urban facilities (only for urban villages). If there are facilities, as mentioned in the table above,
then a score of 1 is given.
Score to determine the classification result:
- Score ≥ 10 (variable 1–5 h) is classified as an urban village.
- Score ≤ 10 (variable 1–5 h) is classified as a rural village.
- Additional score for urban village indicates the hierarchy of the urban village.
Land 2018, 7, 34 6 of 15
Land 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15

2.3.4. Map
2.3.4. Map Overlay
Overlay
In the
In the final
final analysis
analysis step,
step, data
data on
on population
population growth
growth rate,
rate, distance
distance to
to coastline,
coastline, and
and type
type of
of
disasters were
disasters were combined
combined by by employing
employing thethe overlay
overlay analysis
analysis in
in GIS.
GIS. From
From the
the overlay
overlay analysis,
analysis, the
the
hazard events can be identified. By looking at the data cross-tabulation that resulted from the
hazard events can be identified. By looking at the data cross-tabulation that resulted from the overlay overlay
analysis, the
analysis, the relationship
relationshipbetween
betweenclimate-related
climate-relateddisasters
disasters and
and urbanization
urbanization pressure,
pressure, represented
represented by
by population
population growth
growth as as
as well well as distance
distance from coastline,
from coastline, can
can then bethen be Figure
shown. shown.2 Figure 2 shows
shows the the
typology
typology
of of mapand
map overlay overlay and cross-tabulation
cross-tabulation analysis inanalysis in this study.
this study.

Figure 2. Typology
Figure 2. of map
Typology of map overlay
overlay analysis.
analysis.

3. Results
3. Results and
and Discussion
Discussion

3.1. Urbanization
3.1. in Central
Urbanization in Central Java
Java
Based on
Based on the
the 2000
2000 and
and 2010
2010 censuses,
censuses, Indonesia’s
Indonesia’s population
population growth
growth is is 1.49%.
1.49%. The The rural
rural
population growth
population growth is is 3.3%,
3.3%, which
which is is very
very low
low compared
compared to to urban
urban population
population growth
growth at at 39%.
39%. ItIt is
is
obvious that urbanization happens rapidly in the country. Table 3 shows
obvious that urbanization happens rapidly in the country. Table 3 shows that the share of urbanthat the share of urban
population in
population in Central
Central JavaJava is
is relatively
relatively low
low compared
compared to to other
other provinces
provinces ofof Java
Java Island.
Island. TheThe urban
urban
population on Java Island is 60.8%, very much above the Indonesian average,
population on Java Island is 60.8%, very much above the Indonesian average, i.e., 49.8%. The projection i.e., 49.8%. The
projection to 2035 [41], however, indicates
to 2035 [41], however, indicates a similar pattern. a similar pattern.
Urbanization, in
Urbanization, in general,
general, is
is defined
defined as
as an
an increase
increase inin urban
urban population,
population, butbut it
it is
is not
not the
the same
same asas
urban population growth. Urbanization is only taking place where urban
urban population growth. Urbanization is only taking place where urban population growth is higherpopulation growth is
higher than the general population growth, or where the urban share increases
than the general population growth, or where the urban share increases significantly with respect to significantly with
respect
the total to the total[17].
population population
There are,[17]. There
at least, are,factors
three at least, three factors
influencing influencing
urbanization, includingurbanization,
a natural
including a natural increase in urban area, migration, and reclassification
increase in urban area, migration, and reclassification of rural and urban status, resulting of rural and urban status,
in ‘in situ’
resulting in ‘in
urbanization. Urbansitu’areas
urbanization. Urban ofareas
emerging because emerging
a change because classification
in rural–urban of a changeis in therural–urban
main factor
classification
behind the highis the
ratemain factor behind
of urbanization the high rate
in Indonesia, of urbanization
mainly in Indonesia,
since the 1990s [42]. mainly since the
1990s [42].
Table 3. Urban population growth in 1990, 2000, and 2010.
Table 3. Urban population growth in 1990, 2000, and 2010.
Urban Population Urban Population Urban Population % Urban % Urban % Urban % Urban 2035
Urban1990
Population
(‘000) Urban2000
Population
(‘000) Urban 2010
Population
(‘000) % Urban
1990 % Urban
2000 % Urban
2010 % Urban 2035
(Projected)
1990 (‘000) 2000 (‘000) 2010 (‘000) 1990 2000 2010 (Projected)
Central Java 7572 12,554 14,799 27.0 40.2 45.7 60.8
Central
Java Island 7572
36,037 12,554
58,980 14,799
79,950 27.035.7 40.248.7 45.760.8 60.8
77.6
Java
Java
Indonesia 55,434 85,381 118,320 30.9 42.4 49.8 66.6
36,037 58,980 79,950 35.7 48.7 60.8 77.6
Island
Indonesia 55,434 85,381 118,320 30.9 42.4 49.8 66.6
Considering the rural–urban status from the BPS data, Table 4 indicates that the percentage of
urban villages in Central
Considering Java is much
the rural–urban statushigher than
from the thedata,
BPS Indonesian
Table 4 average.
indicates The
that gap is even more
the percentage of
significant in 2010
urban villages compared
in Central Java to
is 2000. Duringthan
much higher thesethe
10Indonesian
years (2000average.
to 2010),The
both
gapurban villages
is even more
in Central Java
significant andcompared
in 2010 Indonesiatohave
2000.nearly
Duringdoubled
these 10in years
population.
(2000 toHowever,
2010), bothin composition,
urban villagesthe
in
difference of urban
Central Java villages in have
and Indonesia 2000 and 2010doubled
nearly showed in a significant
population.change in urban
However, in villages’ statusthe
composition, in
difference of urban villages in 2000 and 2010 showed a significant change in urban villages’ status in
Land
Land 2018,
2018,7,
7,x34FOR PEER REVIEW 77of
of 15
15

Central Java as compared to total urban villages in Indonesia. The composition showed that Central
Central
Java hasJava as rapid
quite compared to total urban
development villages
in certain in Indonesia.
areas, The
particularly incomposition showed
areas directly thattoCentral
adjacent urban
Java has quite rapid development in certain areas, particularly in areas directly adjacent to urban areas.
areas.

Table 4. Composition of urban and rural villages in 1990, 2000, and 2010.
Table

Number of Villages % of Villages

Years Number of Villages % of Villages
Years Rural Urban Total Rural Urban
Rural Urban Total Rural Urban
Central Java 7168 1298 8466 84.7 15.3
1990
Central Java
Indonesia 7168
58,970 1298
6566 8466 84.7
65,536 15.3
89.9 10.1
1990
Indonesia
Central Java 58,970
7108 6566
1435 65,536 854389.9 10.1
83.2 16.8
2000 Central Java 7108 1435
Indonesia
2000 61,273 7496 8543 83.2
68,769 16.8
89.1 10.9
Indonesia
Central Java 61,273
5861 7496
2715 68,769 857689.1 10.9
68.3 31.7
2010 Central Java 5861 2715 8576 68.3 31.7
Indonesia
2010 61,340 15,786 77,126 79.5 20.5
Indonesia 61,340 15,786 77,126 79.5 20.5

Figure 3 illustrates that urbanization largely occurred in coastal areas. There are at least three
mainFigure
cities in3 Central
illustrates
Javathat urbanization
located largelycoast,
on the northern occurred in coastal
including areas. Pekalongan,
Semarang, There are at least three
and Tegal.
main cities
From 2000 to in 2010,
CentralthisJava located
coastal areaon the northern
developed coast, including
significantly, Semarang,
with those three mainPekalongan,
cities and and
the
Tegal.
adjacent areas getting increasingly larger in terms of population density and built-up area. the
From 2000 to 2010, this coastal area developed significantly, with those three main cities and In
adjacent areas
Indonesia, most getting
of theincreasingly largerare
urban centers in terms of population
located densityRelated
along the coast. and built-up area. In Indonesia,
to Indonesian colonial
most of harbors
history, the urban centers
were are located
the main gateway along the coast.
for trade. Related
Seaports havetocontinued
Indonesian tocolonial
host thehistory, harbors
main economic
were the main gateway for trade. Seaports have continued to host the main economic
activity and initiate urban development [28]. Jakarta, Surabaya, and Semarang are the three largest activity and
initiateareas
urban urban development
along the northern[28].coast
Jakarta, Surabaya,
of Java, and alland Semarang
of them are the three
are supported by alargest
seaporturban areas
as part of
along the northern coast of Java,
their strategic urban infrastructure. and all of them are supported by a seaport as part of their strategic
urban infrastructure.

Figure 3. Cont.
Land 7, x34FOR PEER REVIEW
2018, 7,
Land 2018, 88 of
of 15

Figure 3. Population density in the northern coastal region of Central Java, 2000 and 2010.
Figure 3. Population density in the northern coastal region of Central Java, 2000 and 2010.

3.2. Urbanization
3.2. Urbanization in in the
the Northern
Northern Coastal
Coastal Area
Area
In Indonesia,
In Indonesia,Java Island
Java is known
Island as a fast-growing
is known island with
as a fast-growing islandmore thanmore
with 137 million
than 137 inhabitants.
million
Java Island has become the most dynamic area of development and, therefore, continues
inhabitants. Java Island has become the most dynamic area of development and, therefore, continues to accelerate
urbanization
to processes. The
accelerate urbanization urbanization
processes. process itself process
The urbanization has contributed
itself hastocontributed
rapid urbantodevelopment,
rapid urban
including in coastal areas of northern Central Java. As shown
development, including in coastal areas of northern Central Java. As shown in Table 5, in
around
Table 40% of people
5, around 40%
in Central Java live in the northern coastal area, and 50% of the urban population
of people in Central Java live in the northern coastal area, and 50% of the urban population is in this is in this area.
However,
area. because
However, of the
because of emerging
the emergingin situ urbanization
in situ urbanizationlocated
located in inthe
theinner
innerarea
areaofof the
the island
island
(see
(see Figure 4), the proportion of urban villages located in the northern coastal area decreased from
Figure 4), the proportion of urban villages located in the northern coastal area decreased from
50.7% in 2000 to 41.9% in
50.7% in 2000 to 41.9% in 2010. 2010.

Table 5. Comparison of total population, urban population, and urban village in 1990, 2000, and 2010.
Table 5. Comparison of total population, urban population, and urban village in 1990, 2000, and 2010.
TotalPopulation
Total Population Urban Population
Urban Population Urban
UrbanVillages
Villages
Central
CentralJava
Java Northern
NorthernCoastal
Coastal Central
CentralJava
Java Northern
Northern Coastal
Coastal CentralJava
Central Java Northern
Northern Coastal
Coastal
Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number %
Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number %
1990 28,634,410 100 11,425,057 39.9 7,572,179 100 3,913,231 51.7 1298 100 688 53.0
1990 31,219,629
2000 28,634,410 100100 11,425,057 39.9
12,471,063 39.9 7,572,179
8,546,793 100
100 3,913,231
4,393,157 51.7
51.4 1298
1435 100
100 688
727 53.0
50.7
2000 33,497,821
2010 31,219,629 100100 12,471,063 41.1
13,762,335 39.9 8,546,793
13,541,123 100
100 4,393,157
6,775,799 51.4
50.0 1435
2715 100
100 727
1138 50.7
41.9
2010 33,497,821 100 13,762,335 41.1 13,541,123 100 6,775,799 50.0 2715 100 1138 41.9

The change in status from rural to urban villages is indicated as the main cause of high
The change
urbanization in status
in the fromwas
1990s and rural to urban
a source of villages
continued is indicated
growth betweenas the main cause
2000 and of high
2010 [41].
Industrialization does not necessarily take place as part of urban growth. Two types[41].
urbanization in the 1990s and was a source of continued growth between 2000 and 2010 of
Industrialization does
industrialization not driving
are the necessarily take
force ofplace as part of in
urbanization urban growth.
Central JavaTwo
[37].types of industrialization
Industrialization from
are theleads
above driving to force of urbanization
the classical in Central
urban growth model,Java [37]. Industrialization
whereby from above status
the changing rural–urban leads to the
takes
classical urban growth model, whereby the changing rural–urban status takes
place in urban fringe areas. In different types, in situ urbanization is derived from the endogenous place in urban fringe
areas. In Similar
process. differenttotypes, in situ
the case urbanization
of the is derived
Yangtze River Delta,from
ruraltheindustrialization
endogenous process. Similar
has also to the
led to the
case of the Yangtze River Delta, rural industrialization has also led to the emergence
emergence of urban areas in locations that are not necessarily close to big cities [18]. Rural of urban areas in
locations that are not necessarily close to big cities [18]. Rural industrialization
industrialization may also strengthen the role of small–medium-sized cities. Figure 4 shows the urban may also strengthen
the role of
villages small–medium-sized
that emerged mainly betweencities. Figure 4 shows
2000 and 2010 the
buturban
are not villages
locatedthat emerged
close to coremainly between
regions, which
2000 and 2010 but are not located close to core regions, which is an
is an indication that in situ urbanization has been taking place in Central Java. indication that in situ urbanization
has been taking place in Central Java.
Land 2018, 7, 34 9 of 15
Land 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Figure 4. Urban
Urban rural
rural status
status in the northern coastal region of Central Java; 1990, 2000, and 2010.

The
The population
population growth
growth of
of coastal
coastal areas
areas in
in Central
Central Java
Java had
had shown
shown aa locational
locational preference
preference forfor
people living in areas where there is an opportunity of gaining access to coastal zones,
people living in areas where there is an opportunity of gaining access to coastal zones, especially related especially
related to the different
to the different resourcesresources
availableavailable
and beingand beingnear
located located
tradingnear trading opportunities
opportunities [10]. An
[10]. An increasing
increasing
number of people living in and near coastal areas will increase disaster vulnerability since coastal since
number of people living in and near coastal areas will increase disaster vulnerability areas
coastal areas protect residents against various hazards. Therefore, as shown in Figure
protect residents against various hazards. Therefore, as shown in Figure 4, the number of urban status 4, the number
of urban
from 1990,status
2000,from
and 1990, 2000,
2010 has and 2010
shifted fromhas shifted
in and nearfrom in and
coastal near
zones to coastal zones For
inland areas. to inland areas.
example, in
For example, in Semarang City, population growth and development have been
Semarang City, population growth and development have been significantly shifting away from the significantly shifting
away from
coastline so the
the coastline so therisk
environmental environmental risk isHowever,
is much less [43]. much less the[43]. However,ofthe
development development
Central of
Java is still
Central Java is still strongly dominated by the cities located in
strongly dominated by the cities located in the northern coastal areas [44]. the northern coastal areas [44].

3.3.
3.3. Climate-Related
Climate-Related Disasters
Disasters in
in the
the Northern
Northern Coastal Area
Coastal Area
Climate
Climate change
change has has various
various different
different impacts
impacts on on human
human activities.
activities. Drought
Drought will will seriously
seriously
influence
influence agricultural
agriculturalactivities
activities[6].
[6].Tidal
Tidalfluctuations
fluctuations and changing
and changing dynamics
dynamics from sea level
from rise and
sea level rise
land subsidence are likely to influence people working in the fishery sector.
and land subsidence are likely to influence people working in the fishery sector. Flooding will lead Flooding will lead to a
broader impact, not only in physical terms because of the damage
to a broader impact, not only in physical terms because of the damage to infrastructure caused by to infrastructure caused by
flooding,
flooding, butbut also
also inin socioeconomic
socioeconomic terms,terms, asas people
people may may not
not be
be able
able toto conduct
conduct their
their daily
daily activities.
activities.
Ultimately,
Ultimately, flooding is also regarded as the most frequent natural disaster in Asia, including in
flooding is also regarded as the most frequent natural disaster in Asia, including in China
China
and
and Indonesia [3,18,29].
Indonesia [3,18,29].
Flooding
Flooding was was the most common
the most common and and destructive
destructive disaster
disaster occurring
occurring in Central Java’s
in Central Java’s coastal
coastal
areas, followed by tidal flooding and droughts (see Table 6 and Figure 5). Of
areas, followed by tidal flooding and droughts (see Table 6 and Figure 5). Of the total of 335 flooding the total of 335 flooding
events, about 40%
events, about 40%were were10-km
10-kmfrom fromthe the coast
coast andand20% 20%
werewere
lessless
thanthan5 km 5 from
km from the coast
the coast duringduring
2010.
2010. T
Tidal flooding occurs near the coastline: more than 80% of events were experienced at the distancethe
idal flooding occurs near the coastline: more than 80% of events were experienced at of
distance
less than of lessaway.
5 km than 5Drought
km away. Drought
events were events were more
more prevalent at prevalent
a distanceat ofa5distance
to 40 km.ofHowever,
5 to 40 km. in
However,
general, the indistribution
general, the of distribution
hazard eventsof hazard
showed events showed
a pattern a pattern
where where
the closer thethe closer
area is tothe
thearea is
coast,
to the coast, the higher
the higher the number of events.the number of events.
It
It is
is aa common
common phenomenon
phenomenon that that urbanization
urbanization increases
increases the the flood
flood risk
risk asas aa result
result of urban
of urban
development and concentration, which increases vulnerability [35]. To
development and concentration, which increases vulnerability [35]. To an even further extent, the an even further extent, the
number of flood events in cities around the world is attributed to the change
number of flood events in cities around the world is attributed to the change in extreme precipitation in extreme precipitation
due
due to climate change
to climate change [4,45–48].
[4,45–48]. However,
However, it it is
is important
important to to note
note that
that disaster
disaster is is not
not mainly
mainly duedue to
to
changing natural phenomena but rather to human activities. A large
changing natural phenomena but rather to human activities. A large number of flood events do notnumber of flood events do not
necessarily
necessarily taketakeplace
placewithin
within a short
a short distance
distance of theof coastline.
the coastline.
UrbanUrban concentration
concentration and various
and various human
human activities have led people to seek new locations for settlement. This movement contributes to
a large extent of land conversion that may increase flooding frequency due to poor infiltration and a
reduction in flow resistance. Increasing urban area has also contributed to what is called the Urban
Land 2018, 7, 34 10 of 15

activities have led people to seek new locations for settlement. This movement contributes to a large
extent of land
Land 2018, conversion
7, x FOR that may increase flooding frequency due to poor infiltration and a reduction
PEER REVIEW 10 of 15
in flow resistance. Increasing urban area has also contributed to what is called the Urban Heat Island
Heat effect,
(UHI) Islandwhereby
(UHI) effect, whereby of
the temperature theurban
temperature of urban
areas is higher than areas
that ofisthe
higher than that
surrounding areasof[49].
the
surrounding
Therefore, areas [49].
increasing UHI Therefore,
in a city isincreasing UHI by
also followed in athe
city is also followed
enhancement by the[49].
of rainfall enhancement
As found in of
rainfall [49}. As found in some American cities, urban areas have a great influence
some American cities, urban areas have a great influence in increasing rainfall rates from 28% to 30% in increasing
rainfalla rates
within from
specific 28% to[46,47].
distance 30% within a specific distance [46,47].

Table6.6. Different
Table Differentclimate-related
climate-relateddisasters
disastersdistributed
distributedalong
alongthe
thenorthern
northerncoastal
coastalarea
areainin2010.
2010.

Total Villages
Distance from Coastline Total Villages
Distance from Coastline Flood Tidal Flood Drought
Flood Tidal Flood Drought
Less than 5 km 80 53 6
Less5–10
thankm5 km 80
77 537 67
5–10 km 77 7 7
10–20 km 136 5 8
10–20 km 136 5 8
20–40km
20–40 km 29
29 - - 77
More than
More than 40 40kmkm 13
13 - - --
Total villages
Total villages 335
335 6565 2828

Figure 5. Distribution of different climate disasters in 2010.

Figure 5. Distribution of different climate disasters in 2010.

3.4. Urbanization and Climate-Related Disasters

3.4. Urbanization and Climate-Related Disasters
Urbanization in coastal areas has led to serious environmental problems. The increasing
Urbanization
occurrence in disasters
of climate coastal areas
can behas led to to
attributed serious environmental
sea level rise [10,50]. Aproblems. The increasing
similar phenomenon was
occurrence of climate disasters can be attributed to sea level rise [10,50].
found in the coastal area of Java [20,28]. As shown in Figures 6 and 7, flood events in 2010 A similar phenomenon
were mostly
was found
in areas in the
with coastal area
population of Java
growth less[20,28].
than 1%,Asboth
shown in Figures
in rural 6 and areas
and urban 7, flood events
in the in 2010
coastal were
region of
mostly in areas with population growth less than 1%, both in rural and urban areas
Central Java. However, in the second layer in urban area, flood events are found more consistently in the coastal region
of Central
where Java.
there is aHowever,
populationin growth
the secondratelayer in urban
of more area,
than 3% (18flood events
events). are found
In rural areas,more consistently
a second layer of
where there iswere
flood events a population
dominatedgrowth rate of
by areas more the
where thanpopulation
3% (18 events).
growthIn rural
rate isareas,
1% toa second
1.99%, layer
with of
79
flood
eventsevents
found.were
Thedominated by areas
flood events in thewhere
studythearea
population growth
were mostly rate isin1%
found to 1.99%,
coastal with 79 events
settlements where
found.
humanThe flood interact
activities events in thepoor
with study area were mostly
infrastructure found in coastal settlements where human
condition.
activities interact with poor infrastructure condition.
Land 2018,
2018, 7,
7, x34FOR PEER REVIEW 11
11 of
of 15

200 45
180 40
160 35

Urban Villages
Total Villages

140 30
120 25
100
20
80
60 15
40 10
20 5
0 0
1.00% - 2.00%- < 1.00% - 2.00%-
< 1.00% >3.00% >3.00%
1.99% 3.00% 1.00% 1.99% 3.00%
Flood 181 79 34 39 Flood 41 8 10 18
Dorught 13 7 5 3 Drought 2 5 3 1
Tidal Flood 21 20 14 10 Tidal Flood 13 9 5 4

Figure 6. Distribution of different climate-related disasters within population growth rates in 2010.
Figure 6. Distribution of different climate-related disasters within population growth rates in 2010.

Drought events were mostly distributed where there were moderate population growth rates in
Drought events
urban areas (45%), wereinmostly
while distributed
rural areas, where there
these events weremore
occurred moderate population
often in growth
regions where rates
there in
was
urban
a less than 1% growth rate (46%). Drought events, both in rural and urban areas in the northerna
areas (45%), while in rural areas, these events occurred more often in regions where there was
less than
coastal 1% growth
region rate Java,
of Central (46%).subsequently
Drought events, bothhuman
affected in rurallife,
andparticularly
urban areasininterms
the northern coastal
of the need for
region of Central Java, subsequently affected human life, particularly in terms of the need
water for different activities. From the field survey, drought in urban areas due to decreased rainfall for water
for
has different
brought activities. From level
about a certain the field survey,
of water droughtPeople
shortage. in urban
andareas due to decreased
the environment are therainfall has
primary
brought about
recipients a certainimpact.
of drought level ofTherefore,
water shortage. People
population and the
growth isenvironment
recognized asare the primary
a major sourcerecipients
of water
of drought impact. Therefore, population
problems in the future urban environment. growth is recognized as a major source of water problems in
the future urban environment.

Figure 7. Spatial Distribution of different climate-related disasters within population growth rates
Figure 7. Spatial Distribution of different climate-related disasters within population growth rates in 2010.
in 2010.
It is also important to point out that population growth may reflect economic development. The
It is also will
phenomenon important
lead to to point out change
a significant that population growth
in the physical may reflectwhich
environment, economic development.
is land conversion.
The phenomenon will lead to a significant change in the physical environment,
Land conversion should be followed by appropriate infrastructure support. Thus, as was the which is land
case
conversion. Land conversion should be followed by appropriate infrastructure
with Can Tho City, Vietnam, there will be an increased risk that the emerging urban area support. Thus, as was
will
the case with
experience Can
land Tho City, without
conversion Vietnam,good
thereinfrastructure
will be an increased
planningrisk that the[35].
support emerging
This mayurban areawhy
explain will
experience
flooding is land conversion
also likely without
to happen goodwith
in areas infrastructure planninggrowth,
lower population supportregarded
[35]. Thisasmay explain
newly why
growing
flooding is alsothe
regions. From likely
pointto of
happen
view ofinurban
areas with lower
disaster population
governance, growth,
this becomesregarded
a majorasproblem
newly growing
as most
regions. From the
small–medium point
cities thatofexperience
view of urban disaster
disasters governance,
lack the budgetthis
andbecomes
capacityatomajor problem
address as most
the problem.
small–medium cities that experience disasters lack
As was also found in West Bengal, urban disaster governance 1 the budget and capacity to address the problem.
in small–medium cities is a challenging
As was[51].
issue also The
foundproblem
in West Bengal,
is not urban disaster
actually governance initself
the urbanization small–medium
but rathercities
the isplanning
a challenging
and
management of the city, particularly the provision of goods and services such as infrastructure [52].
Land 2018, 7, 34 12 of 15

issue [51]. The problem is not actually the urbanization itself but rather the planning and management
of the city, particularly the provision of goods and services such as infrastructure [52].
In the end, discourse on urbanization and climate-related disasters is also related to the debate about
balanced versus unbalanced development. Balanced development advocates believe that all centers
of development (i.e., cities) should be allocated sufficient funds so there will be equal development
among cities with comparable numbers of inhabitants. However, there are several counter-arguments
stating that this policy theory is likely to ignore the fact that many regions still lack capital, mainly skilled
labor and technology. Therefore, unbalanced development, in which the development would only be
concentrated in a particular sector, is more prevalent in most Asian countries and has resulted in urban
primacy. These phenomena take place in the study area, and have been leading to various environmental
problems, including those related to climate change impacts. This may explain why some scholars who
are inspired by the urban development in European cities [53–55] promote polycentric development as
an ideal type of regional spatial structure. One concern is that, the polycentric model would be able to
maintain society, the economy, and the environment in a good balance.

4. Conclusions
Climate-related disasters along the coast of Central Java are more dominant in areas with a low
level of population growth. On the other hand, each type of disaster shows a different pattern: flooding
was found in almost the whole study area, tidal floods typically occurred close to the coastline, while
drought occurred quite a distance from the coastal area. The number of disasters is quite high in
urban areas with high population growth. This indicates that urbanization to some extent influences
the number of disasters. Urbanization has been leading to a higher risk of climate change impacts.
As urbanization in Central Java take place not only as a part of the urban growth process but also via
in situ urbanization, climate-related disasters on the northern coast have been spread out at a greater
distance from the coastline and in areas with lower population growth.
Focusing on the regional level, the urbanization level of the northern coast of Central Java is
likely growing as the population is increasing. Accordingly, this study proposes some future research
directions and policy recommendations. First, spatial planning policy should be regarded as an
important instrument to anticipate the urbanization pattern at a regional level. This requires deeper
studies into spatial planning policy for promoting more balanced development between regions.
Types of regional development such as polycentric development may be a good example where
socioeconomic and spatial planning policy can reduce regional disparity. Second, there are challenges
that should be addressed to enhance climate change adaptation strategies, including collaboration
with communities and stakeholders. On the other hand, the distribution of hazard events in different
locations within the study area requires the awareness of local authorities on the impact disasters will
have on people and human settlements. Therefore, improving the awareness of people living in coastal
areas becomes a major concern as the initial action comes from the local people. All efforts towards
climate-related disaster mitigation and adaptation should be focused on human action.
This study is able to show the spatial development of urbanization as well as the regions or locations
where more disasters take place. It was elaborated on a regional scale. However, climate-related disasters
can be more effectively described at the micro level, where people, groups, and communities are directly
impacted. Future research could focus on the relationship with and impact of urbanization in those two
aspects, i.e., livelihood and the environment.

Acknowledgments: We would like to acknowledge all the team members for their efforts in collecting data
during the field survey. This research was funded by Diponegoro University in collaboration with the Directorate
of Research and Community Services (Direktorat Penelitian dan Pengabdian Masyarakat/DP2M)—Directorate
General of Higher Education, Ministry of Research and Technology, Indonesia.
Author Contributions: Iwan Rudiarto: data collection and analysis, writing and finalization of the paper.
Wiwandari Handayani: research design, data collection, improving and reviewing the paper. Jawoto Sih Setyono:
refine research framework and polish English writing.
Land 2018, 7, 34 13 of 15

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Wamsler, C.; Brink, E.; Rivera, C. Planning for climate change in urban areas: From theory to practice.
J. Clean. Prod. 2013, 50, 68–81. [CrossRef]
2. UNISDR. Making cities resilient: My city is getting ready (campaign kit). In 2012–2011 World Disaster
Reduction Campaign; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2010.
3. Chandrappa, R.; Gupta, S.; Kulshrestha, U.C. Coping with Climate change: Principles and Asian Context; Springer
Science & Business Media: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2011.
4. IPCC. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Geneva,
Switzerland, 2007.
5. IPCC. Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation. In A
Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Field, C.B., Barros, V.,
Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Dokken, D.J., Ebi, K.L., Mastrandrea, M.D., Mach, K.J., Plattner, G.-K., Allen, S.K., et al.,
Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2012; p. 582.
6. Bhatta, G.D.; Aggarwal, P.K.; Shrivastava, A.K.; Sproule, L. Is rainfall gradient a factor of livelihood
diversification? Empirical evidence from around climatic hotspots in Indo-Gangetic Plains. Environ. Dev. Sustain.
2016, 18, 1657–1678. [CrossRef]
7. Lins-de-Barros, F.M. Integrated coastal vulnerability assessment: A methodology for coastal cities
management integrating socioeconomic, physical and environmental dimensions-Case study of Regiao dos
Lagos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2017, 149, 1–11. [CrossRef]
8. Thao, N.D.; Takagi, H.; Esteban, M. (Eds.) Coastal Disasters and Climate Change in Vietnam: Engineering and
Planning Perspectives; Elsevier: London, UK, 2014.
9. Beatley, T.; Brower, D.; Schwab, A.K. An introduction to Coastal Zone Management; Island Press: Washington,
DC, USA, 2002.
10. McGranahan, G.; Balk, D.; Anderson, B. The rising tide: Assessing the risks of climate change and human
settlements in low elevation coastal zones. Environ. Urban. 2007, 19, 17–37. [CrossRef]
11. Small, C.; Nicholls, R.J. A global analysis of human settlement in coastal zones. J. Coast. Res. 2003, 19,
584–599.
12. Wang, S.; Ma, H.; Zhao, Y. Exploring the relationship between urbanization and the eco-environment—A
case study of Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region. Ecol. Indic. 2014, 45, 171–183. [CrossRef]
13. Seto, K.C.; Satterthwaite, D. Interactions between urbanization and global environmental change. Curr. Opin.
Environ. Sustain. 2010, 2, 127–128. [CrossRef]
14. Ntelekos, A.A.; Smith, J.A.; Krajewski, W.F. Climatological analyses of thunderstorms and flash floods in the
Baltimore metropolitan region. J. Hydrometeorol. 2007, 8, 88–101. [CrossRef]
15. Smith, J.A.; Baeck, M.L.; Meierdiercks, K.L.; Nelson, P.A.; Miller, A.J.; Holland, E.J. Field studies of the storm
event hydrologic response in an urbanizing watershed. Water Resour. Res. 2005, 41, W10413. [CrossRef]
16. Baeck, M.L.; Smith, J.A. Rainfall estimation by the WSR-88D for heavy rainfall events. Weather Forecast. 1998,
13, 416–436. [CrossRef]
17. UNFPA. Urbanization in Indonesia. Monograph Series 4; UNFPA: Jakarta, Indonesia, 2015.
18. Gu, C.; Hu, L.; Zhang, X.; Wang, X.; Guo, J. Climate change and urbanization in the Yangtze River Delta.
Habitat Int. 2011, 35, 544–552. [CrossRef]
19. Orleans Reed, S.; Friend, R.; Toan, V.C.; Thinphanga, P.; Sutarto, R.; Singh, D. “Shared learning” for building
urban climate resilience-experiences from Asian cities. Environ. Urban. 2013, 25, 393–412. [CrossRef]
20. Handayani, W.; Rudiarto, I.; Setyono, J.S.; Chigbu, U.E.; Sukmawati, A.M.A. Vulnerability assessment:
A comparison of three different city sizes in the coastal area of Central Java, Indonesia. Adv. Clim. Chang. Res.
2017, 8, 286–296. [CrossRef]
21. Kumar, T.S.; Mahendra, R.S.; Nayak, S.; Radhakrishnan, K.; Sahu, K.C. Coastal vulnerability assessment for
Orissa state, East Coast of India. J. Coast. Res. 2010, 26, 523–534. [CrossRef]
22. Sales, R.F.M., Jr. Vulnerability and adaptation of coastal communities to climate variability and sea-level rise:
Their implications for integrated coastal management in Cavite City, Philippines. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2009,
52, 395–404. [CrossRef]
Land 2018, 7, 34 14 of 15

23. Torresan, S.; Critto, A.; Valle, M.D.; Harvey, N.; Marcomini, A. Assessing coastal vulnerability to climate
change: Comparing segmentation at global and regional scales. Sustain. Sci. 2008, 3, 45–65. [CrossRef]
24. Dickson, E.; Baker, J.L.; Hoornweg, D.; Tiwari, A. Urban Risk Assessments: Understanding Disaster and Climate
Risk in Cities; World Bank Publications: Washington, DC, USA, 2012.
25. Smith, K.; Petley, D.N. Mass Movement Hazards. In Environmental Hazards-Assessing Risk and Reducing
Disaster; Routledge: London, UK, 2009; pp. 205–226.
26. Central Bureau of Statistics. Population Density per km2 by Province. 2010. Available online: http://www.
bps.go.id/ (accessed on 30 March 2010).
27. Central Bureau of Statistics. Statistik Indonesia 2010; Central Bureau of Statistics: Jakarta, Indonesia, 2010.
28. Handayani, W.; Kumalasari, N.R. Migration as Future Adaptive Capacity: The Case of Java—Indonesia.
In Environmental Change, Adaptation and Migration; Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke, UK, 2015; pp. 117–138.
29. Marfai, M.A.; King, L.; Singh, L.P.; Mardiatno, D.; Sartohadi, J.; Hadmoko, D.S.; Dewi, A. Natural hazards in
Central Java Province, Indonesia: An overview. Environ. Geol. 2008, 56, 335–351. [CrossRef]
30. Handmer, J.; Honda, Y.; Kundzewicz, Z.W.; Arnell, N.; Benito, G.; Hatfield, J.; Mohamed, I.F.; Peduzzi, P.;
Wu, S.; Sherstyukov, B.; et al. Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate
Change Adaptation. In A Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC); Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2012; pp. 231–290.
31. Nicholls, R.J.; Hanson, S.; Herweijer, C.; Patmore, N.; Hallegate, S.; Corfee-Morlot, J.; Chateau, J.;
Muir-Wood, R. Ranking Port Cities with High Exposures and Vulnerability to Climate Extremes: Exposure Estimates;
OECD Environment Working Papers No. 1; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2007.
32. Li, Y.; Zhang, X.; Zhai, X.; Ma, S.; Cao, H.; Cao, J. Assessing spatial vulnerability from rapid urbanization to
inform coastal urban, regional planning. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2016, 123, 53–65. [CrossRef]
33. Birhanu, D.; Kim, H.; Jang, C.; Park, S. Flood risk and vulnerability of Addis Ababa City due to climate
change and urbanization. Procedia Eng. 2016, 154, 696–702. [CrossRef]
34. Malalgoda, C.; Amaratunga, D.; Haigh, R. Challenges in creating a disaster resilient built environment.
Procedia Econ. Financ. 2014, 18, 736–744. [CrossRef]
35. Huong, H.T.L.; Pathirana, A. Urbanization and climate change impacts on future urban flooding in Can Tho
city, Vietnam. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2013, 17, 379–394. [CrossRef]
36. Wahyudi, S.I.; Ni’am, M.F.; Le Bras, G. Problems, causes and handling analysis of tidal flood, erosion, and
sedimentation in northern coast of Central Java: Review and recommendation. Int. J. Civ. Environ. Eng. 2012,
12, 65–69.
37. Hadayani, W. Rural-Urban Transition in Central Java: Population and economic structural changes based on
cluster analysis. Land 2013, 2, 419–436. [CrossRef]
38. Rudiarto, I. Spatial Assessment of Rural Resources and Livelihood Development in [a] Mountain Area of Java: A Case
from Central Java, Indonesia; Margraf Publishers: Weikersheim, Germany, 2010.
39. OECD. Data and Metadata Reporting and Presentation Handbook; OECD: Paris, France, 2007.
40. CBS. Pedoman Pencacahan Penentuan Status desa–kelurahan/Guidance for Rural–Urban Classification; CBS: Jakarta,
Indonesia, 2000.
41. CBS. Indonesian Population Projection 2010–2035; CBS: Jakarta, Indonesia, 2013.
42. Firman, T.; Kombaitan, B.; Pradono, P. The dynamics of Indonesia’s urbanization, 1980–2006. Urban Policy Res.
2007, 25, 433–454. [CrossRef]
43. Handayani, W.; Rudiarto, I. Dynamics of Urban Growth in Semarang Metropolitan-Central Java:
An Examination Based on Built-Up Area and Population Change. J. Geogr. Geol. 2014, 6, 80. [CrossRef]
44. Tirtosudarmo, R. Social transformation in the Northern coastal cities of Java: A comparative study in Cirebon
and Gresik. J. Indones. Soc. Sci. Humanit. 2011, 3, 161–170.
45. IPCC. Climate Change and Biodiversity; Technical Paper–V; Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change:
Geneva, Switzerland, 2002.
46. Shepherd, J.M.; Pierce, H.; Negri, A.J. Rainfall modification by major urban areas: Observations from
spaceborne rain radar on the TRMM satellite. J. Appl. Meteorol. 2002, 41, 689–701. [CrossRef]
47. Mote, T.L.; Lacke, M.C.; Shepherd, J.M. Radar signatures of the urban effect on precipitation distribution:
A case study for Atlanta, Georgia. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34. [CrossRef]
48. Dixon, P.G.; Mote, T.L. Patterns and causes of Atlanta’s urban heat island-initiated precipitation.
J. Appl. Meteorol. 2003, 42, 1273–1284. [CrossRef]
Land 2018, 7, 34 15 of 15

49. Seto, K.C.; Kaufmann, R.K. Urban growth in South China and impacts on local precipitation. In Proceedings
of the 5th Urban Research Symposium, Marseille, France, 28–30 June 2009.
50. Bosello, F.; De Cian, E. Climate change, sea level rise, and coastal disasters. A review of modeling practices.
Energy Econ. 2014, 46, 593–605. [CrossRef]
51. Rumbach, A. Decentralization and small cities: Towards more effective urban disaster governance?
Habitat Int. 2016, 52, 35–42. [CrossRef]
52. Pares-Ramos, I.K.; Alvarez-Berrios, N.L.; Aide, T.M. Mapping urbanization dynamics in major cities of
Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia using night-time satellite imagery. Land 2013, 2, 37–59. [CrossRef]
53. Glasson, J.; Mashall, T. Regional Planning; Routledge: London, UK, 2007.
54. Davoudi, S. Polycentricity in European spatial planning: From an analytical tool to a normative agenda.
Eur. Plan. Stud. 2003, 11, 979–999. [CrossRef]
55. Kloosterman, R.C.; Musterd, S. The polycentric urban region: Towards a research agenda. Urban Stud. 2001,
37, 623–633. [CrossRef]

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
 © 2018. This work is licensed under
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (the “License”).
Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this
content in accordance with the terms of the License.