A POETRY ANTHOLOGY FOR

SOUTHERN AFRICAN STUDENTS

HELEN MOFFETT
 third edition

A POETRY ANTHOLOGY FOR

SOUTHERN AFRICAN STUDENTS

HELEN MOFFETT

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

SOUTHERN AFRICA
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

Southern Africa
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Seasons come to pass: A poetry anthology for Southern African students
ISBN 978 0 199059300
TIlis selection © Helen Moffett 20) 3
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 v

How to use this book xiii

Introductory Notes 1
English history and literature: A contextual time-frame 1
Analysing poetry 11
Li Ho (791-817)
On the Frontier 31
Tu Mu (803-852)
The Gate Tower of Ch'i-an City 32
To Judge Han Ch'o at Yang-chou 32
Anonymous (eighth or ninth century)
The Viking Terror 33
Geoffrey Chaucer (c,1343-1400)
From The Canterbury Tales 34
The Pardoner's Prologue (extracts) 34
Anonymous (fifteenth century)
Western Wind 39
Anonymous (fifteenth century)
I Sing of a Maiden 40
Anonymous (fifteenth century)
The Unquiet Grave 42
Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542)
Whoso List to Hunt 44
My Lute, Awake! 45
Sir Walter Raleigh (c,1552-1618)
The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd 47
Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586)
Sonnet: Who Will in Fairest Book of Nature Know 48
Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)
The Passionate Shepherd to His Love 49
Chidiock Tichborne (c.1563-1586)
Tichborne's Elegy 51
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
Sonnet: let Me Not to the Marriage of True Minds 52
Sonnet: Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day? 53
Sonnet: My Mistress' Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun 53
Song: Full Fathom Five Thy Father Lies 54
John Donne (1572-1631)
To His Mistress Going to Bed 55
Holy Sonnet: Batter My Heart, Three-personed God 56
The Sun Rising 57
 vii
VI
--.-~
Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861) en
if> Ben Jonson (1572-1637) E-<
E-<
59 From A Curse for a Nation 97 z
Z
~
On My First Daughter ~
59 Prologue 97 E-<
E-< On My First Son z
z Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) 0
0 Robert Herrick (1591-1674)
U 61 Chaucer 99 U
To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time
Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-1892)
George Herbert (1593-1633)
62 Ulysses 100
Virtue
62 From In Memoriam AH.H. 102
The Flower
Robert Browning (1812-1889)
John Milton (1608-1674)
65 My last Duchess 107
On His Blindness
Ferrara 107
Anne Bradstreet (c.1612-1672)
66 Emily Bronte (1818-1848)
The Author to Her Book
No Coward Soul is Mine 110
Andrew Marvell (1621-1678)
68 Walt Whitman (1819-1892)
To His Coy Mistress
Lady Mary Chudleigh (1656-1710) When I Heard at the Close of the Day 111
70 Matthew Arnold (1822-1888)
To the Ladies
Dover Beach 112
Alexander Pope (1688-1744)
71 Anonymous (c.1850)
A Little Learning
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762) f<ifaben Bay Song 114
An Answer to a Love-Letter in Verse 72 Emily Dickinson (1830-1886)
I Taste a Liquor Never Brewed 115
Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)
74 The Bustle in a House 116
A Short Song of Congratulation
Much Madness is Divinest Sense 116
Thomas Gray (1716-1771)
Ode on the Death of a Favourite Cat, Drowned in a Tub of Gold Fishes 76 Wild Nights - Wild Nights 116
Christina Rossetti (1830-1894)
William Cowper (1731-1800)
78 Song 117
The Negro's Complaint
William Blake (1757-1827) In an Artist's Studio 118
80 Thomas Hardy (1840-1928)
London
82 In Time of 'The Breaking of Nations' 119
The Sick Rose
Robert Burns (1759-1796) Drummer Hodge 120
83 Gerard Manley Hopkins {1844-1889}
John Anderson, My Jo
No Worst, There is None 121
William Wordsworth (1770-1850)
84 The Wind hover: 122
Three Years She Grew
Composed upon Westminster Bridge, September 3, 1802 86 Olive Schreiner (1855-1920)

I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud 87 The Cry of South Africa 123

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936)
Kubla Khan or, a Vision in a Dream. A Fragment 88 If- 124
William Butler Yeats (1865-1939)
George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824)
90 No Second Troy 126
When We Two Parted
The Second Coming 127
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)
Ozymandias
92 Easter, 1916 128
93 An Irish Airman Foresees His Death 130
England in 1819
John Keats (1795-1821) Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869-1935)
When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be 94 Richard Cory 131
.~.
La Belle Dame Sans Merci
95 Eva Gore-Booth (1870-1926)
The Land to a Landlord 132

~~,,~-.
 --"-,

viii ix
--._.'

m Robert Frost (1874-1963) Langston Hughes (1902-1967) m

l-< l-<
134 Mother to Son 166 z
Z
~
The Road Not Taken ~
l-< 135 Stevie Smith (1902-1971) l-<
Mending Wall z
z Not Waving but Drowning 167
0 William Carlos Williams (1883-1963) 0
0 137 W. H. Auden (1907-1973) 0
The Red Wheelbarrow
137 Roman Wall Blues 168
This is Just to Say
Ezra Pound (1885-1972) Stop All the Clocks 169
138 Elizabeth Bishop (1911-1979)
In a Station of the Metro
The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter 139 One Art 170
H. D. (Hilda Doolittle) (1886-1961) Modikwe Dikobe (1913-?)
140 Khoikhoi-Son-Of-Man 171
Helen
Rupert Brooke (1887-1915) Jack Cope (1913-1992)

The Soldier 141 The Flying Fish 173

Katherine Mansfield (1888-1923) Dylan Thomas (1914-1953)

To God the Father 143 In My Craft or Sullen Art 175

T. S. Eliot (1888-1965) D. J. Opperman (1914-1985)
144 Christmas Carol 177
Preludes
146 Anthony Delius (1916-1989)
Journey of the Magi
Claude McKay (1890-1948) Deaf-and-Dumb School 179
If We Must Die 148 Gwendolyn Brooks (1917-2000)

Edna St. Vincent Millay (1892-1950) We Real Cool 181

I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed 149 Guy Butler (1918-2001)

Archibald Macleish (1892-1982) Near Hout Bay 182

150 Lawrence Ferlinghetti (1919-)
Ars Poetica
Wilfred Owen (1893-1918) Constantly Risking Absurdity 184
152 Es'kia (Ezekiel) Mphahlete (1919-2008)
Futility
Dulce et Decorum Est 153 A Poem 185
David Wright (1920-1994)
Elizabeth Cloete
The Spartan Woman 154 From On the Margin 187
Mao Tse-tung (1893-1976) Tatamkulu Afrika (1921-2002)

Lou Mountain Pass 155 The Handshake 189

E. E. Cummings (1894-1962) Philip larkin (1922-1985)

anyone lived in a pretty how town 156 Talking in Bed 192

Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) Agostinho Neto (1922-1979)
Questions from a Worker who Reads 158 The Grieved Lands 193
Hart Crane (1899-1932) Joseph Kumbirai (1922-1986)

My Grandmother's Love Letters 160 Dawn 195

Malvinia Reynolds (1900-1978) Denise Levertov (1923-1997)

What Have They Done to the Rain? 161 What Were They Like? 196
Roy Campbell (1901-1957) Antonio Jacinto (1924-1991)

The Zulu Girl 162 Letter from a Contract Worker 198

Sterling Brown (1901-1989) Maya Angelou (1928-)

Children's Children 164 Still I Rise 200

 "'--~',

x xi

en Michael Ondaatje (1943-) en

Helen Segal (1929-1988) f-<
!-< z
202 The Cinnamon Peeler 235
Z The Sea is All Male ~
~ Sindiwe Magona (1943-) l-<
!-< Adrienne Rich (1929-2012) z
z 203 Poem to a Brother 237 0
0 ') am in Danger _ Sir _'
U Wally Mongane Serote (1944-) U
Ted Hughes (1930-1998)
205 Alexandra 239
The Thought-Fox
206 City Johannesburg 240
Tractor
For Don M. _ Banned 241
Essop Patel (1930-2007)
In the Shadow of Signal Hill 208 Kumalau Tawali (1947-2006)

Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) The Old Woman's Message 243

209 Sally Bryer (1947-)
You're
210 Ingrid Jonker 244
Pheasant
Douglas Livingstone (1932-1996) Charles Mungoshi (1947-)
211 A Letter to a Son 245
The Sleep of Lions
Sipho Sepamla (1932-2007) Shabbir Banoobhai (1949-)

The Loneliness Beyond 213 when the first slave was brought to the cape 247
Michael Gilkes (1933-) Jeremy Cronin (1949-)

From Prospero's Island 214 Faraway city, there 248

Miranda 214 Mzi Mahola (1949-)
I'm a Man 249
Ingrid Jonker (1933-1965)
The Child Who Was Shot Dead by Soldiers at Nyanga 216 John Agard (1949-)
Audre Lorde (1934-1993) Poetry Jump-Up 251
218 Grace Nichols (1950-)
Coal
Taint 253
Kofi Awoonor (1935-)
The Weaver Bird 219 Ingrid de Kok (1951-)

Don Mattera {1935-} Small Passing 254

Remember 220 Dambudzo Marechera (1952-1987)

Keorapetse William Kgositsile (1938-) A Shred of Identity 256

221 Rushdy Siers (1952-)
Montage: Bouctou Lives
Geoffrey Haresnape (1939-) Sets of Two and their Silence 258
In and Around the Yacht Basin - Simon's Town 224 Stephen Watson (1954-2011)
The Rain That is Male 260
Seamus Heaney (1939-)
226 In Exile 261
Follower
Margaret Atwood (1939-) Karen Press (1956-)
227 Hope for Refugees 264
Nothing
Wopko Jensma (1939-?) Sujata Bhatt (1956-)

From Not Him 228 A Different History 266

Mbuyiseni Oswald Mtshali (1940-) Makhosazana Xaba (1957-)

Men in Chains 229 These Hands 268

Arthur Nortje (1942-1970) Chris van Wyk (1957-)
231 Memory 269
In Exile
Eva Bezwoda (1942-1976) Gcina Mhlophe (1958-)

A Woman's Hands 232 Say No 271

Jeni Couzyn (1942-) Beverly Rycroft (1959-)
The Red Hen's Last Will and Testament to The Last Cock on Earth 233 Room Thirteen 273
xii xiii

en
E-<
Z
Epiphanie Mukasano (1961-)
Pigeons and Their Songs 274 How to use this book
I'l
E-< Rethabile Masilo (1961-)
Z 275
o The Brown-veinedWhite
U Finuala Dowling (1962-)
276 The purpose of this poetry anthology is to support the learner or student who is coming
Tothe doctor who treated the raped baby and who felt such despair to grips with poetry written in English at senior high school or university undergraduate
Isabella Motadinyane (1963-2003) level- although I hope that anyone who would like to learn more about poetry enjoys the
278
ToutingTaxi selection of poems here, and finds the supporting notes helpful.
Lesego Rampolokeng (1965-) Before starting on the poems, it is recommended that you read the Introductory Notes
280
History very carefully, and discuss them with your lecturer, tutor, teachers and fellow students, if
Phillippa Yaa de Villiers (1966-) this is possible.
282
StolenRivers These notes are divided into two parts: the first section is designed to give you a very
Rustum Kozain (1966-) brief overview of the historical backdrop against which the English language and its
The Adorationof Cats 283
literature evolved. This is not intended as a list of facts you need to study or memorise
Mxolisi Nyezwa (1967-) in order to come to grips with poetry; instead, the idea is to give you a broad time-
284
quiet place frame into which you can fit the poems you will read. It will give you a sense of how
284
sea poems from various periods in history fit together, as well as sketching how scientific,
Gabeba Baderoon (1969-) religious, philosophical, geographical, political, artistic, social, and cultural shifts over
War Triptych:Silence,Glory,love 285
time shaped the development of English literature and poetry. A very rough outline
Michelle McGrane (1974-) of how English assumed its present shape will also explain both the infuriating (and
287
The SuitableGirl confusing) inconsistencies and the rewarding richness of the English language.
Cathy Park Hong (1976-) The second part of the Introductory Notes gives some basic 'how to' guidelines on
288
Balladin 0 analysing poetry, along with examples. These are suggestions only, but you may want to
Lebo Mashile (1979-) refer back to them and develop them as you become more practiced and confident in your
289
Walk sisterwalk dealings with poetry. Bear in mind that in learning to read poetry closely, appreciate it
and analyse it, you are acquiring a skill, not learning a syllabus. Developing sensitivity to
290
Glossary the language around you and evolving your own personal set of critical skills can benefit
294
Acknowledgements you in your future studies, work and recreation, and can add to your self-confidence and
297
Index communication skills. Obviously, these analytical skills can be applied to literature, arts
and popular cultural material in any language, not just English.
It's important not to skip this section, even if it seems strange at first: giving written
instructions on how to approach poetry is not ideal - it's like trying to show someone
how to swim or playa musical instrument by writing to them instead of demonstrating
how it's done. This is why examples have been given - and also why you should keep
returning to this section once you are more familiar with the poems in this collection.
You should also discuss the suggestions made here with other students, friends, and even
family members. The more you apply the strategies suggested here, the more you will
refine and adapt them.
Some of the poems have suggestions for further discussion and debate, often in the
form of questions to consider. You (and your teacher or lecturer) might like to use them
in the classroom or in a study group with others. You might enjoy talking through them
with a friend, or you could use them on your own. Perhaps your tutor might like to set
some as written exercises, or you might like to draw up similar workshops, using the ones
here as examples.
You'll notice that it's also sometimes suggested that you compare certain poems. This
is because while it is best to present poems in chronological order to prevent historical
 "--,

1
xiv

~
o confusion, one of the most exciting ways of reading poetry is to look at how specific ductory Notes
o poems interact with each other across time and distance, adding to our understanding of
~
certain perennial themes and issues. Poems that look very different might communicate
the same basic message or emotion, while poems on similar topics can present very
different views - which can spark interesting debates.
As explained in the Introductory Notes, it is extremely important that you have the ....ish history and literature: A contextual time-frame
necessary contextual information to get the most out of a poem. Briefbiographies of each
poet are provided, and supporting notes that provide contextual material and other useful small islands have been as repeatedly invaded, pillaged, ransacked, and finally settled
information are supplied when necessary. Unfamiliar words are explained in the margins, territory, as the damp and green British Isles off the west coast of Europe.
....V .'.V"JL~·u
'

and more obscure references are explained in the form of footnotes. time when the pyramids of Egypt had been standing guard over the tombs of the
You will also notice that some words or terms have been marked with an asterisk n. ".Dl~"~.~AI,~ for over two thousand years, four centuries after the armies of the young Greek
This indicates that a short definition can be found in the Glossary at the back of this Alexander the Great had reached as far as India, and about a hundred years after
book. The scope of this book allows only the bare minimum of information, so you are birth of jesus, the first conquerors established their outposts on British soil.
encouraged to look further afield for more detailed information. If you have Internet
access, you can use search engines such as Google and sites such as Wikipedia to explore
'."R"onlan conquest
further. This can be a lot of fun, although not all material you will find on the worldwide
web is reliable, and if your search topic is very broad (if you type in 'Shakespeare', for ...·..1.hese were the Romans, whose military power and sophisticated civilisation easily
instance), you are likely to be overwhelmed by the volume of information available, not ..... '> .. overwhelmed the British peoples. However, there was no notion of British identity or
all of it good. ......n.ationhood at this early stage; the inhabitants of the British Isles were made up of isolated
If you have access to a library, a good place to start is the reference section - even very and often warring units, who were fiercely tribal, deeply superstitious, and possessed of
small libraries usually have a set of dictionaries and encyclopaedias, and these can be less a rich folklore.
daunting than a long row of books. These sources are not always completely up-to-date, The languages they spoke bore no resemblance whatsoever to the English that is
but they can be a helpful place to start gathering material, especially on historical topics spoken today; they were drawn from a language pool broadly identified as Celtic. Few
and authors from the past. By looking up the name of a poet, or a type of poem (such as Celtic languages have survived, although various forms still persist in Ireland, Wales and
a sonnet or a ballad), you should be able to find well-written, reliable and short pieces the remoter parts of Scotland. Traces of the Celtic languages are hard to find in English
that explain the facts. today, although some words and sounds can still be found. For example, the Scottish word
Above all, I hope that this book helps you to enjoy poetry. Even those who are not for lake, 'loch', has the last two letters pronounced as a soft 'g' (a gentler version of the way
fans of poetry find themselves turning to prayer and song (both forms of poetry) at the letter 'g' is pronounced by Afrikaans and German speakers). This derives from Celtic
certain moments, or searching for the right poem to read at a time of great joy or loss. In origins, and is a sound that has since fallen away in modern English usage. Speakers of
the words of the great Chilean poet and politician Pablo Neruda, 'poetry/survives/against Celtic languages stress the beauty and musical qualities of these ancient dialects, and they
all odds'. It is one of the oldest and most evergreen forms of human creative expression - are associated with poetry, story-telling, the singing of songs, and prayer. The attempts to
and studying it can be an adventure. keep these languages alive in present-day Britain are linked with nationalist movements,
particularly in Ireland, which has a longer history of colonisation by the British than any
other territory in the world.
It is not surprising that Celtic languages persist only in the western and northern
corners of the British Isles, when we consider that most invasion and settlement came
from the south and the east. The clans that resisted the conquerors retreated to the
more inaccessible and mountainous parts of the country. Even trained Roman troops
could not penetrate into what is present-day Scotland, and in fact, they experienced so
much harassment from aggressive local tribes that they built a defensive wall across the
northern boundary of the conquered territory. (See Auden's 'Roman Wall Blues', p. 168.)
The Roman conquest meant that Latin became the language of education, law,
commerce, and administration. Over a period of time, many Roman settlers blended their
culture with that of their new home. Nevertheless, Britain was not considered a particularly
useful or strategic colony, and with the final collapse of the Roman Empire, the occupying
militia returned home, leaving behind the legacy of their language, architecture, and
 3
2

. engineering. Those who stayed behind were absorbed into the local population. However, it have created an almost bewildering array of synonyms - different words with the same
the same Germanic tribes whose aggression had contributed to the downfall of the power meanin~ -. and this gives English literature its rich texture and extraordinary powers
of Rome now threatened the inhabitants of the British Isles as well. of description. On the other hand, there is an equally bewildering range of differing
pronu~ciations, spellings, idiomatic expressions, and grammatical quirks that are all
sxceptions to the rules of the language. A cartoon that reflects this shows a crowd of
Angles, Saxons, Vikings, and Danes panicked foreign students stampeding out of an English language class on pronunciation:
Dating from about the fourth century CE, Britain's eastern shores were battered by wave the puzzled lecturer, who had just written the words 'rough', 'through', 'plough' and 'trough'
after wave of aggressive Angles and Saxons, tribes from what is today central Germany. (pronounced 'ruff', 'throo', 'plow' and 'trof' respectively) on the board was asking, 'What
Further north, the eastern shores of Scotland were also under attack from Norse or did I do wrong?'
Viking tribes from the Scandinavian regions of northern Europe (see 'The Viking
Terror', p. 33). Many of these Germanic tribes had developed superior seafaring skills The medieval era
to their neighbours, and were therefore easily able to mount raids on the unfortunate
British. It is tempting to wonder whether the xenophobia (fear or hatred of foreigners) The centuries that passed after the Norman conquest eventually led to the development of
with which the British are sometimes charged perhaps dates from these bitter times, a lite:ature, during the later Middle Ages, that is accessible to modern English speakers.
when the sight of alien sails on the horizon usually meant that the local men could Enghsh was slowly shaping into the form in which we know it today. Medieval English
expect to be killed or enslaved, the women raped, their dwellings burned or wrec~ed, . (known as .Middle English by scholars, to distinguish it from Modern English) usually
their livestock slaughtered, and their crops stolen. Still deeply fragmented along tnbal seems foreign to the first-time reader - but it can be recognised and read. Of course,
lines, the British could put up no sustained resistance to the invaders, and by the seventh th~re was no official adoption of a national language; the English spoken throughout the
century Britain was almost entirely subject to Anglo-Saxon rule. As ce~turies passed, the MI~dle ~ges ,:as mad~ up a range of broadly similar, but regionally influenced dialects,
settlers became increasingly identified with their new home, and then languages took which differed 10 some important respects. The English spoken today is the descendant of
their turn in further submerging the already Latinised Celtic languages. the south-eastern dialect used by Chaucer, and it came into predominance partly because
Within a few centuries Britain was relatively stable, with original inhabitants and it centred on the capital city, London, and the River Thames (along which international
descendants of settlers well integrated. No matter how brutal their invasion practices and local shipping and commerce flowed) and partly because of the invention of the
were, the Germanic tribes had no interest in ruling a conquered land as a dominion (as printing press. The first books to be printed were written in the south-eastern dialect and
the Romans did), but preferred to make it their new home, both assimilating the native thus entrenched its status. '
inhabitants and themselves being assimilated. The country was fragmented, however, as . Printin? made books and written material available to ordinary people for the first
the earlier arrivals, the Anglo-Saxons, found themselves wrestling with the later Danish tH~e. Up tlll.then, books could only be copied by hand, a slow and expensive process.
invaders for control of the island. Meanwhile, both groups of settlers were to come under ~llS occupatlO~ had mostly been the preserve of priests, monks and some nuns, along
wl.th .a small clique of aristocrats, who were able to afford the luxury of scholarship. So
threat from a different quarter.
pnntmg had a profound impact on literacy, as it moved the activity of reading beyond
the grasp of the church and a few members of the aristocracy. Literature of this time
The Norman conquest still ~e1ied hea.~ly on oral roots, h~wever; poems and stories were largely passed on by
The ruler of the province of Normandy in northern France laid claim to the throne of readmg.or reciting aloud. Chaucers Canterbury Tales (see p. 34), for example, is cast as
Britain, and in 1066 his Norman troops invaded England, defeated the Saxon king, and the stones told for entertainment in a pub by a rowdy band of pilgrims travelling towards
laid down their own system of administration, law, customs and leadership, as well as C~nterbury, and many medieval lyrics were songs that were learnt by heart and passed on,
yet another language: Norman French. The English, already a highly mixed nati~n,. were with the names of their original creators left behind and lost.
once again subject to alien rule, and once again the invaders slowly became assimilated . ~eliterature from medieval England speaks of a rural, agricultural nation, superstitious
into the melting pot of English culture. To further complicate matters, medieval Latin ~n splte of the hold the Catholic church exercised over every aspect of life, deeply rooted
111 and dependent on the cycle of nature. Society was organised along feudal lines, with
(which differed from Roman Latin) was introduced as an official language in order to
cope with the difficulties of administering a multilingual nation. So the forceful, heavy, the landowning classes believed to have a God-given nobility and authority to rule over
and sombre language of the Anglo-Saxons met and married with the graceful, colourful, the. 'common' people. However, the gradual rise of a wealthy and urban middle class,
and musical French of the Normans, with a good dash of the formality of Latin stirred which h~d access to e~ucation, slowly weakened the rigid hierarchical structure of society.
in. Today, many English verbs - 'action' words - are Anglo-Saxon in origin, while many Medieval people did not share the modern urban squeamishness about birth, sex, and
adjectives and adverbs - 'describing' words - come from the French. death; these were part of everyday experience in a society in which privacy was a rare
It is only once we understand this history that we can appreciate both the richness luxury. For example, a dead body would have been a common sight; people died at home,
and the inconsistencies of the English language. The many languages that have fed into and members of the community would gather to layout the body. Women were openly
4
5

second-class citizens, considered the property of either male relatives or their husbands. Dramatists such as Jonson, Marlowe, and Shakespeare were producing plays of
They had no legal rights, and little or no say in who they marrie? Most marriag:s were astonishing wit, wisdom, and originality; in their hands, as well as in those of many other
arranged for economic or political reasons, rather than romantic ones,. and a w~fe was gifted poets, such as Spenser and Sidney, language was being used with new flair. There
valued for her ability to work hard and her fertility. Today there are still countnes and were new innovations in poetry, at first borrowed from classical writers, then developed
cultures in which little has changed in this regard. '. and adapted with growing confidence and vigour. (You might want to look at some
Blatant anti-Semitism was considered normal and acceptable, and attacks on JewIsh Renaissance sonnets as an example of the kind of poetic innovations of these times;
communities were among the uglier aspects of medieval life. This was also the time of the see pp. 44, 48, 53-54.) Meanwhile, sailors such as Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter
Crusades; these were pilgrimages by European Christians,.to the I;Iol~ Land (p;esent~day Raleigh were sailing round the globe, establishing Britain's seafaring power for the first
Israel), many of which involved waging war on the Arab infidels or heathens who lived time. Many exploratory voyages were little more than glorified raiding parties, but these
in these sacred territories. nevertheless brought great prestige to the monarchy of England.

Arab culture and science The Reformation

The contact with Arab culture carried benefits for Europeans, however; many of the This apparently golden age was nonetheless a bloody one, largely because of the
great libraries of the Islamic empire (which spread from_the Middle East through North Reformation referred to above. In 1517, a German monk named Martin Luther made
Africa to southern Spain) held the writings of the ancient Greek scholars, whose work public his objections to the practice of selling indulgences (crudely put, the forgiving
had been largely lost to Europe during the Dark Ages that followed the collapse of ~he of sins and guaranteed admission into heaven in exchange for money - see the notes
Roman empire. The work of Arab scientists, especially in astronomy a~d math;matl.c~, to Chaucer's 'The Pardoner's Prologue', P: 37, for more details), and began a process of
was especially influential - the system of numbering we follow today IS called Arabic', rebellion against the Catholic church that was to change the face of Western Europe.
and comes from the principles developed by Arab scholars. At the time, Catholicism was the only form of the Christian religion. What began as an
attempt to reform the church and purge it of its faults led to a split or schism. The various
Protestant groupings (so named because of their protest against the various failings
The Renaissance of the Catholic church) broke away and formed new religious denominations of their
Two central shifts in European cultural and religious life brought the Middle Ages to a own. The results were sometimes tragic, as communities were divided against each other,
close and led to the transformation of the colourful, cyclical, and sometimes violent way political allegiances shifted, and civil wars broke out. For several centuries, Catholic and
of life of most medieval folk living in Britain. These were the Renaissance - a flowering Protestant monarchies in various countries battled each other for power. The succession
of new scientific and literary knowledge that began in Italy and spread through Western of a Protestant monarch often meant persecution for Catholics, and vice versa. Rebellions
Europe - and the Reformation, which split the Christian churc~ down the middle, with were often planned on religious grounds, with invariably violent results. (See p. 51 for an
complex political and social results that were to echo for centun:s. . . example of a poem by a young man condemned to death for his part in a Catholic plot
The Renaissance had its roots in, among other things, the redIscovery of the scientific, against the Protestant queen Elizabeth 1.)
literary, and philosophical writings of the ancient Greeks and Rom.ans.by several brilliant The Tudor king Henry VIII began the process of the English Reformation by
Italian scholars. This coincided with a rise in status of vernacular (indigenous) languages announcing himself to be the head of both Church and State in England, establishing
and the development of vernacular literatures. New forms of :vriti~g wer~ being new bishops (who promptly gave him permission to divorce his first wife and marry
experimented with, and new scientific, geographical, and astronomical discoveries we~e his mistress), breaking up the monasteries, and distributing the lands and wealth of the
being made that banished the beliefs of the medieval worl~ ~or good. A new e~p~asls church among his nobles.
was placed on education and culture, with secular (non-religious) scholars moving into
what had for centuries been the domain of the church. The Elizabethan age
The Renaissance came to the island fortress of Britain a little late, but there it enjoyed
a particularly rich flowering, sometimes called the 'Golden Age'. After nearly a century After his death, his daughter Elizabeth embarked on her long and successful reign,
of devastating civil war between different contenders for the throne of England (known which established the sway of the new Protestant Church of England. The great writers
as the Wars of the Roses) during the fifteenth century, the Tudor dynasty was securely mentioned above (Spenser, Sidney, Shakespeare and Marlowe) are mostly associated
established, with first Henry VIII and then Elizabeth I on the throne. The precedi.ng with her reign, which was a period of exploration, cultural development, and glamour.
century had been a fairly barren period in literary terms, ap~rt fr?m th: first compr~henslve Elizabeth herself was a noted scholar, whose work included poetry and translations. She
effort to weave the many legends of King Arthur and hIS kmghts into one major work died childless, and was succeeded by her cousin James, the king of Scotland.
(Sir 1110masMalory's Motte D 'Arthur) , and the development of the lyric poem (see p. 40).
Now, however, literature and the arts flourished, and rapidly reached new heights.
 ,;,:::'::
6 7
. ~:.;:i.:
.:-'::'

Parliament and Puritanism . " . novels that Jane Austen was writing by the end of the century. This was also the
James's successor, Charles I, was to run into trouble. During the seventeenth century, of satire; poets such as Pope ridiculed the foolish behaviour and excesses of their
a new movement began among those who wished to extend the power of parliament. ries in long and technically skilled works. The popularity of satire reflected
0:.... "'U<- ...1. U for responsible behaviour on the part of the land-owning upper classes; see,
(This was not the same as a modern, democratically elected parliament, as members
inherited their seats rather than being voted in. Nevertheless, laws were debated and :.'·exam·pleS,amuel Johnson's 'A Short Song of Congratulation' (p. 74). Johnson also
vote.d on, an~ this obviously had the potential to restrict the authority of the king.) Many the first dictionary of the English language, with typical eighteenth-century
parliamentarians, fuelled by a desire to carry the Reformation to further and stricter t;Ull'L''''.'''U' for classifying and ordering information. This played a vital role in finally

extremes, wished to limit the privileges and powers of the monarchy, and legislate their liiU'l1L"'"L}' and standardising English.
own brand of religious Puritanism, a strict type of Calvinism that frowned on pleasures
such as dancing, drinking, gambling and so on. The first settler colonies in North America .R:Ollllallti,cism and the Industrial Revolution
were established during this period by Puritans who wished to be free to practise their
religion without interference. < . emphasis by thinkers such as the French philosopher Rousseau on the rights and
< . of humankind was to plant one of the fundamental seeds of the Romantic
•.••.•m.•.o..v•e..ment, which was also an inevitable reaction against the detachment of much
Civil war Enlightenment thinking. Romanticism, which in England bridged the late eighteenth
The growing tension between the two factions led inevitably to civil war between .' and early nineteenth centuries, emphasised the importance of emotion, and preached a
supporters of the monarchy (the Cavaliers) and the parliamentary forces (the Roundheads). return to Nature as a source of moral and creative guidance. Beauty was especially valued
This ended with the defeat and execution of King Charles I, and the establishment of for its ability to instruct, comfort, and inspire.
parliamentary rule under Oliver Cromwell. Culturally, this was a repressive time: dress, With the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, with its immense and often
entertainment, and so forth were governed by strict rules. One of the first steps taken by destructive impact on the English landscape, the recognition that natural loveliness was
the Puritans was to close the theatres; after a century and a half of brilliance, the light of under threat was combined with a growing movement towards democracy, as well as
English drama finally went out. However, after eleven years, popular pressure led to the indignation at the conditions in which the new urban labouring classes worked. Most of
restoration of the monarchy, with the return of Charles II from exile. the early Romantic poets, most notably Wordsworth and Coleridge (see pp. 84-89 for
Against the backdrop of this political and religious upheaval, and in spite of the further details) were initially supporters of the French Revolution, with its rallying-cry
blow to drama with the banning of plays, this was a fruitful period in English literature, of 'liberty, equality and brotherhood'.
especially for poetry. The great poets of this era were ranged on all sides of the political The rise of Romanticism meant a completely new direction for poetry. Although
spectrum; Carew, Vaughan (see www.oxford.co.za) and Herrick were supporters of the some Romantic poems, with their passionate and unselfconscious pouring forth of
monarchy (and are still referred to as Cavalier poets); Bradstreet was a Puritan who sailed emotion in response to beauty, may sometimes seem alien to modern readers, we are all
to the new colony of America to practice her religion in freedom; Milton and Marvell post- Romantics to some degree; the Romantic vision of poetry as a vessel for passing
supported parliamentary rule and used their talents in government service. Nevertheless, on beauty and truth has left an indelible mark on the way we read literature. The idea of
these poets are not remembered for their political allegiances, but for the brilliance of nature as a teacher and source of inspiration is also part of the heritage of Romanticism.
their wit and ideas, and for their contributions, together with Donne and Herbert, to Another interesting shift was in the perception of the role of the poet; the Romantics saw
the original and intellectually challenging school of what was later termed Metaphysical themselves as visionaries, with a mission to search for higher truths, and a responsibility
poetry. (See p. 55 for further discussion of this type of poetry.) to challenge orthodoxy. The later Romantics poets especially considered it their moral
duty to rebel against society's norms and regulations. (See the biographical information
on Byron and Shelley, for example; pp. 90 and 92.)
The Enlightenment
Compared with the passion of the preceding centuries, the eighteenth century may seem The Victorian era
a little tame. Sometimes called the age of Enlightenment, or the age of reason, this was
an era in which extreme religious and political beliefs gave way to a more questioning and Romanticism blended into the Victorian age in 1830, when Victoria ascended the throne
r~tional pu~lic.mora1ity.N_ewscientific discoveries by scientists such as Isaac Newton gave of Britain and began a long and relatively stable reign. This was the great age of empire;
rise to a belief III an orgamsed and ordered universe, and writings by philosophers such as European nations were staking their claims to territorial ownership all over the globe,
Descartes and Voltaire preached tolerance and the importance of rational thought. This and Britain led the race. This was partly because of the need for raw materials for the
was very much a time of 'the head rather than the heart'. factories of England, now in full swing. Legislation scrambled to keep up with the social
In literary terms, the first half of the eighteenth century was to see the rise of the impact and ensuing problems of industrialisation and urbanisation. Social reform and
novel, with writers like Henry Fielding and Samuel Richardson paving the way for the scientific progress rubbed shoulders with extreme poverty and often appalling working
 -"'_'\

8 9

conditions. Slavery was abolished (see p. 78 for an example of an anti-slavery poem), but ... seeds of the next world war. (For more details, and some examples of poets of the
child labour went a fair way towards taking its place. see pp. 141 and 152.)
This era marked the growth of an educated middle class with leisure and money to . hard to draw a dividing line between the late Victorians and the early Modernists
spend on books, entertainment, and consumer goods. Fundamental issues were The poetry of Hopkins, for example, who falls into the Victorian period, is
brought into question: Karl Marx's economic theories and Darwin's theories of evolution . modern in its style and effect; whereas the work of several great twentieth-
(which challenged the Biblical creation myth) cast doubts on previously unchallenged poets (such as Yeats, and even later, Dylan Thomas) drew heavily on the traditions
assumptions. One of the results was considerable nostalgia for a mythical and less. poetry.
complex past. Victorian artists and writers turned to legends, myths, an idealistic vision
of rural life, and the distant past for more comforting sources of inspiration.
The nineteenth century also marked the beginnings of the struggle for legal and
political representation by women. This was met by a flurry of writing advocating the refers among other things, to the breakdown of 'realism' in art. This meant
home and domesticity as women's natural and ordained sphere. Nevertheless, women's ••fo.r example, a painter no longer necessarily represented subjects as they would
activities in and contributions to all spheres of life increased: Florence Nightingale to the naked eye. Writers, musicians and artists reinvented the rules, developing
established nursing as a respectable profession for women; charity work by middle-class astonishing and provocative new techniques. The notion that art could shock,
women and governessing by their less wealthy sisters slowly developed into social work and challenge as well as entertain, educate, and inspire became explicit for the
and teaching; and female writers flourished as never before. With the rise of the Freudian and Jungian schools of psychoanalysis, and
In general, this was a period of considerable richness in literature: poets such as of the subconscious and unconscious components of the mind, it was
Lord Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Robert Browning that creators would begin to explore their inner as well as their outer worlds.
provided a feast of lyrical, narrative, epic and reflective poetry. Likewise, novelists such as especially moved into the realm of association rather than explanation, with words
Charles Dickens, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot (the pseudonym of Mary Ann Evans), .used for their evocative effect, rather than as explicit means of communication.
and others were at the height of their powers. for example, the poems byT. S. Eliot, on pp. 144-147.)
The latter half of the nineteenth century saw the rise of the pre- Raphaelite movement,
a reaction against the values of the bourgeoisie, and a rather unrealistic attempt to
and the Second World War
to medieval values. It produced not only a colourful and sometimes sentimental school
of painting, but also poets such as Christina Rossetti. Their emphasis on the value of of censorship and political alignment of literature were especially vital in
nostalgic beauty and mysticism was to influence the aesthetic principles of both artists after the First World War, which saw the rise of fascism in Europe. Many
and writers well into the twentieth century. and activists had to flee their native countries, Germany in particular, where
It was also during the Victorian age that the literature of the colonies and of North of Nazism under Hitler was eventually to precipitate the Second World War
America became more widely known. American philosophers such as Thoreau and 945). This war was to introduce two new horrors that have haunted human
writers such as Longfellow, Hawthorne, and Edgar Allan Poe were popular on both sides ever since. The first was the Holocaust (the systematic segregation of
of the Atlantic. The waning of the century saw an increase in 'empire' literature, with the •. . people into concentration camps, where six million of them were murdered in an
works of colonial officials and travellers such as Rudyard Kipling becoming part of the . attempt to establish 'racial purity'). The second was the dropping of the atomic
body of English literature. In South Africa, the writings of Olive Schreiner and Pauline. the Japanese city of Hiroshima. This inflicted devastation, death, and long-term
Smith were admired. . poisoning on a scale that had previously been unimaginable.

The South African War and the First World War Wal' and post-colonialism
At the time of Queen Victoria's death, the British empire ('on which the sun never set') the war, the countries of the northern hemisphere settled into the 'Cold War' - the
was at its height of power; however, there were rumblings of discontent. The Anglo- .. ••of hostility between what was then the Soviet empire, and the Western democracies.
Boer War, now more correctly known as the South African War, fought at the turn . . independence movements were growing throughout the southern
the century over the establishment of Boer republics where gold had been discovered; . with various colonies demanding and achieving independence from their
led to eventual victory but considerable loss of prestige for the British. (See pp. 120 and colonial 'masters'. This process was often bumpy and sometimes even chaotic.
123 for poems and more information on this topic.) However, what finally destroyed . in terms of literary output, there was tremendous growth in what came to be
remnants of the Victorian way of life and 'blew a hole in the face of civilisation' was as post-colonial literature and culture in various newly independent countries,
First World War, or the Great War (1914-1918). Most of Europe and its colonies in Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean, the Pacific, and Africa.
involved in this long and bloody war, which cost the lives of millions, and which was
 11
10

Feminism, Marxism, post-structuralism, and postmodernism

<J'I
~ 100-200 CE
E-< Roman conquest The latter hili of the twentieth century has been noteworthy for the richness and complexity
0
Z 200-300
of critical debates that have sprung up around literature. Different theories of literary
>< criticism have been fiercely contested, and Marxist, feminist, and post-colonial ideologies
;>::
0 have all been brought to bear on the way we read literature and the questions we ask of it.
Eo< 300-400
o In particular, there was a hotly debated and defended shift from the principles of
;:J Angles, Saxons, Vikings, and Danes
Q so-called 'new criticism' to those of post-structuralism. 'New criticism' followed a system
0
;>:: 400-500 of closely scrutinising works of literature in order to identify their moral and aesthetic
E-< values (the word 'aesthetic' implies qualities of beauty that give pleasure and inspiration).
Z
I-<
500-600 It therefore assumed a universal set of standards by which art can be assessed. Post-
structuralist theories, however, are broadly concerned with revealing the way language
is structured into hierarchically ranked binary oppositions (male/female, white/black,
600-700
urban/rural, society/nature, sun/moon), and the power dynamics that are exposed in texts
as a result (a form of analysis known as deconstruction).
700-800 New theories concerning how history is retrieved, as well as input from various
ideologies, have also led to a more sophisticated approach to the social and historical
j. 800-900 context of literature. Post-colonial and feminist critiques in particular have placed the
, burning questions of race, gender, class, sexuality, and culture at the centre of literary and
:L:·
,. 900-1000 other analysis.
Norman conquest In terms of philosophical models, we are now very much a postmodern world -
one that acknowledges that one over-riding or dominant philosophy cannot explain
1000-1100
everything. Certainly the myth of objective and detached criticism is now a thing of
Medieval era
the past. Possibly the most obvious effect of these debates is that literary criticism, of
1100-1200 whatever kind, is now considerably more self-conscious and aware of the complexities of
Arab culture and science the global community.
1200-1300 As twenty-first-century readers, we try to bear in mind how our identity, assumptions,
our location in terms of class, nationality and ethnicity, and our social and cultural values
determine and shape our responses to art and entertainment - including literature.
1300-1400

1400-1500 Analysing poetry

Renaissance
1500-1600 Reformation The difference between poetry and prose
Elizabethan age Before we can begin to analyse poetry, it is necessary to grasp what it is that makes poetry

I
1600-1700 Parliament and Puritanism different from other forms of literature. In particular, how does it differ from prose?
Civil war To begin with, poetry is a particularly dense and concentrated form of expression.
1700-1800 Every Single word is chosen for effect, and then combined with others and shaped
with a specific end in mind. Poetic language goes much further than conveying factual

I
Enlightenment
information; its aim is to generate strong responses, to vividly recreate a specific scene or
1800-1900 Romanticism and the Industrial Revolution
mood. Imagery, or vivid use oflanguagc, is at the heart of poetry. It must be remembered
Victorian era
" that words are not always restricted to their specific dictionary meaning or factual
1900-2000 South African War and the First World War
content. Many words in the English language have acquired layers of meaning, and it is '.'
Modernism these implied meanings - associations or connotations - that poetry thrives on.
Fascism and the Second World War There are two essential hallmarks that distinguish poetry from prose (the everyday
M
Cold War and post-colonialism form of writing that we find in novels, newspapers, business letters, and so forth). These
1
<i'
Feminism, Marxism, post-structuralism, 'and postmodernism are sound and shape.

-,
 13

If we consider sound first, we find that unlike most other forms of literature, poetry device can be used to quicken the pace of these lines, or to subtly alter or emphasise
must read aloud to be properly appreciated. Poems are designed to be heard with the the meaning of the words concerned.
ear as well as seen by the eye. Words are chosen by poets not only for their meaning and So the arrangement of words into lines in poetry is by no means arbitrary. Just as
associations, but for their musical and sensuous qualities. rhyme and rhythm contribute to the effect that poetry has on the ear, the shaping of
Rhythm and rhyme, in particular, are components that set poetry off from other forms words into lines gives poetry its visual impact. The following poem by Lionel Abrahams,
of writing. Although modern poets have experimented freely with rhythm and rhyme, on the difference between poetry and prose, might be helpful in consolidating these
these features are often governed by complex rules similar to those found in musical distinctions:
composition; in certain types of poem, there will be a set number of 'beats' or stresses per
line,just as a phrase of song can be broken up into bars and beats. It is not always necessary
Note in Prosy Verse
to know the technical terms used to describe these principles, but it is important to be
able to identify the rhythm and rhyme scheme of a poem. For example, the rhythm can Prose on the page
be quick, slow, smooth, monotonous, faltering, and so forth - the possibilities are endless. fills the space from margin to margin.
The next important distinguishing feature of poetry is its shape. This refers to the Like water or unmoulded clay it has no shape
distinctive appearance of poetry on the page; a poem is immediately recognisable because of its own. Prose words are bodiless symbols
it is laid out in lines. This lends special emphasis to the words of a poem, as we have combining in messages which only the mind can translate,
to consider their arrangement and layout. Just as prose might be compared to flowers and only then their infinite meaning begins.
growing at random in a field, the art of poetry might be likened to the careful arrangement Verse is shaped in its own shape visible
of flowers for effect in a vase. Placing words in a line sets them apart, and creates a little even before the reading begins. The
pause before the next line begins. We can see the effect that arranging words into lines lines end where they mean to end and
has if we look at these extracts from 'The Abandoned Old Woman' by Stephen Watson the form they compose does not lie
(from Return of the Moon): passive on the paper but strives
to lift off, to fly free like a moth,
Our mother, old, unable to walk, or rather a breath. It remembers
lay there, incapable, that once it was speech or even was song.
alone in her old grass and reed hut. Poetry possibly favours verse because
a poem begins as an impassioned thought,
It was none of our fault; a felt idea so strong it has to
we were all of us starving. tell itself and end with being felt again.
No-one could help it, The poem thus needs embodiment:
that we had to leave her behind. each word must ring its sound, each line its tune.
The shapes on the paper are never the poem
The meaning of these lines would not change if we wrote them out as prose sentences: but only the signs that a poem has been made.
'Our mother, old, unable to walk, lay there, incapable, alone in her old grass and reed Embodied, audible, palpable,
hut .... It was none of our fault; we were all of us starving. No-one could help it, that the whole made thing is made to make
we had to leave her behind.' However, the emotional impact of these words is greatly the meaning felt, not merely known.
lessened if they are presented this way.Their message becomes more matter-of-fact, and
less poignant, when the words are run together over the full width of the page. Look at the Having identified some of the features that differentiate poetry from prose, we come a
contrast between the two ways of writing out these sentences, and note how the shaping little closer to engaging with poetry itself We have also established some useful areas to
of sentences into lines gives extra emphasis to the words at the beginning and end oflines. investigate when we move on to analysis.
It is worth checking the words chosen by the poet to start and end lines; these are
often significant. The ordering of the poem into lines also sometimes creates what are called
Getting to grips with a poem: preparatory work
'run-on' lines, when the flow of the words travels across a line break without a pause; for
example, Delius's 'Deaf-and-dumb School' (p. 179), begins: 'On a black tarmac . I playground The next question is, how do we approach a poem? A great deal of ground needs to be
darkl Nuns, ...'. Here the end of the line comes before we see what word the adjective 'dark'Is covered before the actual analysis of a poem can begin. The importance of this preliminary
describing. In this case, the run-on line breaks up the phrase, so that we work cannot be stressed strongly enough; thorough preparation is crucial if we are to
are forced to pause and consider the implications of the words used. In other instances, complete a successful analysis of our chosen poem. Obviously we cannot leap in with a
14 15

detailed discussion of an image used in the first line if we have not established what kind Here it is helpful if everyone pools their knowledge. Some of your classmates may
of poem we are dealing with, know little or nothing about its context or history, or if we already have done some research; or your lecturer may be able to fill in background details.
are still not certain of the meaning in some parts. The poem itself might have explanatory footnotes. If you still feel that there are gaps in
These initial stages in the process of getting to grips with a poem can be enjoyable as your understanding of the poem and its context, you can also use the Internet to search
well as fruitful. While you can work through them alone, it's much livelier to do this in a for information on particular topics, although try to keep the parameters of your search
tutorial or study group. Even friends and family can be drawn into the discussion. quite narrow. You will find an encyclopaedia, or guide (sometimes called a companion) to
One suggested outline for this preparatory process could be the following: English literature a welcome resource. These can be found in the reference section of your
1) Discussion local or university library. Use them to look up poets, literary periods or genres, which
2) Dictionary will be listed alphabetically.
3) Context
4) Connections
Connections
5) Paraphrase.
A rewarding way of carrying any discussion of context further is to work out whether
there are any points of contact between the history and circumstances of the poem under
Discussion discussion, and your own present-day situation. For example, Elizabeth Barrett Browning's
It is extremely helpful to discuss the poem with others in an informal context. Here indictment of her country's political complacency and lack of compassion (see 'A Curse
you will be asking questions such as 'What is the poem about?'; 'What does it mean?'; for a Nation', p. 97) has an extremely contemporary feel to it - the criticisms it makes
'What sort of poem is it?'; 'What does it remind me of?'; 'What is its basic message?'; apply as much to many modern democracies as they once did to nineteenth-century
'Does it communicate this effectively, and if so, how?' At this stage, you are sorting out England. Likewise, many women married within traditional or conservative communities
your initial responses to the poem, as well as familiarising yourself with its outline and today will be able to identify with Lady Mary Chudleigh's seventeenth-century poem,
overall meaning. You will find the questions being asked will shift from the general to the 'To the Ladies' (p. 70). And in the case of many poems by South African or African
specific; from 'What's it about?' to 'I don't understand what the last two lines mean - does writers, any discussion of their work would be pointless without some understanding of
anyone have any ideas?' the histories of colonialism and apartheid; this background will have powerfully affected
the day-to-day lives of many readers of this anthology.
A note of caution here: establishing the parallels between your own situation and
Dictionary that of a long-dead poet can be exciting, but it is not a substitute for analysis. Unless you
Next, you will find it worthwhile to identify and look up the meaning of all unfamiliar are specifically asked to do so in an assignment, do not use a poem as a launching pad
words. Every word in a poem counts, so it is essential to establish exactly what each for telling your own personal or political history. Nevertheless, establishing links across
one means. This is the point at which you will need to use a dictionary. It is worth centuries or cultures (or both) is a valuable part of the preparation for analysis.
double-checking words that you are fairly sure you understand; dictionaries often alert
the reader to the more obscure meanings of words, and this can sometimes enrich the
Paraphrase
understanding of the poem.
To consolidate the ground covered in your discussion and research, it often helps to
paraphrase the poem. This means retelling it in your own words. It is worth stressing that
Context this is an extremely helpful exercise if done before attempting an analysis, but it should
However, looking up unknown words in a dictionary is not always enough to answer not take the place of analysis itself - a common mistake made by students.
all the questions that arise about the meaning of a poem. This leads us to the question One way of illustrating the difference between the two procedures - paraphrase and
of context. Here we must decide what background information we need if we are to analysis - is to imagine two different ways of looking at a painting. An initial approach
understand and enjoy a particular poem. This is one of the more important areas to might be to list the different components found in this imaginary painting; noting, for
investigate before beginning an analysis; many poems from past centuries may seem example, that it contains the colours green and blue with small amounts of yellow, and
rather pointless, or even slightly ridiculous to the modern reader if their historical and that it shows tall trees, a cloudless sky, and a winding road. The second response, by
political context is not known. Blake's 'And Did Those Feet' (see www.oxford.co.za) is comparison, would go further by describing how these components work together to
an example of a poem that seems at best eccentric and at worst incomprehensible unless suggest a certain mood. It might read:
its specific background is understood. And some poems by the Romantic poets can
seem alien, flowery, and exaggerated unless we have some understanding of the poetic
philosophy they represent.
16 17

The use of the cool blue and green colours conveys a calm and natural atmosphere, which
Critical analysis: a definition
is given a hint of warmth by the slight touches of yellow that brighten the landscape. The By now, you have no doubt formed an impression of the process of analysis, which has
height of the trees gives a sense of upward movement to the composition; the cloudless been repeatedly referred to above. However, a fuller definition is necessary, as is some
sky suggests unbroken tranquillity (there are literally no clouds on the horizon); and the discussion of the more problematic aspects of this process. Critical analysis (sometimes
winding curves of the road enhance the sense of natural harmony. No harsh colours or referred to as practical criticism or close reading) is a contested, but nevertheless valuable
jagged lines disrupt the peaceful mood of this painting. This is a nostalgic recreation of a tool when beginning critical reading, and a rewarding skill that can be applied in a variety
beautiful and idealised rural scene. of different situations. It involves reading something (in this case, a poem) very carefully
and closely, word by word and line by line (usually in chronological order) in order to
The first approach is similar to paraphrase, the stage in which the 'ingredients' of the identifY the parts that make it up and evaluate their effectiveness.
poem (or this case, a painting) are listed, sorted, and clarified. However, it is the second The next step is to describe the mood and tone (or resonance) created by this particular
process, which reflects on the effect of these components when combined, that constitutes blend of words, images, visual shapes, and sound effects. (This is one of the features that
analysis. distinguishes critical analysis from paraphrasing; see the examples given above.) Finally,
Another way of demonstrating the difference between the two processes is to look depending on the theoretical tools being used, critical analysis sometimes ends with an
at following accounts (adapted from student essays) of the first two lines of Christina assessment of the 'value' of the poem or its message, or comments on what it reveals about
Rossetti's 'A Birthday': social dynamics.
Critical analysis has limitations; it stems from a school of mid-twentieth century
My heart is like a singing bird literary criticism that has come under fire for its assumption that all readers have access
Whose nest is in a watered shoot. to a the same set of absolute and universal values or criteria that can be used as yardsticks
to measure a piece of art (see p. 10 above). This is clearly not the case. For example, many
The speaker's organ of circulation is like a small melodious feathered creature that has Westerners might find the symphonies of Beethoven or Mozart exquisitely beautiful,
made a place of rest in a plant which has a plentiful water supply. and claim that such beauty is universal; yet to a Tibetan monk, whose chants are sung
according to an entirely different tonal scale, they might sound like the most hideous and
By beginning with the word" my", the speaker makes the description of her joy personal.
confusing noise. (Just think of how different generations within the same family often
She uses the image of a singing bird to convey a sense of natural and spontaneous
find each other's choice of music unbearable.)
delight. The fact that the bird has a nest adds a sense of security; the word "nest"
Furthermore, many scholars have pointed out that it is not always appropriate or
has connotations of safety and warmth. The "watered shoot" also suggests something even possible to judge whether art is 'good' or not (this kind of evaluation is implied in
that is growing and flourishing in a fertile environment. One conclusion might be that the principles of new criticism), as this raises the thorny questions of what constitutes
the speaker has secure emotional grounds for her happiness - perhaps she is in a new 'good' or 'bad' art, and who gets to define and decide on these standards. Recent trends
relationship; the word "shoot" (which suggests new or fresh growth) might refer to this. in literary criticism have focused instead on what art reveals about society, what power
relations it describes, the ideological and political shifts and stances represented in cultural
The first extract is a rather exaggerated illustration of paraphrase, whereas the second expression, and the extent to which a literary or artistic work can act to undermine or
is an example of close analysis. (While it is not necessarily an ideal example of analysis, subvert the social norms.
the contrast between this approach and that of paraphrase should clearly illustrate the However, it is unrealistic to try to avoid making any value judgements when
differences. ) assessing any piece of art, including a poem. A glance at the film reviews online or in any
This suggested programme of preparatory work on a poem need not be followed in newspaper will reveal the extent to which we rank culture and entertainment according
the order described. For example, you might like to do research on the context of the to a graded scale of values - a 'five-star movie' is generally one with an excellent script
poem and look up new words in the dictionary before the class discussion takes place. and performances, one with 'three stars' is considered to be fairly entertaining, and a
Or the discussion itself might centre on the connections the poem suggests to you and 'one-star' film is a piece of trash to be avoided. So to a degree, the tendency to evaluate
your fellow students. Your teacher might also suggest that you paraphrase the poem as art and entertainment according to a broad set of'standards' is embedded in most of our
a written exercise as an initial stage before moving on to an essay analysing the poem. cultures. Perhaps the important thing to bear in mind is that the question 'Is this a good
poem?' is not the only one to ask; there are other important questions that might reveal
rewarding insights.
Nevertheless, in spite of its limitations, critical analysis remains a valuable 'first stage'
in acquiring critical skills. Many students find it useful in their everyday work and study;
its principles can he applied when reading newspapers, magazines, advertisements, and

: ::~~.
18 19

business letters; when watching films, television or plays; even when listening to the radio which illuminates the poem that follows.1bey can also establish an aura or atmosphere
or to music. It can be of practical use when querying material you suspect of being less before the poem itself starts; the French title ofKeats"La Belle Dame Sans Merci' (p. 95)
than honest or straightforward; propaganda, for example, or simply the small print in a helps to create a mysterious and exotic mood even if we are not certain what it means.
document you are asked to sign. Bear in mind that even short, simple titles can make a profound contribution to the poem
If you are interested in alternative theoretical or ideological approaches to literature, as a whole; the title of Wilfred Owen's poem 'Futility' (p. 152) expresses the speaker's
you will find that close reading remains a useful tool to have in your stock of critical skills. opinion of war with a bitterness that is largely absent from the poem itself
'The ability to critically analyse poetry also remains an important part of most English Now examine the poem line by line, keeping an. eye open for any words or phrases
poetry courses at tertiary educational institutions, and it is a skill that you are likely be you find striking. As you proceed, bear the following checklist in mind. 'The pointers and
required to demonstrate in your poetry essays and exams. questions it suggests are not meant to be prescriptive, and should not be followed rigidly,
as each poem will present slightly different challenges. Nevertheless, it will provide you
with options for making your analysis as thorough and rewarding as possible.
Guidelines for analysing a poem
Once you have completed the preliminary stages, you have reached the point of plunging IdentifY significant words, and note where they are placed in the structure of the
into the poem itself The following steps are very basic and flexible guidelines for carrying poem. Do they fall at the beginning of lines or stanzas? Do they stand alone? Are
out an analysis; as you gain more confidence, you will be able to refine this list, add they repeated? Is our attention drawn to them because they 'jar' or 'jump out' of an
pointers of your own, and change the order around to suit your approach. otherwise smoothly flowing line? Is there anything else unusual about where they are
First of all (bearing in mind the distinguishing aspects of poetry discussed above), placed?
familiarise yourself with the sound and shape of the poem. Remember that poetry is
created to be heard and seen, not just understood. If you have not already done so, begin Look more carefully at any repeated words or lines. What effect does the repetition
by reading the poem aloud, or asking someone else to read it to you. Listen as if it have? Does it lend special emphasis? Does it act as a chorus? Is the effect that of a
were a piece of music. 'This will alert you to various important aspects of the poem; its lullaby or song? If a line or phrase is repeated at intervals throughout the poem, check
rhyme scheme, pace and rhythm, the specific sounds of its words. Does the poem sound whether the impact of the words remains the same. If any changes are made to a
lulling and soothing? Brisk and quick? Harsh and jarring? Racy and breathless? Or do . repeated line, what effect does this have?
contrasting sounds follow one another to change the effect on the ear? Hearing the
poem also gives an initial impression of those poetic devices which are used to create Check punctuation, which becomes particularly expressive in poetry. Dashes, colons,
specific sound effects, such as alliteration or onomatopoeia (see below for definitions and semi-colons, exclamation and question marks will have obvious effects on the meaning
examples). of the poem; also investigate the placing of commas and full stops. Do any of these fall
Next, look at the overall shape and structure of the poem. Note whether it is divided in unusual places? How do they contribute to the pace of the poem; do they hurry it
into stanzas, and where these breaks fall. It is also worth counting the number of lines, along, or break it up? See Tennyson's In Memoriam poems (pp. 102-106) for examples
especially in shorter poems: this is often the easiest way to spot a sonnet (which always punctuation can underline the message contained in words.
has fourteen lines). The shape will often help us to identify the type of poem; repeating
choruses, for example, usually point to a song or ballad. Check for lines that are repeated, If you are really stuck, you could break the poem down into its grammatical components.
or that stand alone (these are usually significant). can be surprisingly revealing. A poem crammed with verbs will be punchy,
At this stage, you should have enough material to draft brief introductory notes, if you full of action, brisk and swift; one that uses many adjectives and adverbs is more
are planning to turn your analysis into an essay. By now you know what kind of poem .::: ".y to be descriptive, flowery and slow-paced. It is also often rewarding to look
you are dealing with, understand its general meaning, and have some sense of its context at the pronouns used; the third-person pronoun 'one' is associated with a style that
and atmosphere. You might want to leave your introductory paragraph till later, when you is formal, detached and even cold; the second-person pronoun ('you') is much more
have finished working your way through the poem; on the other hand, jotting down your immediate and informal in its effect, but still indicates a degree of distance; and the
overall sense of the poem at this stage might help you to deal with the most intimidating first-person pronoun ('1', 'we') is intimate, personal, and confessional. 'The use of 'I' can
stage: getting started. also indicate power, as the speaker then 'owns' the words spoken, and has control over
What follows forms the 'meat' of the analysis; the examination of the poem line by any description that follows.
line and word by word. It is best to proceed chronologically, and work your way through
from beginning to end without skipping sections or backtracking. attention to word-music. This draws on the earlier stage of listening to the poem
Begin with the title, if the poem has one. (Poems without titles are usually identified to assess its sound effects. Two common poetic devices or techniques that specifically
by their first line, which is used as a heading under which the poem stands.) Some how poetry sounds are onomatopoeia and alliteration. Knowing how to spell
titles simply state the topic, but more often they contain essential additional information these terms is not as important as being able to recognise them! Onomatopoeia
20 21

involves using words that sound like the action or object described; some examples metaphors and similes in the poem, but to judge their effectiveness. Are they ordinary?
are 'the hissing of waves on sand'; 'the clip-clop of hooves'; 'the clashing cymbals'. Vivid? Unusual? You will also need to 'unpack' the associations involved; to return to
Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter or sound in several successive words; our 'lion' example, it is obviously not enough to say in your analysis: 'In this metaphor,
for example, 'green and golden grows the grass.'The first stanza of'Binsey Poplars' by the person is compared to a lion.' You would need to list the qualities suggested by the
Hopkins (p. 25) features alliteration in almost every line; read it for further examples. image of a 'lion', and to link these associations with the person being described.
Sometimes both alliteration and onomatopoeia can be appear together in the same In a poem, imagery can be used in an accumulative way. One image often builds
phrase: 'the mournful moan of doves'. It should be clear that these are often very on another, weaving different associations together into a united whole. This means
evocative or sensuous aspects of a poem, which can add colour and texture. that you should not study the images in the poem in isolation. Check to see if they are
linked to one another, or whether you can trace any development between them. The
Rhythm and rhyme scheme have been mentioned above. Now is the time to note where suggestions for discussion on Mtshali's poem 'Men in Chains' (p. 230) provide some
and how the rhythm of a poem changes, and to ask why that specific change takes practical questions on metaphor and simile.
place. (Marvell's 'To his Coy Mistress' on P: 68 is an excellent example of how changes
in rhythm reinforce the argument of the poem.) Also consider the rhyme scheme; how It is essential to bear mood or tone in mind. These are very difficult qualities to define
many rhyming sounds are there, and in what pattern do they occur? What do these or pin down. One way of clarifying mood and tone might be to refer to the emotional
sounds suggest to you? The rhyme scheme is often important in that it contributes resonance of the poem; what feelings does it evoke? If you struggle to express these,
control and structure to the poem. A poem governed by a strict sense of rhyme and the following questions might help (use them to help you identify your responses, not
rhythm will often come across as complex and carefully crafted, whereas a poem in as part of a formal analysis): what flavour does the poem have? If you had to illustrate
free verse (no rhyme scheme) tends to be loose and informal. it, what colours would you choose? Would they be bright, warm, murky or cool? If
Also consider how the rhythmic and rhyming features of a poem contribute to you had to choose music to match the poem, what kind of music and instruments
or amplify its meaning. Usually, they intensify the message of the words - see, for would you pick? Ominous drums, laid-back jazz saxophones, brisk and energetic rap,
example, Wyatt's 'My Lute, Awake!' (p. 45) and Tichborne's 'Elegy' (p, 51). However, a dreamy waltz?
there is sometimes a deliberate contrast between the argument of the poem and its It is also important to track the shifts in tone; do you notice any abrupt changes?
rhythm and rhyme scheme; see Millay's 'I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed' Are there parts where it is more intense? One way of monitoring these often subtle
(p. 149) for an example of sharp contrast between the elegant formality of the strict changes is to ask what effect is being created at various stages in the poem. At this
rhythm and rhyme scheme (and equally elegant vocabulary), and the funny, cynical, point, our guidelines may seem frustratingly vague; it might help to turn back to the
and saucy message of the poem. examples of paraphrase and analysis above. Here, one of the features that distinguishes
the written samples of analysis from those of paraphrase is that the former include
One of the more important (and enjoyable) parts of analysis is the examination and descriptions of mood and tone. As you read and analyse more poetry, you will develop
assessment of the images, or 'word-pictures', that appear in the poem. Broadly speaking, your own 'mood thermometer', but this aspect of analysis takes practice at first.
images refer to anything described in particularly vivid and picturesque language.
However, most imagery involves a comparison (either explicit or implicit) of some Finally, it is extremely important to keep asking the questions how and why: How was
kind. Comparisons involve a transfer of associations between two different things this effect achieved, and why? (Analysis demands endless curiosity.) These questions
that nevertheless share a specific quality or have some features in common. In other are essential to prevent our analysis from reverting to a catalogue of parts. It is all too
words, if we wish to suggest that someone is brave, we can either say so directly, or we easy to reduce our findings to a mechanical list, which might run something like this:
could describe them as a 'lion'. This does not mean that they have literally changed 'this poem features a metaphor in line 4, alliteration in line 5, use of the first person
species; instead, everything we associate with the word 'lion' (courage, majesty, power throughout, three semi-colons, and the repetition of the last line of each stanza'.
and so forth) is transferred momentarily to that person. The power of comparisons We must engage with each poem that we analyse, remaining alert to the shifts and
to illuminate and illustrate should be obvious; it is far more dramatic to greet a transformations within the tiny landscape it seeks to create; repeated questioning will
courageous friend with the words 'You are a lion!' than to state 'You are brave'. aid us in this task. The 'how' question also acts as a reminder that in written analysis,
Comparisons can be found in two forms in literature: as metaphors and as similes. In it is vital to quote from the poem to support our arguments.
the case of a simile, the comparison is made explicit by the linking words 'as' or 'like';
for example, 'she is as brave as a lion' or 'he sings like an angel'. Metaphors collapse Once you have worked your way through the poem with this checklist, you are likely to
the comparison into a single image; for example, 'She is a lion'; 'His song is angelic'. see new connections and relationships between the different parts. As the poem is put
Metaphors and similes are often found in everyday speech ('politicians should get off the back together again, a message may emerge that was not clear before. If the analysis has
gravy train'; 'the price of petrol is daylight robbery'; 'it's like taking sweets from a baby' been successful, you will find that you have gained a new appreciation of the poem, or
and so forth), and can be quite commonplace. Your task is not simply to identify the developed a more sophisticated critique of it. You might like to use these discoveries as
22 23

the basis for concluding remarks, if you are planning to turn your analysis into an essay. Finish by drawing some kind of conclusion, or by summarising your findings: this is a
This is also the stage at which you might find it interesting to swop findings with fellow good place to restate your basic interpretation of the poem. Some sample endings: at the
students, noting the differences and similarities between your efforts. end of an analysis of an anti-war poem, for example, you might write something along
Above all, it must be remembered that the task of analysis is an individual process. the lines of:
This is because our response to poetry is extremely personal. Each reader will interact with
the text in a different way; individual taste, differing value systems, cultural heritages and This bitter catalogue of the brutality and destructive power of warfare spells out the
so forth will all determine our responses to some degree. Life would be very boring if we message that war is both immoral and futile;
all liked identical clothing, food and music, and indeed the value of diversity has become
a catch-phrase in recent years. This principle is a valuable one in the development of or, at the end of a poem about township life, you might conclude:
critical skills; you should be encouraged to make personal choices and express preferences
when engaging with poetry. A revealing exercise would be for you and several classmates This poem combines a celebration of the liveliness and resourcefulness of township
each to list your favourite five or ten poems from this anthology, and state your reasons dwellers with a stinging indictment of the apartheid policies that led to the creation of
for choosing them. You will find the wide range of choices that is bound to result very these settlements, and the economic policies that keep them in poverty.
enlightening. But remember that you will seldom be examined on whether or not you
like a poem and why. This is probably the best point at which to include your own personal response to the
I t must also be stressed that there are no right or wrong answers when analysing a poem, poem, but be careful to focus on summing up the essence of the poem itself, rather than
although there might be weak and strong answers. Strong answers are those that reflect ending with a mini-essay on your own beliefs and views.
sensitivity towards the language and intention of the poem, and which provide evidence If you are asked a specific question that also involves a close reading of the poem,
from the poem for each conclusion drawn. Remember that two different interpretations the process may become a little more complicated, but the essential procedure remains
of the same poem might be equally valid, even if they contradict each other. If both the same. In these cases, you are analysing the poem in search of specific evidence. For
arguments are clear, logical and well supported, both should be equally worthy of praise. example, if you are asked to write an essay on the use of irony in a poem, you will need to
tease out all aspects of the poem that contribute to this feature. Try to establish exactly
what is expected of you.
Writing a draft essay Always begin by 'analysing' the question itself: break it down into its component
If you are asked to write a critical analysis of a poem, then to some extent the shape of parts, and ensure that you understand what these mean; use a dictionary if necessary.
that poem will determine the shape of your essay. Begin with some broad introductory Later, when you have finished the rough draft of your essay, go back to the question, and
statements; these should arise out of your pre-analysis preparations (described above). If check that every aspect of it has been covered.
there is vital contextual information that shapes your reading of the poem, now is the Close critical analysis is extremely useful if you are asked to compare two or more
time to set it out. Next, collate the notes you have made on the poem itself (following poems in an essay, as the closer the scrutiny of each poem, the richer the level of contrasts
the guidelines for analysis suggested above), and organise them so that the individual and parallels between them.
points are clear as you write, and the line of discussion flows easily. Remember to proceed . ... Also bear in mind that it is vital to write all your essays in draft form before beginning
chronologically through the poem; do not hop from discussing line 11 to line 22 and the final copy. You should now edit your draft with a critical eye. By all means ask friends
then back to something you have noticed in line 17. However, if the poet is developing and fellow students for their comments. (This is quite different from asking them to do
a particular image that is subtly changing, then refer back to the points you have already the work for you; get as much feedback as possible at this stage.) Your lecturer might also
established, but without repeating yourself For example: 'The description of the house, be willing to comment on your draft before you submit your final essay. Your work can
which was presented as a warm, cosy environment in the second stanza, has become only benefit from reworking and polishing. The notion that we need to 'get it right' the
increasingly eerie and threatening by the time we reach stanza four.' first time we write something, either by hand or on a keyboard, is extremely unhelpful. I
It is extremely important to support your opinions by quoting from the text, even if strongly recommend writing a first draft by hand, and then typing this up, as this forces
only a few words are used. Turn back to the hypothetical analysis of a painting on p. 16, one to move to a 'second draft'.
and imagine that it reads 'This painting has a cool, calm and natural feel, with touches How much should you rely on the published works of scholars when planning and
of warmth. It has a sense of height and upward movement, and conveys a tranquil writing a critical analysis? During the initial stages oflearning this skill, you should not
atmosphere of harmony.' This leaves us with a description of the onlooker's personal place too much reliance on the works of commentators and critics. Rather read up more
feelings and responses rather than an analysis. Yet these claims become perfectly valid about the background of the poem, or read further poems by that poet.
if they are supported with evidence. Vague statements (such as 'this poem has a good It is all too easy to be intimidated by critics who are experts in their field, and to submit
feeling') are not much use, so ensure that your responses to the poem are firmly grounded your opinions to theirs. There is also a tendency to feel that because their assessment of a
in the text. It is a good idea to quote those words or images that trigger a specific response. poem or poet is in print, it must necessarily be correct and of more value than anything
 ~~-~"-.".-- .... ,,.-.-

25

offer. This means that you run the risk of turning your analysis into a patchwork
people's ideas and interpretations. It also detracts from the pleasure and sense of
of establishing your own personal response to a poem. Bear in mind that your
to develop your own critical skills, rather than to defer to the opinions of others.

some practical help with the process of moving from analysing a poem to
r , . 7 a formal essay on it, I have provided some examples of poems (Binsey Poplars' by
FELLED r879 ~ ~~date of' death 3/yWeScCJne.
Manley Hopkins and 'For Albert Luthuli (21.7.67)'by Jennifer Davids) that have
,_- leVIn:') a/1,terat;CJn -
notes scribbled all over them. It helps a lot to begin by jotting down your analysis
1St ,PersCJn£----~~aspens9 whose airy cages cmelled, rustl;n:; leNeS?
the poem itself; this process of 'dissection' makes the poem less daunting, and
,PrCJhCJun / Qgelled or Q_!!enchedin leaves the leaping sun, that you are less likely to leave out important points. I have also provided some
~:::e:a:s;'ve All f!?ll~ci,felleg, are all felled; de_ath Knellof' SCJ/d:ers? of written analysis, to demonstrate how your rough notes can be transformed
Of a frey_h 1!fnodllowing folded ~cl9 . a formal essay, or at least the first draft of one.
Mercy
he> ~2t{~_~~ not one -~ Below are two possible beginnings for a written critical analysis of this poem, based
That ~hm.9J~a.g~.~~.g~Jk4 l=.y, relaxed iM~eS the notes made on the poem. Please note that both are equally valid interpretations.
Shadow that swam or sank might find one or the other more convincing, both support their conclusions
CV"UCJ.l'-" drawn from the poem itself - one is not more 'correct' than the other.
wCJrds sU33est On meadow and river and W.h1~::~~ng~ri.l).g
shqt>e of'rlver: ~---~'7 two different versions are provided specifically to show you that the same general
slcu-,-" curvin:; ~~~Sk:~~n9~b.al}~;kg. shi./'t: ./'rCJM,descri;rC~CJn '.H~,-u."~"V'H of a poem can lead to essays that emphasis different points, or have different
tv of'treeS tCJ Seh'>7CJn CJn
o if we but knew what we do the enVironMent both meeting the standards required for critical analysis.

I-i/' MeV", ./'rCJM When we del~e and he\v -

harMless words
tCJ lanouaoe of'
H ac
3 k d i! 1 h .
an rae c t e growmg green.
I
d. /" _~
t: t J J • •~:-'rl;;'?\ /' e Icaey, »acco-e
CJr co:e SInce country 1S so ~ / ;s ./'eMlnis",d This poem is one of mourning for the loss of a group of trees that were an integral part
To her,c&~being s6~d_~ of a beautiful country scene. The title resembles the headstone of a grave, with the date
That, like the sleek and seeing ball iM!J,.e CJ~~x~reMe J and manner of death ('Felled 1879') written below the name. This immediately strikes us
But a prick will make no eye at all, _ vu nerabillty- ouch.' as unusual, as it suggests that these trees are being commemorated in the same way that
Where we, even where we mean d. /. I> • '/'
we mourn loved ones who have died.
cocsr:S OCJAS;IMI ar,
To mend her we end her, -<----------- but have o,P,PoSite
This provides evidence that the poplar trees are extremely important to the speaker, who
When we hew or delve: Meanin3s

re,P",tlt:on:
.N~~x:-:<;.9.m~r.~£?.-X1rH?~.!m\::~~JhC:.;[email protected];y.h~~.n
Ten or twelve, only ten or twelve
:~.1::/~hc;
beauty loSt has
speaks of them as if they were humans he loved very much. This is confirmed by the
first words of the poem: 'My aspens dear'. The use of endearments and the first person
implies that he had a personal relationship with the trees, and strengthens the impression
eM/'ha.~is 0:' Strokes o~unselve been recounted In
that this poem is an elegy (a poem of mourning).
how l,ttle ,t ~-~~Y.Y the ,PoeM
taf:es to cr"'j1e; _ The sweet especial scene,
devastation Rural scene, a rural scene re,Petition: J The first two lines reveal both the speaker's love for the trees and their beauty. The words
. I rur al scene.' Mournin:;
Sweet espeCla chant;n_:j, 'airy cages' give a strong visual impression of the shape ofthe trees, with the branches and
leaves forming the bars of the 'cage'. This image looks like an apparent contradiction (or
harsh, extreMe word
paradox); the sense of freedom and light conveyed by the word 'airy' dissolves the sense
of enclosure that 'cage' gives. The music of the words 'quelled'/Quelled or quenched in
leaves the leaping sun' tries to imitate the sound of rustling leaves, as we find repetition
of both words ('quelled,/Quelled') and sounds ('que' and 'lea'). The images also suggest
the constant interplay of light and shade caused by the movement of branches and trees.
 26 27

Essay 2:

This poem traces the intense emotional involvement of the speaker with a specific place
of natural beauty, and charts his passionate response to the destruction both of this
particular spot and the rural environment in general. _-'_._ _ date 01' death

The title makes one think of an obituary column in a newspaper, with the name of the
::::':~t:(~
f_~_i)AlbertLuthuli (21.7.6 7t-=-
deceased and the date of their death laid out as a headline. In this case, the 'dead' are the
You a f.~?:gm~n-.t~f.~h~.~-."v'7.1n'3.M, l.UarMth
poplar trees near Binsey (a village outside Oxford, where Hopkins studied). Obituaries are
alto Mean.s~go turn the w.Rr).~ L~/7 l.Uorld r",VolVeS aroand Sun
often written by someone close to the person who has died, and in this case the speaker
C an:}e in the long_strength
feels personally involved.
of you~~ -FW>70US-For' i:noef;n:J on a door'
We know this because the first word of the poem is the first-person possessive pronoun
'My'. This suggests that the speaker 'owns' the aspens, or feels extremely possessive of ?I Bounded
them. The use of the first person tells us that the speaker is no detached onlooker; he is (' you gave me
personally affected, and feels he has the right to describe and define both the beauty of \ knowledge of freedom
the trees and the extent of his bereavement.

The physical beauty of the trees (described in the first and second lines) makes way
1
develo,Ped
Silenced
vou taught me
.f'arther ( J
for the death knell in the third line: 'All felled, felled, all are felled.' Here the swift, light how to speak /Luihul; l.Uas f;ll",d in a t.rain ac6dent;
rhythm of the first two lines, which suggests the rapid and graceful movements of poplar ~._( also Meta,Phor -For ajourney
leaves in the wind, is displaced by a slow and repetitive beat, like the tolling of a bell to Somewhere a~)
announce a death. The word 'felled' both looks and sounds like the word 'knell'. has reached a destination
and tonight c~ntrast to Sun . .'
'For Albert Luthuli'is a good example of a poem that needs a fair amount of contextual Id( fi'~ f . t! contrast to -fin:Jers (l,ne 4): a -fist
e-F-FeC!~
..-tF t h e CO ~l~yQ_~ll~~.;S cloSed, rdentially violent
background filled in before any analysis can begin. As this was written on the occasion [ clenches around the world
Luthu;" S death
of Albert Luthuli's death, it is important to know who he was and something about his
life. At the very least, we need to know that he was one of the great leaders of the ANC But be~~ it _-....-..-- .f'reedoM, no li/>1;ts
during the 1950s and 60s, a chief, and a Nobel Prize winner. He was constantly harassed
thec£~dle.~PuT;~ions of(spac~e'----~
by the apartheid regime, and eventually placed under a banning order. This restricted
grow louder -----
his movements, forbade political involvement, and attempted to isolate him. Luthuli
is perhaps best remembered for a speech in which he spoke of 'knocking on a door', a and ~.t~r.~.Rr.t;.~}g.n.gJh~.~tr~ard.i~
tional ;MCije
metaphor for his life's engagement in the struggle against apartheid. He died in a train grow large 01' ho,Pe
accident, on the date mentioned in the title of the poem. This information sheds light on
several of the references in the poem. Walk now father cloSe ,Personal
-_.-~ .----- relationSh;,P,lov;n3
Here we have provided some examples of how imagery might be analysed. Note s'3n;-fiC!.ant.,as
!...Zdhul; t.Ua.S
cu.;{checked.)
---. "
that this is not a complete essay; there is no introduction and conclusion, and not all banned: death from ~lJn.tQ.~),l.1)-;'?- tafeS h's 'place ;.11
the images in the poem are discussed. The intention is to demonstrate how interlinking restoreS h's the un;verSe
-FreedOM
imagery in a poem might be approached.

One set of images traced throughout this poem are those of the world, the sun and the
stars in space (fragment of the sun'; 'world'; 'endless pulsations of space'; 'stars breaking
the dark'; 'sun to sun'). These are Significant because they suggest absolute freedom.
The universe is infinitely huge, and there are no boundaries in space. Chief Luthuli was
restricted throughout his life - first by the discriminatory laws of apartheid, and then later

-..".
28 29

by his banning order, which placed him under house arrest and tried to end his political
a fresh idea about an image in the fifth stanza, quickly jot this down on the poem itself
activism. The choice of images of freedom is thus particularly telling.
or your rough structure, so that you will remember to include it once you are further
along in your essay.The same rule applies to exam questions as to essays; try not to skip
The first and last lines of the poem both use the sun as a metaphor, which links into this
backwards and forwards in the poem. Leave plenty of space between paragraphs in case
theme, but also operates on other levels. By describing Luthuli as a 'fragment of the sun' you think of something you want to add to a point you have already made. Remember to
at the beginning of the poem, the speaker immediately conveys the sense that he is a add a conclusion, even if this is only one sentence summing up your point of view or your
source of warmth, light and inspiration. At the end of the poem, however, the image has
response to the poem. If you have time at the end of the exam, read through your answer
changed slightly; now it is suggested that Luthuli takes his place in the universe as a sun
to check for errors and to satisfy yourself that your meaning is clear.
among suns ('Walk now father ... from sun to sun'). This could mean, first of all, that
:V0rking through your exam question according to this system can help to control
anxiety and nervousness, as you have a system to follow. More important, it increases
even after his death he remains a source of light and guidance; it also gives a sense of his
your chances of doing justice to your careful preparation.
stature and dignity. Finally, it could also mean his death has given him the freedom of the
entire universe, in sharp contrast to the restrictions he endured in life.
Always remember that when it comes to writing a poetry exam, you are usually being
asked to demonstrate a skill that you have practiced and mastered, rather than to repeat
Another image that is developed involves hands. The speaker describes the 'long strength' factual information contained in a syllabus.
of Luthuli's fingers; later we read that the 'cold fist of winter/ clenches around the world'.
Good luck!
These images remind us of Luthuli's famous phrase 'knocking on a door'. We use our
hands to knock, and so the power of Luthuli's words, which constantly 'knocked' at
apartheid's door, are translated into an image of hands and strong fingers. The speaker
considers the power of Luthuli's words/hands to be so great that they can 'turn' (or
change) the world. This image of 'fingers' contrasts with the later image of a fist, which is
used to describe the immediate impact of Luthuli's death. Unlike fingers, which can hold,
point, guide or knock, a fist is closed, potentially violent and unable to give or receive.
One interpretation of the 'cold fist of winter' is that it is a metaphor for apartheid and
its violence; without the guiding light and warmth ('fragment of the sun') of Luthuli's
leadership to combat it, apartheid 'clenches around the world' like a fist. This image also
suggests the experience of being 'gripped' by grief and loss.

Writing poetry exams

Finally, some hints about poetry exams. Many good students underperform in exams
simply because they reproduce material they have already prepared, instead of answering
the specific questions asked.
Just as in the essay,it is vital that you read the question carefully, break it down into
parts, and analyse it. For essay-type questions, it is essential that you spend the first five
minutes of your allotted time for that question doing this. Next, scribble notes on the
poem provided in the question paper. Once you have done that, work on a very short
rough draft of your essay on a scrap piece of paper, or the inside of the exam booklet
cover. Jot down any thoughts you might have and see if you can organise them into
a logical sequence. This is particularly important if you have been asked to present an
argument, or to explain whether you agree or disagree with a criticism of a poem. Now
is the time to draw a skeleton structure for your answer; this will help if your mind goes
blank, or if you run out of ideas halfway through your essay.
It is essential that you give yourself this time for planning in an exam. Do not be
daunted by the sight of your fellow students around you scribbling as fast as they can;
you will benefit from taking a few extra minutes to plan your answer. Now work through
the poem chronologically. If you are writing about the first stanza, and you suddenly get
 31

Ho (791-817)

Ho (sometimes called Li He) was a striking contributor to the 'golden age' of Chinese
reached its height during the stable and cultured Tang dynasty (618-907) .
....u.~ he died in his twenties, he was famous in his lifetime for his unusual and often
••"' ••

poems.

On the Frontier

A Tartar' horn tugs at the north wind,

Thistle Gate shines whiter than the stream.
The sky swallows the road to Kokonor.
On the Great Wall," a thousand miles of moonlight.

The dew comes down, the banners drizzle,

Cold bronze rings the watches of the night.
The nomads' armour meshes serpents'scales.
Horses neigh, Evergreen Mound's" champed" white. chewed by horses

In the still of autumn see the Pleiades."

Far out on the sands, danger in the furze" bushes
North of their tents is surely the sky's end
Where the sound of the river streams beyond the border.

1 War-like nomadic tribes that threatened the borders of the old Chinese empire.
2 long, fortified wall built as a defence against the Tartars. It stretched for thousands of kilometres, and much of
it still stands today. It is a great tourist attraction. .~.::~::::
3 Grave of a royal mistress and Tartar empress. According to legend, grass grew on her grave all year round. \
4 Constellation of stars; theirflickering was seen as an omen of Tartar attack. \~
 ... " .. .... ....,,_.,.,
'''.' "."

32 33

Tu Mu (803-852) Anonymous (eighth or ninth century)

Tu Mu spent time travelling between monasteries in the lovelier parts of his country,
and his work celebrates the natural beauty of the Chinese landscape. He was particularly
admired for his brief four-line poems (called 'chueh-chu' or 'jueju'), Two examples are The Vikingl Terror
given here.
Fierce is the wind tonight,
It ploughs up the white hair of the sea
The Gate Tower of Ch'i-an City! I have no fear that the Viking hosts Q
bands offighting men
Will come over the water to me.
The sound grates on the river tower, one blast of the horn.
Pale sunlight floods, sinking by the cold shore. Supporting notes ~ .•.
Pointless to lean on the balcony and look back miserably:
There are seventy-five post-stations from here to home. Although composed two continents away, this short Irish poem (found written on the margin
of a religious manuscript) expresses the same anxiety that we see in 'On the Frontier', p. 31.
From about 420 onwards, tribes from present-day Germany and Scandinavia took
To Judge Han Ch'o at Yang-chou advantage of their sailing skills to attack the coasts of Britain and Ireland, bringing their
languages and agricultural skills. This period of often brutal Anglo-Saxon invasion and
Over misted blue hills and distant water settlement lasted until about 615.
In Chiang-nan at autumn's end the grass has not yet wilted.
By night on the Four-and-Twenty Bridges, under the full moon,
Where are you teaching a jade girl to blow tunes on your flute?

Supporting notes V
China, ruled by the cultured rang dynasty, was at this time the largest empire in the world.
Its flourishing and rich civilisation was under constant threat of invasion by land-hungry
and nomadic tribes from Mongolia and inner Asia, who were feared for their swift attack
and brilliance on horseback (which gave them a significant military advantage). This is why
the reference to horses in 'On the Frontier' conveys especial menace. It also explains why
the Great Wall of China, built as a defence, looms so large. It is one of the world's greatest
engineering achievements; it is even visible from space.
Some historians argue that it was pressure on the eastern borders of Europe by these
same nomads that led to the westward spread of the Anglo-Saxon and other Germanic
tribes. Eventually, the force of the invaders (often referred to as Tartars or Mongols) became
too strong to resist, and China was conquered and itself colonised.
You might like to compare the above three poems with Mao Tse-tung's 'Lou Mountain
Pass' (p, 155) and Ezra Pound's 'A River Merchant's Wife' (p. 139), a very loose translation of
a poem by the great Chinese poet Li Bai, also known as Li Po (c. 701-762). Do these poems
have features in common? Do you notice any points of style and imagery that differ from
'Western' poems you have studied?

Seafaring warriors from northern Europe (Scandinavia); among the Germanic tribes that repeatedly raided (and
. eventually conquered and settled) the British Isles.
1 An outpost on the Great Wall of China (see also Li Ho's poem on p. 31).
34 35

Thanne shewe I forth my longe crystal stones; glassjars

Geoffrey Chaucer (c.1343-1400) 20 Ycrammed ful of cloutes" and of bones - rags
Relikes' been they, as weenen" they eechoon" suppose / each one
Chaucer was probably the greatest writer of his time and place. He .was fascinated .with Thanne have I in laton" a shulder-boon" metal case/ shoulder-bone
the class structure of England, which he explores in his works. Born mto the new middle Which that was of an holy Jewes sheep.
class that was changing the face of feudal medieval society, he travelled to Europe as a 'Goode men,' I saye, 'take of mywordes keep: [ ... J notice
soldier, established links with three royal courts, married into the aristocracy, and held a Goode men and wommen, 00° thing warne I you:
25 one
number of increasingly prestigious civil, diplomatic and political posts. Nevertheless, .he If any wight" be in this chirche now person
ran into difficulties of his own making; he was often in debt, and was once charged WIth That hath doon sinne horrible, that he
rape. . . Dar nat for shame of it yshriven" be,
In an uncertain, dangerous and rapidly changing age, Chaucer produced a significant Or any womman, be she yong or old,
amount of great writing. His works are exceptional for their ability t~ capture :he 30 That hath ymaked hir housbonde cokewold,?
language and idiom of their time, while remaining open to present-day mterpretatIOn Swich folk shal have no power ne no grace
0 such
and enjoyment. . . To offren° to my relikes in this place; make o.fferings
His Canterbury Tales has a unique place in the history of the English la~~age; It w~s And whoso findeth him out of swich blame,
one of the first works to be printed after William Caxton set up the first pnntmg press m He wol come up and offre in Goddes name,
London.1his helped establish the southeast Midlands dialect (in which Chaucer wrote, And I assoile" him by the auctoritee" forgive / authority
and which was spoken in London) as the grandparent of the English spoken today.
Which that by bulle ygraunted was to me.'
0
By this gaude have I wonne, yeer by yeer, trick
An hundred mark" sith" I was pardoner. pounds / since
From THE CANTERBURY TALES I stonde lik a clerk in my pulpet,
And whan the lewed" peple is down yset] simple / sitting
The Pardoner's Prologue (extracts) I preche so as ye han herd bifore,
And telle an hundred false japes" more. jokes
Lordinges" - quod" he - in chirches whan I preche, sirs/said
Thanne paine I me to strecche forth the nekke,
I paine me to han an hautein speeche,
0
I take pains / loud
0
And eest and west upon the peple I bekke"
And ringe it out as round as gooth a belle, 45 As dooth a douve. sitting on a berne; dove I barn
For I can" al by rote that I telle. know Mine handes and my tonge goon so yerne 0 quickly
My theme is alway oonl and evere ° was: the same / always That it is joye to see my bisinesse.
Radix ma/orum est cupiditas.: Of avarice and of swich cursednesse
First I pronounce whennes" that I come, from where Is al my preching, for to make hem free
And thanne my bulles' shewe I alle and some: To yiven hir pens; and namely unto me, pennies, money
Oure Iige lordes seel on my patente.' For myn entente is nat" but for to winne. nothing / gain
10 That shewe" I first, my body to warente. show / protect And no thing for correccion of sinne.
That no man be so bold, ne ° preest ne clerk, neither / nor
0
I rekke" nevere whan that they been beried" care/ buried
Me to destourbe of Cristes holy werk." Though that hir soules goon a-blakeberied.?
And after that thanne telle I forth my tales - For certes, many a predicacioun
0
good sermon
Bulles" of pope and of cardinales, letters
Comth ofte time of yve1 entencioun? [ ... J evil intention
15 Of patriarkes and bisshopes I shewe,
0 churchfathers Thus spete ° lout my venim under hewe 0 spit / disguise
And in Latin I speke a wordes fewe, Of holinesse, to seeme holy and trewe,
To saffron withe my predicacioun. spice up / preaching
And for to stire heme to devocioun. them
Relicssupposed to have belonged to holy figures were very popular in medieval times; this led to Widespread
manufacture and sale of fake relics.
1 'Avarice (or love of money) Is the root of all evil' (1 Timothy 6:10). Confess and be forgiven.
2 Letters of authorisation from a bishop. Made her husband a cuckold (i.e., been unfaithful to him).
3 The papal ('Iige lorde' refers to the Pope) seal on my license. 8 Nod my head.
4 Try to stop me doing Christ's holy work. Even if their souls go black-berrying (i.e., go to hell).
36 37

60
But shortly myn entente" I wol devise:
I preche of no thing but for coveitise;'?
intention / describe
Supporting notes U"
Therfore my theme is yit and evere was This extract trom the Prologue (or introduction) to a tale told by the Pardoner (a character in
Radix malorum est cupiditas. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales) shows Chaucer's concern with the abuses of the medieval
Thus can I preche again" that same vice against church. Pardoners were minor members of the clergy who were licensed to travel from
Which that I use, and that is avarice. place to place, granting people absolution. In the Catholic faith (the only Christian religion
65 But though myself be gilty in that sinne, in western Europe until the 15205), this meant that people would confess their sins, and be
Yit can I make other folk to twinne" turn given some form of penance to prove how sorry they were, Unfortunately, money sometimes
From avarice, and sore to repente ~ changed hands; the sinner might be urged to make a financial contribution to a holy cause,
But that is nat my principal entente: intention for example. This, combined with the sale of relics and the practice of paying for prayers to
I preche no thing but for coveitise. be said for the souls of the dead, led to widespread corruption and even extortion by some
70 Of this matere it oughte ynough suffise" to provide enough representatives of the church.
Thanne telle I hem ensamples many oon"
0 moral stories / ones In the figure of the Pardoner, Chaucer launches a stinging attack on these practices. What
Of olde stories longe time agoon, is interesting is that he did so at a time when the Church had enormous political, secular, and
For lewed" peple loven tales olde - simple even legal power, and practiced strict censorship. Its critics could even be executed for heresy
Swiche thinges can they wel reporte" and holde" repeat / remember (the religious equivalent of treason).
75 What, trowe yeOthat whiles I may preche, doyou think If the unfamiliar spelling makes this extract difficult to understand, read it aloud,
And winne gold and silver for" I teche, because pronouncing the words the way they are spelled; Middle English spelling (in an age of many
That I wollive in poverte wilfully? dialects and no dictionaries) is rather inconsistent, but much more phonetic than Modern
Nay, nay, I thoughte" it nevere, trewely, considered English. So 'preche' is 'preach', 'beried' is 'buried', 'trewe' is 'true', and so on. Also check
For I wol preche and begge in sondry" landes; many whether any unfamiliar words resemble Afrikaans words you might know; because of the
so I wol nat do no labour with mine handes, shared Germanic heritage, the meaning is often the same; 'sterve' for example, means to die
Ne make baskettes and live therby," in both Middle English and Afrikaans - and is obviously related to the English 'starve'.
By cause" I wol nat beggen idelli because/ in vain
I wol none of the Apostles countrefete" imitate Questions to consider
I wol have moneye, wolle. cheese, and whete, wool 1. Given the above information, what literary and narrative techniques does Chaucer use
85 AI were it yiven of the pooreste page,12 to 'get away with' his attack on the abuses within the Church? In what ways does this
Or of the pooreste widwe in a village -
0
widow extract differ from a pamphlet or letter he might have written making exactly the same
AI sholde hir children sterve for famine. 13 criticisms?
Nay, I wol drinke licour of the vine 2. If you have correctly identified irony" as one of the ways in which Chaucer gets his
And have a joly wenche in every town. point across without explicitly attacking the Church, try working through the extract,
90 But herkneth. lordinges, in conclusioun, hark identifying exactly where irony is located and how it operates. You might like to start by
Youre liking" is that I shal telle a tale: wish using the extract to draw up a list of all the ways in which a compassionate and sincere
Now have I dronke a draughte of corny ale; beer member of the clergy might be expected to act, especially towards the poor; next, list all
By God, I hope I shal you telle a thing the acts of the Pardoner which contradict these.
That shal by reson been at youre liking; 3. The Pardoner is an unforgettable study of an utterly corrupt and cynical human being.
95 For though myself be a ful vicious man, Some critics argue that he is a supreme hypocrite; others say that he at least recognises
A moral tale yit I you telle can, his own depravity. What kind of emotional blackmail does he use? Are there modern
Which I am wont" to preche for to winne. likely equivalents of the Pardoner? During the late 1980s, 'tele-evangelists' in the United
Now holde youre pees," my tale I wol biginne. States and elsewhere, often hinted that prayers would be answered only if viewers gave
them large donations. In many African countries, some evangelical churches and pastors
have enormous power and wealth, sometimes gained in ethically questionable ways.
Corruption is of course not limited to religious figures; all professions that involve power
10 I preach for no reason except greed.
<whether psychological, spiritual, political, or economic) over other people carry this risk.
11 Nor make a living from weaving or handiwork <basket-making}.
12 Even if it was given by the poorest child. Growing awareness of the issues of sexual harassment and political corruption has alerted
13 Even if her children died of hunger.
14 Now keep quiet,
 39
38

.1><:
.I>l
C)
us to some of the dangers involved. How can people like the Pardoner be prevented from
abusing their power?
Anonymous (fifteenth century)
::>
..: 4. You might also like to consider the effect of censorship" on culture generally; were there
::r:
U similar levels of irony and satire" in resistance art during South Africa's period of state
>< censorship? Can you think of any examples? Are we possibly returning to a period of
i<l Western Wind
I><: state censorship. with the controversial Secrecy Bill moving through Parliament? How are
fz<
fz< South African satirists responding? You might like to look up websites like ZA News on
0 Western wind, when will thou blow,
i<l the Internet for examples.
C) The small rain down can rain?
Christ, if my love were in my arms
And I in my bed again!

Supporting notes ~
We know nothing about the author, or the circumstances in which this exquisite short poem
was written. Perhaps the speaker is a traveller or soldier far from home. In medieval Europe.
several famous poets were also soldiers.
Here is another very lovely short poem that uses military imagery. It was written in the
twelfth century by a Spanish Moor (as the Arabs who conquered and ruled much of Spain
from 711 AD until the twelfth century were known) by the name of Abu l-Oasim al-ManTshT.

Rain Over the River

The wind does the delicate work

of a goldsmith
crimping water into mesh
for a coat of mail" type of armour

5 Then comes the rain

and rivets the pieces together
with little nails.

Short poems can be particularly effective and memorable. You can find more examples on
pp. 137-138, or you might like to look for ones that appeal to you.
40 41
--I
more formal and artificial features of courtly love poetry. (See www.oxford.co.za for more
Anonymous (fifteenth century) examples of courtly love poems from medieval and Elizabethan times.)
Nevertheless, as an influence on art, culture, and social relations, the underlying attitudes
of courtly love persist to this day. Concepts such as 'courtesy', 'chivalry', and 'gallantry' all
stem from it, as do many traditional ideas concerning the roles and behaviour of women
I Sing of a Maiden and men. The belief that men are active and direct in romantic affairs, whereas women are
passive and perhaps manipulative, still persists. Many societies continue to support the idea
I sing of a maiden that men should court and women should be courted.
That is makeles] matchless, mateless In this poem, the simple but effective imagery of spring refers, of course, to the northern
King of aile lunges hemisphere. The coming of spring in England must have seemed like a miracle after the
To her son she ches. chose darkness, hunger and often life-threatening cold of winter. It was not uncommon for the
He cam also stille
poor to starve during winter, and it is not surprising that the symbolism of spring, when folk
Ther His moder was,
could once again feel warmth and grow food, was used in religious poetry, usually to refer to
As dew in Apriile
the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, or the hope of life after death.
That falleth on the gras.
He cam also stille
10 To His moderes bowf room or garden
As dew in Aprille
That falleth on the flowr.
He cam also stille
Ther His moder lay,
15 As dew in Aprille
That falleth on the spray.
Moder and maiden
Was never none but she;
WeI may swich a lady
0 such
20 Gode's moder be.

Supporting notes II'

'I Sing of a Maiden' is a lovely example of a Iyric.*It uses simple, repetitive language and has
a regular and musical rhythm. If you read it aloud, you will find it easy to imagine this poem
being sung.
The poem takes the form of a prayer to Mary, the mother of Jesus. During the Middle
Ages, the practice of honouring Mary was at its height, and was expressed in a variety of
cultural forms - poetry, music, sculpture, tapestry, and even architecture. However, it also
closely resembles much of the secular" love poetry typical of this time, which reflected the
values of 'courtly love'. This began as an aristocratic game of manners in which women
were set up as objects of adoration. The poet-lover (usually, but not always, male), following a
strictly observed script, would praise his beloved extravagantly, claiming to suffer great
anguish as a result of his love for her, and beg her to return his Jove, or at least show some
sign of her favour. Later on, as Renaissance values replaced medieval ones, many poets were
to subvert or satirise the tradition of courtly love; see Wyatt's 'My Lute, Awake!' (p. 45-46)
for a chilling example of how an apparently conventional courtly love poem is turned into a
series of threats. Some of Shakespeare's sonnets (see pp. 52-53) also poke fun at the
42 43

Anonymous (fifteenth century)

Supporting notes V
This poem has many of the features of a ballad:" it tells a story, making use of dialogue, that
sounds like a folk-tale or fable, and there is a supernatural element. It also has a lilting rhythm
and can be sung (the folk-singer Joan Baez has recorded a version); however, it does not have
The Unquiet Grave the 'chorus' or set of repeating lines that is typical of most ballads.
Once you have read through this poem, turn to Christina Rossetti's 'Song' (p. 117). At
'The wind doth blow today, my love, first the poems may seem to have only superficial similarities; both deal with the separation
And a few small drops of rain; (or potential separation) of lovers, one of whom is alive and mourning, the other dead and
I never had but one true-love, buried.
In cold grave she was lain. However, in 'The Unquiet Grave', it is clear that the conventions of elegy" are being gently
mocked. The young lover is determined to behave in an appropriate (but not necessarily
'I'll do as much for my true-love sincere) manner, and to do all the right and proper things: 'I'll do as much ... as any young
As any young man may; man may'. His dead girlfriend is far more realistic and sensible, and points out that life must
I'll sit and mourn all at her grave go on without her. 'Song', meanwhile, comes across at first as a sweet but rather sentimental
For a twelvemonth, and a day.' and morbid love poem.
If you consider the following questions, you may find that your view of Rossetti's poem
The twelvemonth and a day being up, changes, and that you also see 'The Unquiet Grave' from a fresh perspective.
io The dead began to speak: 1. What do you think of the fact that both the speakers 'from the grave' are women? Is it
'Oh who sits weeping on my grave, usual to hear women's voices in love poems? What do you make of the fact that both
And will not let me sleep?' women are dead or dying? Could the poets perhaps be using the grave as a platform
from which women can have a voice or 'answer back'?
"Tis I, my love, sits on your grave 2. In real life, the dead cannot respond to the elegies that are said over their graves. Could
And will not let you sleep; these poets be making a point about sincerity? In Rossetti's poem, is there a harsher
15 For I crave one kiss of your clay-cold lips message? While the young woman in 'The Unquiet Grave' has plenty of sensible advice
And that is all I seek.' for her melodramatic lover, Rossetti's speaker seems to underline the sheer indifference
of the dead to the living, and warns that once she is dead, the whole drama of mourning
'You crave one kiss of my clay-cold lips, will be irrelevant to her. If you re-read this poem, do you pick up any darker overtones?
But my breath smells earthy strong; 3. Why do you think Rossetti's poem has such a conventional form? You will notice
If you have one kiss of my clay-cold lips, imagery that seems very traditional, almost cliched in fact. Could this be deliberate?
20 Your time will not be long. Is it possible that poets sometimes use conservative and conventional techniques as a
form of camouflage? Why would they do this? Under what circumstances are subversive
'Tis down in yonder garden green, messages likely to be disguised?
Love, where we used to walk, Look at 'The Unquiet Grave' again. Would you now agree that it makes the same basic
The finest flower that e're" was seen point as 'Song'? However, its tone in expressing this message is quite different. Which is
Is withered to a stalk. the more humorous poem? Which is more subtle?
5. Now compare these two poems with the elegiac poems from Tennyson's In Memoriam
25 'The stalk is withered dry, my love, (see pp. 102-105). It should be clear that there is a Significant difference between the
So will our hearts decay; two sets of poems. Tennyson's are elegies in every sense of the word; do you agree that
So make yourself content, my love, the other two are poems that fook like elegies, but are actually 'anti-elegy' in intention?
Till God calls you away.'
 45

Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542)

Thomas Wyatt was educated at Cambridge University and served as a diplomat in

various European countries, including Italy. Here he began translating the sonnets" of
the Italian poet and philosopher Petrarch, which led to him introducing the sonnet form My Lute, Awake!
into English literature. Wyatt's career at the court of King Henry VIII, and indeed his
life, were placed in danger when his mistress, Anne Boleyn, became Henry's queen. This, My lute, awake! Perform the last
together with rumours of treason, meant that he endured periods of imprisonment. His Labour that thou and I shall waste,
style (especially in his love poems) marks a distinct shift away from the conventions of And end that I have now begun;
medieval verse to new, innovative, and sometimes cynical kinds of poetry. For when this song is sung and past,
My lute, be still, for I have done.

As to be heard where ear is none,

Whoso List to Hunt As lead to graveD in marble stone, engrave
My song may pierce her heart as soon.
Whoso list" to hunt, I know where is an hind; likes / female deer Should we then sigh or sing or moan?
But as for me, helas. I may no more. alas No, no, my lute, for I have done.
The vain travail" hath wearied me so sore, struggle
I am of them that farthest cometh behind. The rocks do not so cruelly
Yet may I by no means my wearied mind Repulse the waves continually
Draw from the deer, but as she fleeth afore As she my suit" and affection. courtship
So that I am past remedy;
. .
Fainting I follow. I leave off therefore curmg, savmg
Since in a net I seek to hold the wind. 15 Whereby my lute and I have done.
Who list her hunt, I put him out of doubt, Proud of the spoil" that thou hast got Of prizes, loot
10 As well as I may spend his time in vain. simple hearts, thorough" love's shot; By through
And graven" with diamonds in letters plain engraved whom, unkind, thou hast them won,
There is written her fair neck round about: Think not he hath his bow' forgot,
'Noli me tanyere' for Caesar's" I am, the kings Although my lute and I have done.
And wild for to hold though I seem tame.'
Vengeance shall fall on thy disdain

Supporting notes R That makest but game on earnest pain.

Think not alone under the sun
The new fascination with Italian literature that was a characteristic of the Renaissance led to a Unquit" to cause thy lovers plain, unrequited
rebirth of the sonnet;' which was to flower in the hands of poets such as Sidney, Spenser, and Although my lute and I have done.
Shakespeare. (See www.oxford.co.zaforanotherexampleofa.hunting.sonnet.this time by Perchance thee lie withered and old
Spenser.) Wyatt was responsible for bringing the sonnets of the medieval Italian poet and The winter nights that are so cold,
philosopher Petrarch to England, and early attempts to master this new form of poem were Plaining" in vain unto the moon. complaining
mostly adaptations or translations of his poems. Thy wishes then dare not be told.
Care then who list; for I have done. likes

And then may chance thee to repent

The time that thou hast lost and spent
To cause thy lovers sigh and swoon.
Then shalt thou know beauty but lent,
35 And wish and want as I have done.

1 'Touch me not'. The last two lines probably refer to Wyatt's relationship with Anne Boleyn. Cupid, god of love. who shoots his victims with a bow and arrow.
 4';

Now cease, my lute. This is the last

Labour that thou and I shall waste, Sir Walter Raleigh (c.1552-1618)
And ended is that we begun,
Now is this song both sung and past; The legend of how Raleigh laid his cloak in a puddle for Queen Elizabeth I to step on has
40 My lute, be still, for I have done. given him a rather romantic image. In reality, like many Renaissance heroes, he combined
'sophisticated scholarship with exploits of war and colonisation. He was one of the first
Questions to consider Europeans to sail to both South and North America (he is credited with introducing
1. Read the notes on courtly love poetry on pp. 40-41. Do you agree that 'My Lute, Awake!' tobacco into the Western world). His journeys paved the way for the first British colony
looks like a courtly love poem? How does it outwardly resemble one? in North America. He was imprisoned on false charges of treason, but freed to go back to
2. In what ways is it an attack on the conventions of courtly love? How would the 'beloved' South America in search of gold. The trip was a disaster, and he was executed on his return.
feel on hearing the speaker's words? His writing (much of which was done in prison) included his scholarly History if the
3. Identify the specific threats made in this poem. Does it still come across as a love poem? World. Unfortunately, only a few of his witty and intelligent poems survive.
What emotions are being expressed by the speaker? Does this help you to track the tone
of the poem? The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd!
4. Look closely at the structure of the poem. Note how the rhyme scheme operates; you
will notice that the sound of the word 'done' echoes through the entire poem, and that If all the world and love were young,
most of the words at the end of the lines have one syllable only. How does this support And truth in every shepherd's tongue,
the tone and meaning of the poem? You will also notice that the last line of each stanza These pretty pleasures might me move
acts as a kind of chorus. How do the small changes in each one shift and develop the To live with thee and be thy love.
meaning? Li ne 5 and the last line of the poem are identical; yet the meaning has be en s Time drives the flocks from field to fold,
transformed. How has it changed by the time we read the last line? When rivers rage and rocks grow cold,
And PhilomeF becometh dumb;
The rest complain of cares to come.

The flowers do fade, and wanton fields

10 To wayward winter reckoning yields;
A honey tongue, a heart of gall; bitter liquid
Is fancy's spring, but sorrow's fall.

The gowns, thy shoes, thy beds of roses,

Thy cap, thy kirtle; and thy posies skirt
Soon break, soon wither, soon forgotten,
In folly ripe, in reason rotten.

Thy belt of straw and ivy buds,

.Thy coral clasps and amber studs;'
All these in me no means can move
To come to thee and be thy love.

But could youth last and love still breed,

Had joys no date nor age no need,
Then these delights my mind might move
To live with thee and be thy love.

'. Written in response to Christopher Marlowe's 'The Passionate Shepherd to His Love' (see p. 49}.
, , Classical name given to the nightingale. In legend, Philomel was a princess who was raped. The gods turned her
....into a bird so that she could escape her attacker.
,: Coral is a hard, reddish substance formed by sea-creatures; amber is fossilised tree-sap that is a rich golden-
. brown colour. Both are used in making jewellery.
48 49

Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) rlstopher Marlowe (1564-1593)

Sidney belonged to a generation of Renaissance scholar-soldiers who prided themselves Marlowe was educated at Cambridge University and was widely admired for his powerful
on being equally skilled with both the pen and sword. Born into a noble and literary family, dramatic tragedies; which strongly influenced Shakespeare's plays. His life was full of
he was a successful diplomat who travelled and studied in Europe. His writings included intrigue and rather shady dealings; it is likely that he was involved in spying and fraud.
the critical work Defence oj Poesy, as well as poetry which, while experimenting with He was also mixed up in a street fight in which a man died. He himself was stabbed to
classical" forms, established a unique English identity that was to influence Shakespeare. death shortly before he was due to be tried on charges of alleged blasphemy. It is still
He died young after being wounded in battle, and is supposed to have gallantly handed not known if he was in fact assassinated. Rumours persist that he somehow faked his
his water bottle to a dying man as he was carried off the field. His sister Mary, Countess death and then secretly authored some of Shakespeare's works, even though there is no
of Pembroke, herself a gifted writer, translator and patron of the arts, completed and evidence for this theory.
published his unfinished works, including his famous Arcadia.

The Passionate Shepherd to His Love!

Sonnet: Who Will in Fairest Book of Nature Know
Come live with me and be my love,
Who will in fairest book of Nature know And we will all the pleasures prove
How virtue may best lodged in beauty be, That valleys, groves, hills and fields,
Let him but learn of love to read in thee, Woods, or steepy mountain yields.
Stella, those fair lines which true goodness show.
There shall he find all vices' overthrow, And we will sit upon the rocks,
Seeing the shepherds feed their flocks
Not by rude force, but sweetest sovereignty
By shallow rivers, to whose falls
Of reason, from whose light those night birds' fly,
That inward sun in thine eyes shineth so. Melodious birds sing madrigals" songs
And, not content to be perfection's heir
And I will make thee beds of roses
10 Thyself, dost strive all minds that way to move,
10 And a thousand fragrant posies;
Who mark" in thee what is in thee most fair. notice
A cap of flowers, and a kirtle" skirt
So while thy beauty draws the heart to love,
Embroidered all with leaves of myrtle; evergreen shrub
As fast thy virtue bends that love to good.
'But ah,' Desire still cries, 'give me some food.' A gown made of the finest wool
Which from our pretty lambs we pull;
Supporting notes U 15 Fair lined slippers for the cold,
With buckles of the purest gold;
This poem is taken from the sonnet sequence Astrophe/ and Stella ('star-lover' and 'star'),
supposedly inspired by Sidney's love for a woman who married someone else. It deals with A belt of straw and ivy buds,
an age-old problem for lovers: the tension between chaste love and lust. This theme was With coral clasps and amber studs:"
inventively explored by many later poets, especially the generation that came immediately And if these pleasures may thee move,
after the sixteenth century. You might like to read Andrew Marvell's 'To His Coy Mistress' 20 Come live with me and be my love.
(see p. 68-69), which takes the complaint in Sidney's sonnet and gives it a novel twist. How
many other poems can you find in this anthology that deal with this topic? The shepherds' swains" shall dance and sing lovers
For thy delight each May morning:
If these delights thy mind may move,
Then live with me and be my love.

1 This poem inspired a response by Sir Walter Raleigh (see p. 47). Other poets who wrote humorous replies were
john Donne and, more recently, Cecil Day-Lewis (father of the actor Daniel Day-Lewis).
1 Symbols of wickedness. 2 See footnote 3, p. 47.
Supporting notes II Chidiock Tichborne (c.1563-1586)
This poem is an excellent example of the classical pastoral' tradition revived by Sidney and
other Renaissance poets. Pastoral poetry was based on an extremely artificial and idealistic Little is known about Tichborne other than the fact that he was Catholic, and became
view of rural life, in which shepherds, shepherdesses, and their unrealistically obedient flocks involved in a plot to assassinate the Protestant queen Elizabeth I. He was arrested and
frolicked together against a backdrop of eternal spring. As Raleigh suggests in his poem, the sentenced to a gruesome death along with the other conspirators.
realities of winter mud or sheep-shearing are never shown. The poet was concerned with the
creation of beauty rather than with realism.
Although this poem can stand alone (and lends itself very well to close analysis), Tichborne's Elegy
it is probably more enjoyable when compared with Raleigh's 'The Nymph's Reply to the
Shepherd' (see p. 47). Perhaps your class or study group could split into two groups, with Elegy Written with His Own Hand in the Tower before His Execution
each discussing and analysing one poem. After twenty minutes or so, each group could then
report back to the other to 'combine' the debate, and to see how the conclusions reached My prime of youth is but a frost of cares,
about one poem enrich the understanding of the other. You might also like to try to find My feast of joy is but a dish of pain,
the other 'replies' to this poem (by John Donne and Cecil Day-Lewis) in a library or on the My crop of corn is but a field of tares; weeds
Internet. And all my good is but vain hope of gain;
The day is past, and yet I saw no sun,
And now I live, and now my life is done.

My tale was heard, and yet it was not told,

My fruit is fall'n, and yet my leaves are green,
My youth is spent, and yet I am not old,
10 I saw the world, and yet I was not seen;
My thread is cut, and yet it is not spun,
And now I live, and now my life is done.

I sought my death, and found it in my womb,

I looked for life, and saw it was a shade,
15 I trod the earth, and knew it was my tomb,
And now I die, and now I was but made;
My glass" is full, and now my glass is run, hourglass
And now I live, and now my life is done.

Supporting notes II
Tichborne is known for this elegy" he wrote for his wife, Agnes, the night before his
execution, although he wrote several other poems as well. Although poems are not
necessarily autobiographical, the force of this poem comes from the honesty with which the
poet writes about his own desperate situation. It has an impact that is very different from
any of the other elegies in this anthology: see Jonson's two poems (p. 59); Tennyson's In
Memoriam poems (pp, 102-105); Jack Cope and Sally Bryer's poems in memory of Ingrid
Jonker (pp, 173 and 244); and Jennifer Davids' 'For Albert Luthuli (21.7.67)', discussed on
p. 28. This is no doubt because this elegy was written by the doomed man himself.
In terms of South African history, Tichborne would have been a 'political prisoner' facing
the death penalty for taking part in an 'armed struggle' or 'revolutionary violence'. Can you
find any poems, speeches, letters, or stories by South Africans in similar situations?
52 53

The reference to Time in lines 9 and 10 draws on the common medieval and Renaissance
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) personification of both death and time as a reaper who uses his sickle to harvest souls (or,
in the case of time, youth) rather than crops. This image of the 'grim reaper' has become
Little is known about Shakespeare's life. He did not receive much formal education. He
popular in fantasy writing, including the humorous books by Terry Pratchett.
married, had three children, and joined a theatrical company in London in the 1590s. He
had a flourishing career as an actor, poet, and dramatist; he wrote, directed and acted in
his own plays (over thirty-five in all), which included histories, comedies; tragedies; and Sonnet: Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day?
romances." Because they were produced directly for the stage, his plays were often not
published until long after they had been performed; the sometimes uncertain status of
Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?
their scripts remains a subject oflively debate.
Thou art more lovely and more temperate: moderate
Shakespeare was recognised while he lived as the best dramatist of his age: his
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
memorable characters, unrivalled skill with language, and ability to entertain all levels of
And summer's lease hath all too short a date;
society mark him as the most famous playwright in the English language. His output of
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
poetry was also considerable, and his sonnets are ranked among the finest of their kind.
And often is his gold complexion dimmed;
His contemporary, the dramatist Ben Jonson, described him prophetically as 'not of our
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
age, but of all time'.
By chance or nature's changing course untrimmed:
But thy eternal summer shall not fade
10 Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st] own
Sonnet: Let Me Not to the Marriage of True Minds Nor shall Death brag thou wand'rest in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st;
Let me not to the marriage of true minds
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
Admit impediments. Love is not love
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
Which alters when it alteration finds,
Or bends with the remover to remove.
0, no! it is an ever-fixed mark Sonnet: My Mistress' Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun
That looks on tempests and is never shaken;
It is the star to every wand'ring bark; ship My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun;
Whose worth's unknown, although his height be taken.'
Coral! is far more red than her lips' red;
Love's not Time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks
If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun; yellowish-brown
10 Within his bending sickle's' compass come;
If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
I have seen roses damasked. red and white, mixed, patterned
But bears it out even to the edge of doom.
But no such roses see I in her cheeks;
If this be error and upon me proved,
And in some perfumes is there more delight
I never writ, nor no man ever loved.
Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks.
I love to hear her speak, yet well I know
Supporting notes i9 10 That music hath a far more pleasing sound;
I grant I never saw a goddess go;
The image of the ship and star in lines 7 and 8 is significant, given that this was written at a time
My mistress when she walks treads on the ground.
of renewed exploration by sea and increasingly sophisticated navigation. Without modern
And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare
radar, Sixteenth-century sailors relied heavily on the position of stars and constellations to
As any she belied" with false compare" lied about / comparisons
guide them. Today, sailors and astronomers still know how to work out the position of the
South Pole by looking at the stars. If you can imagine being on a boat in the middle of the
ocean without any landmarks to indicate where you are, or what direction you are going, you
can appreciate the security that stars offer sailors.

1 Reference to the measurements of a ship, in particular the height of the mast.

2 Curved knife used for harvesting or cutting crops. 3 See footnote 3, p. 47.
 55

Supporting notes if) John Donne (1572-1631)

Both of these sonnets undermine the Petrarchan tradition in which extravagant and unrealistic
comparisons were made between a woman's appearance and a list of beautiful objects; for John Donne (pronounced Dun) came from a Catholic family and was therefore not
example, eyes were like 'sapphires', teeth were like 'pearls', hair was 'spun gold'; necks were allowed to graduate from Oxford University, where he studied. Ambitious and brilliant,
'ivory towers', and so on. The first sonnet simply takes one comparison and turns its failure he trained as a lawyer and established contacts in powerful circles. He was much in
to adequately describe the beloved into a serious and serene love poem. The second is far demand socially, and had many affairs. On the brink of a prestigious career as an MP,
more realistic, irreverent, and humorous. However, they both use the same logical reasoning. he fell deeply in love, and married secretly, a politically unpopular step that forced him
to retire from public life. Later, he made a sincere conversion to the Anglican faith, and
Questions to consider became a celebrated preacher. He was eventually made Dean of St Paul's, the biggest
1. In 'My Mistress' Eyes', what word in the first line alerts us to the fact that this poem is not church in London.
going to follow the conventional formula? He was one of the first great metaphysical" poets, and his poems are typically witty and
2. A careful reading of this sonnet gives two very different pictures: one of the ideal notable for their inventive use of comparisons. He is especially known for his passionate
Petrarchan woman, and one of Shakespeare's lover. Work through the poem, sorting expression of both secular" and sacred* love.
out their different sets of characteristics. How does the poet feel about the Petrarchan
criteria for beauty in women? Do these criteria still exist? Where do we find them being
promoted? How do you feel about them? Is there still a difference in value between the
descriptions 'blonde' and 'brunette'? What about 'fat' and 'thin'? Why do you think this
is so? Do similar criteria exist for men? Are there racial implications as well?
3. At times the poet's picture of his girlfriend seems quite cruel, even if funny. How do we To His Mistress Going to Bed
know that this is a love poem? In sonnets, the last two lines usually sum up the message
Come, madam, come, all rest my powers defY,
underlying the whole poem. What happens to this poem if we leave the last couplet out?
Until I labour, I in labour lie.
The foe oft-times, having the foe in sight,
Song: Full Fathom Five Thy Father Lies Is tired with standing though they never fight.
Off with that girdle, like heaven's zone! glistering,
Full fathom" five thy father lies; But a far fairer world encompassing.
Of his bones are corals made; Unpin that spangled breastplate which you wear,
Those are pearls that were his eyes: That the eyes of busy fools may be stopped there.
Nothing of him that doth fade, Unlace yourself, for that harmonious chime
But doth suffer a sea-change 10 Tells me from you that now 'tis your bed time.
Into something rich and strange. Off with that happy busk. which I envy, corset, undergarment
Sea-nymphs hourly ring his knell: That still can be, and still can stand so nigh.
Ding-dong. Your gown's going off such beauteous state reveals,
Hark! now I hear them - Ding-dong, bell. As when from Howry meads" the hill's shadow steals. meadows
15 Off with that wiry coronet" and show head-dress

Supporting notes $' The hairy diadem" which on you doth grow:
Off with those shoes, and then safely tread
crown (0/ hair)

In the play The Tempest, the spirit Ariel sings these words to a prince who believes that his In this love's hallowed temple, this soft bed.
father has been drowned at sea. Unknown to the prince, his father has survived. Critics argue In such white robes heaven's angels used to be
about whether the words are cruel or comforting, given the beauty of the images used. 20 Received by men; thou, Angel, bring'st with thee
The Tempest is itself a particularly interesting play, because its story (of exiled nobles who A heaven like Mahomet's" Paradise; and though Mohammed's
land on an island and take it over, enslaving the original inhabitants) lends itself to lively post- III spirits walk in white, we easily know
colonial" analysis. The poem 'Miranda' on p. XX, which is also inspired by the play, is a good By this these angels from an evil sprite: spirit
example of this kind of commentary. Those set our hairs, but these our flesh upright.
4 Measurement used to judge depth of water.
5 See footnote 3, p. 17. 1 Probably the Milky Way (a broad, dense band of stars).
56 57

~
Z
Z
a
25 License my roving hands, and let them go
Behind, before, between, above, below.
Supporting notes IJ ~
z
z
a
The poems above demonstrate Donne's ability to write love poems that differ dramatically
0 o my America! my new found land, Q
z My kingdom, safe1iest when with one man manned, in style, tone, and content 'Batter My Heart, Three-personed God' uses sexual imagery to
z
::I:
My mine of precious stones, my emperj/' convey religious fervour, while 'To His Mistress Going to Bed' is a frankly erotic and funny :r:
a empir a
>-, seduction poem, completely different once again from The Sun Rising'. Yet Donne uses a >-,
30 How blest am I in this discovering thee! e
similar set of images in the latter two poems; can you identify these?
To enter in these bonds is to be free;
If you have difficulty in pinning down exactly what is meant by tone, a comparison of all
Then where my hand is set, my seal shall be.
three poems might be a useful way of seeing how tone can differ dramatically in works that
Full nakedness, all joys are due to thee.
might seem to deal with similar topics, and even use the same images.
As souls unbodied, bodies unclothed must be
35 To taste whole joYS.2 Gems which you women use
Are like Atalanta's balls;' cast in men's views,
The Sun Rising
That when a fool's eye lighteth on a gem, Busy old fool, unruly sun,
His earthly soul may covet theirs, not them. Why dost thou thus,
Like pictures, or like books' gay coverings made Through windows and through curtains, call on us?
40 For laymen, are all women thus arrayed; Must to thy motions loversseasons run?
Themselves are mystic books, which only we Saucy pedantic wretch, go chide
(Whom their imputed grace will dignify) Late schoolboys, and sour prenticesj apprentices
Must see revealed. Then, since I may know, Go tell court-huntsmen that the King will ride,
As liberally as to a midwife, show Call country ants to harvest offices;
45 Thyself: cast all, yea, this white linen hence, Love, all alike, no season knows, nor clime; climate
Here is no penance, much less innocence." Nor hours, days, months, which are the rags of time.
To teach thee, I am naked first; why than; then
What needst thou have more covering than a man? 1hy beams, so reverend and strong
Why shouldst thou think?
I could eclipse and cloud them with a wink,
Holy Sonnet: Batter My Heart, 'Ihree-personed God5 But that I would not lose her sight so long:
15 If her eyes have not blinded thine,
Batter my heart, three-personed God; for You Look, and tomorrow late, tell me,
As yet but knock, breathe, shine, and seek to mend; Whether both th'Indias of spice and mine?
That I may rise, and stand, o'er throw me, and bend Be where thou left'st them, or lie here with me.
Your force, to break, blow, burn, and make me new. Ask for those kings whom thou saw'st yesterday,
I, like an usurped" town, to another due, taken over 20 And thou shalt hear, All here in one bed lay.
Labour to admit You, but 0, to no end;
Reason, your viceroy" in me, me should defend, She's all states, and all princes, I,
surrogate ruler
But is captivated, and proves weak or untrue. Nothing else is.
Yet dearly I love You, and would be loved fain; gladly Princes do but play us; compared to this,
10 But am betrothed" unto Your enemy." married All honour's mimic, all wealth alchemy."
Divorce me, untie, or break that knot again, 2S Thou, sun, art half as happy as we,
Take me to You, imprison me, for I, In that the world's contracted thus;
Except You enthrall" me, never shall be free, captivate Thine age asks ease, and since thy duties be
Nor ever chaste, except You ravish me. To warm the world, that's done in warming us.
Shine here to us, and thou art everywhere;
2 Donne suggests that nudity is, literally, heavenly. 30 This bed thy centre is, these walls, thy sphere.
3 Goddess, who in classical legend was distracted in an important race by golden apples dropped in her path.
4 Weanng white usually Signified innocence or repentance.
7 Reference not just to India, but also South-east Asia, which was seen as a mysterious and exotic source of
5 Reference to the Christian belief in the Trinity (the belief that the deity comprises Father, Son and Holy Spirit).
spices, jewels, and precious metals.
6 Sin or Satan.
8 The medieval art, part chemistry, part magic, of trying to create gold; it was widely discredited by Donne's time.
58 59

Supporting notes ~. Ben Jonson (1572-1637)

Donne's poems are full of references to the new inventions and sciences of his age, including
an awareness of the newly explored globe. In this poem, he makes use of the belief that Jonson's life was a colourful one. He was well educated, distinguished himself as a
the sun revolved around the earth (although astronomers were discovering for the first time soldier, and then joined a company of travelling entertainers as an actor and a writer.
that it happened the other way round) as the central metaphor" or 'conceit' of this poem. His part in a slanderous play landed him in jail, and he narrowly avoided execution
A 'conceit' is a particular kind of image used by the metaphysical poets, and refers to a after killing a fellow actor in a duel. Shakespeare acted in his first play, and his career as
comparison that is striking because it is original or unusual, rather than apt or accurate. a playwright blossomed until another defamatory play got him into trouble with King
James 1. However, the Icing eventually granted him a pension, which made him the first
Questions to consider Poet Laureate (someone officially employed by the court or state to write poetry). His
1. Both the title and the first line are fairly unusual, given that this is a love poem. What tone friends included Donne and Shakespeare, as well as several younger poets who called
is established in the first line? Why is it so surprising? Does it make more sense once you themselves the 'sons' or 'tribe of Ben'. His vigorous poetry and plays, together with his
have read through the entire poem? forceful personality, made him one of the foremost literary figures of his time.
2. Throughout the poem, the speaker sets himself and his lover apart from other inhabitants
of the world. What tone is used to refer to others 'out there', and who exactly are these
On My First Daughter
people? Could this be related to Donne's own experience of social and political downfall
after he fell in love and married? Here lies, to each her parents' ruth; sorrow, pity
3. As is typical of metaphysical poetry, the poet establishes an image, and then transforms Mary, the daughter of their youth;
it, or 'stretches' it to even more inventive limits. In this poem, the two lovers are first set Yet, all heaven's gifts being heaven's due,
apart from the world; they then become the world itself, effectively replacing the globe. It makes the father less to rue.
Trace the exact development of these images throughout the poem; where does the At six months' end she parted hence
change take place? With safety of her innocence;
4. Look closely at how the poet structures his lines and syntax:" For example, read the first Whose soul heaven's Queen (whose name she bears),
two lines of the third stanza, and check the positioning of the pronouns as well as the In comfort of her mother's tears,
nouns to which they are linked. How does this emphasise the message that the first- Hath placed amongst her virgin train; company
person speaker and his lover mean the world to each other? 10 Where, while that severed doth remain,
This grave partakes the fleshly birth; 1
Which cover lightly, gentle earth.

On My First Son
Farewell, thou child of my right hand," and JOYi
My sin was too much hope of thee, loved boy.
Seven years thou wert lent to me, and I thee pay,
Exacted by thy fate, on the just day.
Oh, could I lose all father now! For why
Will man lament the state he should envy?
To have so soon 'scaped world's and flesh's rage,
And, if no other misery, yet age?
Rest in soft peace, and, asked, say here doth lie
10 Ben Jonson his best piece of poetry;
For whose sake, henceforth, all his vows be such,
As what he loves may never like too much.'

1 Reference to the belief that the body would eventually be physically resurrected (fleshly birth') from the grave
and reunited with the soul,
2 This is the literal meaning of the name 'Benjamin', shared by father and son.
3 The poet seems to be hoping that he will never love selfishly.
 ... ·····················,·······:··,,':·/":'i','i':!',''''''''''

60 61

z
o
en
Supporting notes tf;i Robert Herrick (1591-1674)
Z
o Given that this was an era of high infant mortality, it was certainly not unusual to lose more
~ than one child. Centuries later, this is unfortunately still something thousands of Southern Initially an apprentice goldsmith, Herrick studied at Cambridge University and moved in
z
~ African families suffer, especially since the HIV/Aids pandemic. literary circles in London, coming under the influence of Ben Jonson. He was eventually
>:Q
You might like to compare the poems that Jonson wrote on the deaths of his daughter ordained and took charge of a rural parish in Devon. No conventional priest, he kept a
and son. Try to establish what similarities there are, as well as what differences. What lies pet pig and regularly travelled to London, where he had a mistress twenty-seven years
behind these differences? his junior. He is counted as one of the 'Cavalier' poets - a group of poets loyal to the
Now turn to de kok's 'Small Passing' (p, 254-255) and read it closely. At first it may monarchy during and after the Civil War (see the entries under Milton and Marvell,
seem very different to Jonson's poems; how do you think the gender of the poets shapes Pl': 65 and 68, for more details). They specialised in elegant lyrics and gallant love poems.
these differences? Can you find any similarities? Are there aspects of the tragedy of losing a Herrick in particular was known for secular love lyrics that emphasised the sweetness
child that transcend gender and historical period, and can you identify these in the poems? and shortness of life.
Interestingly enough, all three poems deal with the moral implications of mourning, and
whether this is selfish or not. What different conclusions do Jonson and de Kok reach? Can
you identify with both positions? To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time
You might also want to look at the other elegies" in this book (they are listed on p. 51)
and look at how these (which mourn the loss of adults) compare with the ones discussed Gather ye rosebuds while ye may,
here, which describe the loss of babies or small children. Old Time is still a-flying;
And this same flower that smiles today
Tomorrow will be dying.

The glorious lamp of heaven, the sun,

The higher he's a-getting,
The sooner will his race be run,
And nearer he's to setting.

That age is best which is the first,

10 When youth and blood are warmer;
But being spent, the worse, and worst
Times still succeed the former.

Then be not coy,but use your time,

And while ye may, go marry:
15 For having lost but once your prime,
You may for ever tarry" wait

Supporting notes e9.

This is a famous example of a carpe diem poem. This Latin phrase, first used by the
Roman philosopher Horace, means 'seize the day', and urges that pleasure should never
be postponed, given the shortness of life, and youth especially. This theme was skilfully
developed by several seventeenth-century poets; see, for example, Marvell's 'To His Coy
Mistress' (p. 68-69). The carpe diem philosophy was popularised in the Hollywood film Dead
·.:,::i
Poets' Society, and continues in the 'You only live once!' trend.
 63

·.George Herbert (1593-1633)

Herbert was born into a prominent family and performed brilliantly at Cambridge. At
first he had political ambitions, and with his connections, a career at court seemed certain.
However, he experienced a deep religious calling, and was ordained in the Anglican
church. He brought great humility and sincerity to his spiritual duties, and wrote what is
Who would have thought my shrivelled heart
widely recognised as some of the finest devotional" poetry in the English language.
Could have recovered greenness? It was gone
10 Quite underground; as flowers depart
To see their mother-root, when they have blown° bloomed
Virtue
Where they together
All the hard weather,
Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright,
Dead to the world, keep house unknown.
The bridal" of the earth and sky: marriage, union
The dew shall weep thy fall tonight,
15 These are thy wonders, Lord of power,
For thou must die. bringing to life
Killing and quickening; bringing down to hell
Sweet rose, whose hue, angryO and brave; red/bright And up to heaven in an hour;
Bids the rash gazer wipe his eye: Making a chiming of a passing-bell"
Thy root is ever in its grave, We say amiss
And thou must die. 20 This or that is:
Thy word is all, if we could spell.
Sweet spring, full of sweet days and roses,
10 A box where sweets" compacted lie: pn/umes Oh that lance past changing were,
My music shows ye have your closes,' Fast in thy Paradise, where no flower can wither!
And all must die. Many a spring I shoot up fair,
25 Offering' at heaven, growing and groaning thither;
Only a sweet and virtuous soul, Nor doth my flower
Like seasoned timber, never gives; Want a spring shower,
is But though the whole world turn to coal,? My sins and I joining together.
Then chiefly lives.
But while I grow in a straight line,
30 Still upwards bent, as if heaven were mine own,
Thy anger comes, and I decline:
What frost to that? what pole is not the zone
Where all things burn,
The Flower When thou dost turn,
35 And the least frown of thine is shown?
How fresh, oh Lord, how sweet and clean
And now in age I bud again,
Are thy returns! even as the flowers in spring;
After so many deaths I live and write;
To which, besides their own demean; demeanour
I once more smell the dew and rain,
The late-past frosts tributes of pleasure bring.
And relish versing. Oh, my only light,
Grief melts away
4() It cannot be
Like snow in May,
That I am he
As if there were no such cold thing.
On whom thy tempests fell all night.

1 Musical term for conclusions.

2 Reference to the end of the world in flames, as described in the Bible. 3 Church bell tolled to announce a death. \.
64 65

These are thy wonders, Lord oflove,

To make us see we are but flowers that glide;
John Milton (1608-1674)
45 Which when we once can find and prove,
Milton was educated at Cambridge University, and studied further to prepare himself
Thou hast a garden for us where to bide;
for a career either as a poet or a priest. He soon gained a reputation as a writer of great
Who would be more,
imagination and skill. He travelled in Europe, meeting intellectuals and scientists such as
Swelling through store; wealth
the astronomer Galileo, before returning to find England in a state of civil war between
Forfeit their Paradise by their pride.
supporters of the monarchy and Cromwell's parliamentarians. Milton was an ardent
supporter of the new Puritan regime under Cromwell, and worked hard publishing
Supporting notes J). pamphlets and tracts in favour of the new government, even though this contributed
to his going blind. After the restoration of the monarchy, he returned to writing poetry
You might find it interesting to compare 'The Flower' to Hopkins' 'No Worst, There is None'
and produced his most famous work, the monumental Paradise Lost, in which he set out
(p. 121). Both deal with depression and spiritual alienation, but while Hopkins' poem seems
to 'justify the ways of God to man'. His use of blank verse (poetry with no end-rhymes,
to spring from the depths of misery (psychiatrists agree it is a textbook account of the
previously found only in drama) was to influence the course of English poetry; he is also
symptoms of clinical depression), Herbert's speaks of surviving the ordeal and experiencing
recognised for his contribution to the art of sonnet-writing.
a sense of rebirth. Herbert's skill lies in his ability to use ordinary and natural imagery to
describe a common human experience in fresh and accessible terms, in sharp contrast to
the nightmarish, tortured images Hopkins packs into his poem. Yet both describe similar
emotional conditions.
On His Blindness
Both poems lend themselves very well to close critical analysis; here again, if you are in
When I consider how my light is spent; wasted
a study group, you might like to split into two groups, each discussing and analysing one
Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,
poem, then getting together to report back. You will discover that both poems are extremely
And that one talent which is death to hide'
rich in possible meanings (the apparent simplicity of the Herbert poem is deceptive), and
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
sh_ouldprovoke some interesting debates. Although both speakers explore their relationships
To serve therewith my Maker, and present
with God in explicitly Christian terms, the power of both poems is that the emotional territory
My true account, lest He returning chide;
they describe is familiar to members of all faith traditions, as well as agnostics (those who do
'Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?'
not follow any particular faith).
I fondly" ask. But Patience, to prevent foolishly
That murmur, soon replies, 'God doth not need
10 Either man's work or his own gifts. Who best
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
Is kingly: thousands at his bidding speed
And post" o'er land and ocean without rest; travel
They also serve who only stand and wait.'

1 Reference to the parable of the talents told by Jesus (Matthew 25:14-30). This teaches that it is essential to
make use of the gifts granted to one.
 67

Anne Bradstreet (c.1612-1672) Questions to consider

1. Although today it is not so unusual for a writer to compare a book to a baby, this poem
is probably one of the first to have done so. The author develops this central comparison
Bradstreet was born in England, but emigrated to the new colony of Massachusetts in
in a way that is characteristic of the metaphysical poets; can you trace this development?
North America at the age of eighteen, together with her father (who became governor of
You might like to read the contextual notes and questions for Donne's 'The Sun Rising'
the colony) and her husband. Her family were among the first Puritan settlers who left
(p. 57) first.
for the New World to escape religious repression at home. She had eight children, and
2. As you will have noticed, the poet draws on her practical experience as a parent to create
suffered from ill health throughout her life. A relative took her poetry to London to be
published, making her the first poet of the North American colonies. effective imagery. What images are specifically maternal? The speaker explicitly identifies
herself as a woman; why is she so 'upfront' about her gender?
3. The speaker struggles with two conflicting emotions throughout the poem; what are

The Author to Her Book they? At times, one dominates, then the other overcomes it; can you trace these swings
in her feelings? How do they contribute to the tone of the poem?

Thou ill-formed offspring of my feeble brain, 4. The poet makes clever use of words that have a double meaning, especially when applied
Who after birth didst by my side remain, separately to a book and a child; can you identify some of these words?
5. What final motive does the speaker give for publication? How does this change the
Till snatched from thence by friends, less wise than true,
Who thee abroad exposed to public view, conventional picture of the poet who writes only 'when inspiration strikes'? Can writing
be 'hard labour'?
Made thee in rags,' halting" to th' press to trudge, limping, foltering
Where errors were not lessened (all may judge).
At thy return my blushing was not small,
My rambling brat (in print) should mother call;
I cast thee by as one unfit for light,
10 Thy visage was so irksome in my sight;
Yet being mine own, at length affection would
Thy blemishes amend, if so I could:
I washed thy face, but more defects I saw,
And rubbing off a spot still made a flaw.
15 I stretched thy joints to make thee even feet,2
Yet still thou run'st more hobbling than is meet;
In better dress to trim thee was my mind,
But nought save homespun cloth i' th' house I find.
In this array 'mongst vulgars may'st thou roam;
20 In critic's hands beware thou dost not come,
And take thy way where yet thou are not known;
If for thy father asked, say thou hadst none;
And for thy mother, she alas is poor,
Which caused her thus to send thee out of door.

1 Paper used to be made out of cloth and rags.

2 This pun refers to the metre of poetry; feet are units made up of one stressed (or 'strong') syllable together with
a few unstressed sylJables.
\'"
 69

Andrew Marvell (1621-1678) ...:And your quaint' honour turn to dust,

And into ashes all my lust:
One of the las~ great metaph~sical* poets, Marvell graduated from Cambridge {j The grave's a fine and private place,
and travelled 10 Europe durmg the period of civil war in England. On retu . ..But none, I think, do there embrace.
d i Ii . 1 rnmg,
move 10 terary eire es among both parliamentarians and those loyal to the . Now therefore, while the youthful hue
He. :vas friends with Milton, and the two .supported each other through unsettling. Sits on thy skin like morning glew; glow, warmth
pohtlcal changes. Marvell be~ame the unofficial laureate to the Puritan leader Cromwell, And while thy willing soul transpires" breathes
who ruled England tem.pora~dy after the war. During his lifetime, he had a reputation as At every pore with instant fires,
a sharp satirist; today, hIS lyrical poems are equally appreciated. Now let us sport us while we may;
And now, like amorous birds of prey,
Rather at once our time devour,
To His Coy Mistress 40 Than languish in his slow-chapped" power.
Let us roll all our strength, and all
Had we but world enough and time Our sweetness, up into one ball:
This coyness, Lady, were no crime. ' And tear our pleasures with rough strife
We would sit down, and think which way Thorough ° the iron gates of life: through
To walk, and pass our long love's day. Thus, though we cannot make our sun
s Thou by the Indian Ganges'l side Stand still, yet we will make him run.
Shouldst rubies find: I by the tide
Of Humber would complain. I would
Love you ten years before the Flood;" Supporting notes ~
And you should, if you please, refuse This is one of the best-known carpe diem poems in the English language (you might like
10 Till the conversion of the Jews. 4 to compare it with Herrick's 'To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time', p. 61). It is also an
My vegetable love should grow
0
excellent example of the metaphysical" delight in manipulating logic. For another example
plant-like
Vaster than empires, and more slow; of a seduction poem that shamelessly twists logical argument, you might like to try and find
An hundred years should go to praise Donne's 'The Flea' in a library or on the Internet.
Thine eyes, and on thy forehead gaze;
15 Two hundred to adore each breast , Questions to consider
But thirty thousand to the rest. 1. How exactly does the poet use (or misuse) logic in this poem? Try to paraphrase * Marvell's
An age at least to every part, argument into a short paragraph.
And the last age should show your heart. 2. You will notice that the poem is divided into three parts. Find where these breaks occur,
For, Lady, you deserve this state; and note at what stage of the argument they take place. How does the rhythm and pace
dignity
20 Nor would I love at lower rate. of the poem change from section to section? (You will need to read the poem aloud at
But at my back I always hear this point.) How do these changes reinforce the speaker's reasoning?
Time's winged chariot hurrying near; 3. Now examine the images used in each section. What atmosphere and tone do they
And yonder all before us lie create, and how does this alter from section to section? What effect does the pace and
Deserts of vast eternity. tone of the last section have, coming after the first two?
25 Thy beauty shall no more be found;

Nor, in thy marble vault, shall sound

My echoing song: then worms shall try
That long preserved virginity:

Holy river in the north of India.

2 River beside Hull, Marvell's home town in the north of England.
3 The great flood described in the Old Testament. 5 A bawdy pun; since Chaucer's time, 'quaint' had been affectionate slang for female genitals (today degraded to
4 This conversion (to Christianity) would supposedly be a sign that the world was ending. the deeply offensive 'cunt').
6 Chaps are jaws; time is presented as slowly consuming human beings.
70
_
71
..._-.." ..

Lady Mary Chudleigh (1656-1710) Alexander Pope (1688-1744)

Chudleigh married young. Most of her life was spent in solitude on her husband's A childhood illness left Pope physically disabled and in constant poor health, but he
country estate, but she read widely and corresponded with other writers, including early compensated for bodily weakness with mental brilliance. His translation of Homer's Iliad
feminists, and formulated progressive views of her own. Several editions of her poems and Odyssey (classical Greek works) brought him recognition and financial independence.
were published in her lifetime; her work also includes plays and translations. Meanwhile, he earned a reputation as one of the best satirists" of his time, even though
the accuracy of his barbs often made him most unpopular. Most of his poetry is written
To the Ladies in rhyming couplets; an astonishing testimony to his technical skill. Today he is best
remembered as the author of the mock-heroic * poem 'The Rape of the Lock'.
Wife and servant are the same,
But only differ in the name: A Little Learning
For when that fatal knot is tied,
Which nothing, nothing can divide, A little learning is a dangerous thing;
When she the word Obey has said, Drink deep, or taste not the Pieri an spring.'
And man by law supreme has made, There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain,
Then all that's kind is laid aside, And drinking largely sobers us again.
And nothing left but state" and pride. formality, display Fired at first sight with what the Muse! imparts,
Fierce as an eastern prince he grows, In fearless youth we tempt the heights of Arts;
10 And all his innate rigour shows: While from the bounded" level of our mind restricted
Then but to look, to laugh, or speak, Short views we take, nor see the lengths behind,
Will the nuptial" contract break. marital But, more advanced, behold with strange surprise
Like mutes,' she signs alone must make, 10 New distant scenes of endless science rise!
And never any freedom take, So pleased at first the towering Alps" we try,
)5 But still be governed by a nod, Mount o'er the vales, and seem to tread the sky;
And fear her husband as her god: The eternal snows appear already past,
Him still must serve, him still obey, And the first clouds and mountains seem the last:
And nothing act, and nothing say, 15 But those attained, we tremble to survey
But what her haughty lord thinks fit, The growing labours of the lengthened way;
zo Who, with the power, has all the wit. The increasing prospect tires our wandering eyes,
Then shun; oh! shun that wretched state, avoid Hill peep o'er hills, and Alps on Alps arise!
And all the fawning flatterers hate.
Value yourselves, and men despise:
You must be proud, if you'll be wise.

Supporting notes ~
This unusually polernlc= poem was written at a time when the status of women under British
law meant that they were considered the property first of their fathers, then of their husbands.
On marrying, they became legal minors, and had no rights to land, wealth, income, or even
their own children (their husbands assumed full control over all these). This situation lasted in
Britain until the late-nineteenth century. Today there are still many countries in which women
are, if not legally, then socially and economically second-class citizens. In recent years, there
has been an alarming trend in certain countries or societies towards stripping women of the
few political and even human rights that they have. For many women all over the globe, the
concerns raised in Chudleigh's poem are as pressing as ever.
1 Fountain reputed to be the source of wisdom and inspiration.
2 Classical goddess supposed to prompt inspiration.
1 Those physically unable to speak. 3 Highest mountain range in western Europe.

if
.. ,;:--
72 73

For you, who mourn with counterfeited grief,

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762) 30 And ask so boldly like a begging thief,
May soon some other nymph" inflict the pain beautifol girl
Montagu was the daughter of a duke, and moved in sophisticated social and literary You know so well with cruel art to feign.
circles throughout her life. She married Edward Wortley Mon~agu se.cretlya~d trave~led Though long you've sported with Dan Cupid's dart,2
to Turkey with him. On her return, she introduced the ~ract1~e of mo.culatlOn agamst You may see eyes, and you may feel a heart.
smallpox into England. She was a close associate of Pope s unul. a public quarrel ended 35 So the brisk wits, who stop the evening coach;'
the friendship. She spent much of her later life in Europe. She 1Sbest remembered for Laugh at the fear that follows their approach;
her witty letters, although her poems are also interesting. With idle mirth, and haughty scorn, despise
1he passenger's pale cheek and staring eyes:
But seized by Justice, find a fright no jest,
40 And all the terror doubled in their breast.

Supporting notes J)
An Answer to a Love-Letter in Verse English poetry since the Middle Ages has included hundreds of love poems written by men
urging the woman of their dreams to return their love and begin an affair with them. This
Is it to me, this sad lamenting strain? poem gives us a rare glimpse of what it meant to be on the receiving end of one of these
Are Heaven's choicest gifts bestowed in vain? pleas. The speaker in Montagu's poem assumes that her would-be lover is completely
A plenteous fortune, and a beauteous bride, insincere; how many love poems or seduction poems can you find in this anthology that you
Your love rewarded, and content your pride: suspect of falling into this category?
Yet leaving her - 'tis me that you pursue,
Without one single charm but being new.
How vile is man! how I detest the ways
Of artful falsehood, and designing praise!
Tasteless, an easy happiness you slight,
10 Ruin your joy, and mischief your delight. .
Why should poor pug! (the mimic of your kind)
Wear a rough chain, and be to box confined?
Some cup, perhaps, he breaks, or tears a fan,
While moves unpunished the destroyer, man.
\5 Not bound by vows, and unrestrained by shame,
In sport you break the heart, and rend the fame.
Not that your art can be successful here,
Th' already plundered need no robber fear:
Nor sighs, nor charms, nor flattery can move,
20 Too well secured against a second love.
Once, and but once, that devil charmed my mind;
To reason deaf, to observation blind,
I idly hoped (what cannot love persuade?)
My fondness equalled, and my truth repaid:
25 Slow to distrust, and willing to believe,
Long hushed my doubts, and would myself deceive;
But oh! too soon - this tale would ever last;
Sleep, sleep my wrongs, and let me think 'em past.
The arrow with which Cupid (the god of love) was supposed to strike.
Reference to highwaymen, who held up and robbed travelling coaches.
1 Pet monkey.
 75

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) Supporting notes V

This poem refers to Sir John Lade, the nephew of one of Johnson's friends, who wasted
Johnson's early years were marked by poverty and illness, and lack of funds forced him to the fortune he inherited. Underlying its witty sarcasm is a very real concern for the laws of
leave Oxford University. He spent nine years writing the first dictionary in the English inheritance that allowed such irresponsibility. During the eighteenth century, the role of the
language, and its publication confirmed his standing in literary circles. His writing 'landed gentry' (minor aristocrats who inherited estates and lived off the income generated
included reviews, political articles, biographies and a novel, as well as poetry. His close by farming or renting their land) became the subject of much debate and criticism, and
friend Boswell wrote a popular biography celebrating Johnson's achievements, and this responsible management was strongly urged.
ensured the fame of both men. You might like to compare Johnson's poem to one on a similar topic (but which presents
a very different perspective) by Eva Gore-Booth: 'The Land to a Landlord' (p, 132). Part of
A Short Song of Congratulation the interest comes from the fact that the two poets are very different, which gives us an
opportunity to look at how gender and political orientation influence poetical argument.
Long-expected one-and-twenty,
Lingering year at last is flown:
Pomp and pleasure, pride and plenty,
Great Sir John, are all your own.

Loosened from the minor's tether,

Free to mortgage! or to sell,
Wild as wind, and light as feather,
Bid the slaves of thrift farewell.

Call the Betties, Kates, and Jennies,

10 Every name that laughs at care,
Lavish of your grands ire's guineas,
Show the spirit of an heir.

All that prey on vice and folly

Joy to see their quarry fly,
15 Here the gamesterO light and jolly, gambler
There the lender grave and sly.

Wealth, Sir John, was made to wander,

Let it wander as it will;
See the jockey, see the pander; pimp
20 Bid them come and take their fill.
0
When the bonny blade carouses.' youngman
Pockets full, and spirits high,
What are acres? What are houses?
Only dirt, or wet or dry.

25 If the guardian or the mother

Tell the woes of wilful waste,
Scorn their counsel, scorn their pother: bother, anxiety
You can hang or drown at last!

Borrow money against land or property.

2 Enjoys a noisy drinking-party.
76

Presumptuous maid! with looks intent

Thomas Gray (1716-1771)
2S

Again she stretched, again she bent,

Nor knew the gulf between.
Gray was educated at Cambridge. Apart from a tour of Europe with Horace Walpole, (Malignant Fate sat by, and smiled)
the Prime Minister's son, he lived the life of a recluse at Cambridge, where he was made The slippery verge her feet beguiled,
professor of Modern History. His few poems show evidence of his careful research, and
30 She tumbled headlong in.
are mostly solemn and serious. His most famous work, 'Elegy Written in a Country
Church Yard', was so popular that he was offered the position of Poet Laureate, which Eight times emerging from the flood
he refused. She mewed to every watery God,
Some speedy aid to send.
No dolphin came, no Nereid- stirred:
35 Nor cruel Tom, nor Susan heard.
A favourite has no friend!

From hence, ye Beauties, undeceived,

Ode on the Death of a Favourite Cat, Know, one false step is ne'er retrieved,
Drowned in a Tub of Gold Fishes And be with caution bold.
40 Not all that tempts your wandering eyes
'Twas on a lofty vase's side, And heedless hearts, is lawful prize;
Where China's gayest art had dyed Nor all, that glisters, gold.
The azure" flowers, that blow; blue/ bloom
Demurest of the tabby kind, Supporting notes ef)..
The pensive Selima reclined,
The poet here uses mock-heroic" language and imagery to mourn a drowned cat. In other
Gazed on the lake below.
words, a fairly trivial subject (not to cat-lovers, of course) is described in a language and style
Her conscious tail her joy declared; much loftier and grander than is appropriate, for humorous effect. The poem follows in the
The fair round face, the snowy beard, tradition of much eighteenth-century satire," which was greatly influenced by Pope.
The velvet of her paws,
10 Her coat, that with the tortoise vies,
Her ears of jet, and emerald eyes,
She saw; and purred applause.

Still had she gazed; but 'midst the tide

Two angel forms were seen to glide,
15 The Genii" of the stream: guardian spirits
Their scaly armour's Tyrian' hue
Through richest purple to the view
Betrayed a golden gleam.

The hapless nymph" with wonder saw: beautiful girl

20 A whisker first and then a claw,
With many an ardent wish,
She stretched in vain to reach the prize.
What female heart can gold despise?
What cat's averse to fish?

1 Tyre was an ancient Mediterranean city where purple dye was made from shellfish. 2 Sea goddess.
··.78

William Cowper (1731-1800)

.3()
Ask him, if his knotted scourges,
Matches, blood-extorting screws,
Are the means which duty urges
Cowper (prono~nced Cooper) was a shy and sensitive man. After being very unhappy
Agents of his will to use? [... ]
~t school, he trained as a lawyer, but was too mentally fragile to practice. He led a quiet
life, troubled by bouts of depression, during which he wrote morbid or manic poems.
By our blood in Afric wasted,
Fortunately, his friends and fiancee (to whom he was engaged for nearly thirty years) 0
Ere our necks received the chain; before
stood by him, and when he was in good health, he produced fine hymns, poems and
35 By the mis'ries we have tasted,
comic writings. He was greatly influenced by members of the Evangelical churches of his
Crossing in your barks" the main; ships
time, who enlisted him in the anti-slavery cause.
By our suff'rings since ye brought us
To the man-degrading mart; market
All sustain'd by patience, taught us
The Negro's Complaint
40 Only by a broken heart:
Forc'd from home, and all its pleasures, Deem our nation brutes no longer
Afric's coast I left forlorn; Till some reason ye shall find
To increase a stranger's treasures, Worthier of regard and stronger
O'er the raging billows" borne. waves Than the colour of our kind.
Men from England bought and sold rp~ . rP 45 Slaves of gold, whose sordid dealings
Paid my price in paltrfgdi2it'' o "'\." J'.\.
Tarnish all our boasted pow'rs,
But, though theirs they have enroll'd me, Prove that you have human feelings,
Minds are never to be sold. Ere you proudly question ours!
Still in thought as free as ever,
10 What are England's rights, I ask, .
Me from my delights to sever,
Supporting notes v.9-
,lnJhis.poel"]'l; <:'9W.PJ~Cil:ttackthse slaY~Jra,QeJ.an issue that was .~eginning to trouble.the ..
Me to torture, me to task?
consciences ()! rni3.,[ly.i~the.rnid-to-late eighteenth century. ~~!!~ ..~!~D9,h~g~",<;lJJJLpmfitab.l.~..
Fleecy locks and black complexion
~t!g':l! ~!:!tgtjQIJ_U~_,the ~~t,lllc:ii~,s, ..P\:\tJb.~~.e_dependedon ,~Ji3,xe.Jal:J9.!~:!!f~·'!.~,~ll9,~LD.o
Cannot forfeit nature's claim;
_!lgb.ts_w_bats.Q.mr, aJJirr~!~telyJ~.ill.J~_~~~Jgrt.IJX~.tQ_P_y_rll~h,tl:lJ~m..QrIQL~~"!b_~JnJQ
15 Skins may differ, but affection
work _harder, a'?J.~"~?,~~ll1.1bJ~Jo_UJ:tbJ(~r.~~Jscourg_e:s..x"er('\!f_\Ii..A~{h_)ibllJQp?J_~Jjgt_f9.l_Jhem, and
Dwells in black and white the same. ~crews were clamps applied to the fiDg~rs ~rg~Qit~ls2, -. ----~---
.......... ....... .. - " • • • • r. ._, • •• " •• • • • ,' , , ,, , ~,,,,., ••,' •••• _.... • • • • .n". ..

Why did all-creating Nature ~_yigQrou.s,.moy.~.ruentdenouncing the cruelty and barbarism of.slavery, and callingJi)r
Make the plant for which we toil? ~~/atJ9HtiQn,g_~~0~~_.r;1QJl)~ntut(.r)~Clr~~}h.g~. ndofjhe eighteenth.century, and this poem
Sighs must fan it, tears must water, (which was sung to a well-known tune) was one of several protests circulated in the press
20 Sweat of ours must dress the soil. and in the form of pamphlets. f~.Ltb_Qugb...sQme"Qfth~_pbn.~~~.?.I~il.e.ct..aJatheL.s.e!1tim~ntal
i!rl_cl5Qmetim~5, p~t~C?pisingv.iew of the. African slaye,ctb~~~pleaioJ"r.aciaLuude(st<!J}di~g~~ci;f
Think, ye masters, iron-hearted,
Lolling at your jovial boards; tables ,_~gl:t?,I!!ti.s._~_~reL!J!r!"~lt!!,1£_dem,. .
Think how many backs have smarted" to throb or sting with pain <;;'9.mp~r~Jbise,Qe.!D,.toG_race Nichor~ :Tatnt' ~E.,2?3);t~g"ether.ihey"painta devastating
For the sweets your cane affords. Q!<:;tl,.lorettbe h'Q'r'rorsofslavery. It is int~r~stinirto co~pa;:~this·~ rgent eighteenth-c~ntu ry
pl~~!9 .<. =:1J9slayery.witha modern poem reflecting back on thelong-term damagethat.has
25 Is there, as ye sometimes tell us, Is ~.)~Qjt~)eg?q~.~I.!hgugh·.sla~ery has/he~rJ offjci~lIy abolished worldwide. for Dearly. two
there one who reigns on high? Has ~e0tl,l.rie5,itispq ttl.e.rise around the globe in various forms, suchas human traffic:king. you
he bid you buy and sell us, ~ig~tlike to investigate this topic What kinds of slavery exist today? What labour practices
Speaking from his throne the sky? mIght amount t() modern-day slavery? . -
 81

William Blake (1757-1827) 'Chimney-sweepers' in line 9, for example, were small boys (the younger the better) who
were made to climb up inside chimneys to clean them; many suffocated. Forced child labour
was perfectly legal. The reference to the 'hapless Soldiers' (line 11), meanwhile, possibly
Blake is a classic example of a genius born before his time. He had no formal education
refers to conscription. And the description of the 'Harlot' (prostitute) as 'youthful' (line 14)
but was trai.ned as a~ engraver (book illustrator). He developed a unique artistic style:
may refer to the fact that desperately poor families sometimes sold their daughters (many of
opene~ a pnnt sho~ m London, and produced books written and illustrated by himself.
them scarcely teenagers) into prostitution. Then, as now, virgins were much in demand in the
These introduced his unusual and often socially critical poetry and his visionary art to
sex trade, as they were believed to be 'cleaner'.
the ?ublic. :r0'_'Vever, his mystic philosophies, condemnation of orthodox religion, and
Perhaps Blake is most radical in his frank references to the sexually transmitted diseases
passIOn. for justice meant that he was considered insane by most of his contemporaries.
that were spreading as a result of urban prostitution. Until the discovery of antibiotics in the
Mter his death, he was to have a growing influence on poets and artists who were inspired
by his revolutionary ideas. mid-twentieth century, syphilis was incurable and almost as deadly as HIV/Aids is today.
Very often, the middle-class men who visited prostitutes would take the disease home to
their wives, leading to suffering, sterility, and sometimes death - a tragic pattern scathingly
London referred to in the last line of this poem.
After a careful reading of 'London', turn to Serote's 'Alexandra' and 'City Johannesburg'

I wander thro' each charter'd' street, (pp. 239-241). You will find that both poets, although writing from different centuries and

Near where the charter'd Thames2 does flow. continents, share a passionate concern for those social injustices that are heightened and
And mark in every face I meet worsened by urbanisation.

Marks of weakness, marks of woe. The following questions will help you to explore this connection further.
1. Both poets write in judgement of particular cities. However, in 'Alexandra', Serote's
In every cry of every Man, indictment of his home township is mixed with other emotions. Can you identify some of
In every Infant's cry of fear, these?
In every voice: in every ban," 2. If you work through both 'London' and 'City Johannesburg', what specific social and
The mind-forg'd manacles" I hear political evils do you find listed by each poet?
chains
3. Now that you have established exactly what Blake criticises in urban society, note how
How the Chimney-sweeper's cry economically he uses serious puns" and words with double meanings to get his message
10 Every blackning Church appalls, across. The footnotes already identify two 'double' words; can you find any others?
And the hapless Soldier's sigh (Look closely at line 10.) Serote, however, makes use of colourful images rather than
Runs in blood down Palace walls loaded words in his poems, although there is one very clever pun in 'City Johannesburg'
(check line 27). What central metaphor" does he develop throughout 'Alexandra'? In
But most thro'midnight streets I hear what way is it unusual? In 'City Johannesburg', try to locate each metaphor and simile."
How the youthful Harlot's curse" How does each one work, and which do you find the most effective?
15 Blasts the new-born Infant's tear
4. Bearing in mind your answers to question 2, can you identify any specific social and
And blights with plagues the Marriage hearse. political problems or structures that were the same or similar in London in the 1790s and
South African cities under apartheid?
Supporting notes ~ .. 5. Blake is particularly concerned with the problem of prostitution. Do you feel he is giving a
lecture on morality? Or is his treatment of the issue more complex? How does he present
Blake was one of the first writers to voice his horror and concern at the effect the Industrial it as a social, rather than a moral problem? Can you think of present-day parallels? (Look
Revolution was having on the social fabric of England. Here he addresses the problems of at the work done in South African cities by SWEAT - the organisation that works with and
rapid urbanisation. The new drive for industrialisation, and the migration of poor people represents sex workers, as many prostitutes prefer to be known.)
from the countryside to the cities in search of jobs, led to appalling living conditions and 6. Do you feel that the criticisms both poets make are effective? Why? How does their
gross exploitation. There were no laws, for example, governing labour conditions. The treatment of these issues differ from the way they might be handled by a politician or an
activist? Does this suggest any further insights on the nature or role of poetry?
1 Mapped out; also legally defined or restricted.
2 River running through central London.
3 Legal prohibition or punishment; possibly also a pun on 'bann' (marriage announcement).
4 Sweanng; also a reference to the sexually transmitted disease syphilis; babies born to infected women were
often blind or deformed (see line 15).
The Sick Rose
Robert Burns (1759-1796)
o Rose, thou art sick.
Burns was a patriotic Scottish poet, and his birthday is still celebrated by the Scots, most
The invisible worm,
of whom consider him their national poet. Raised to be a farmer, he struggled financially
That flies in the night
and was about to emigrate to Jamaica when his first book of poems, many in the Scottish
In the howling storm:
dialect, was published. It was an immediate success, and guaranteed his popularity. His
Has found out thy bed new 'celebrity' status went hand-in-hand with a string of romantic affairs. He was also
Of crimson joy: responsible for collecting, adapting and preserving Scottish folk songs. He died at the
And his dark secret love relatively young age of thirty-seven; his lively poems are still popular today.
Does thy life destroy.

John Anderson, My Jo
Supporting notes It·· dear
This poem acts as a mini-allegory" on many subjects: but the phallic (penis-like) image of the John Anderson my jo; John,
When we were first acquenf acquainted
worm means that it is most often interpreted as a comment on sexual betrayal. In 'London',
we have already seen Blake's concern for the social and gender injustices underlying the Your locks were like the raven,
Your bonie" brow was brent; bonny / smooth
problem of sexually transmitted disease. Here he addresses the same issue more directly.
But now your brow is beld'' John, bald
Your locks are like the snaw] snow
But blessings on your frosty pow; head
John Anderson, my [o,

John Anderson my jo,John,

10 We clamb" the hill the gither; climb / together
And mony" a canty° day,John, many/merry
We've had wi' ane ° anither: one
Now we mauna totter down,John, must
And hand in hand we'll go;
15 And sleep the gither at the foot,
John Anderson, my jo.
84
85

William Wordsworth (1770-1850) 'The stars of midnight shall be dear

To her; and she shall lean her ear
Wordsworth was born in the Lake District, a beautiful part of England later celebrated In many a secret place
in his poetry. After graduating from Cambridge University he spent a year in France, Where rivulets" dance their wayward round, small streams
where he passionately supported the French Revolution, then at its height. He also fell in And beauty born of murmuring sound
love with a French woman with whom he had a daughter. Back home, he was horrified 30 Shall pass into her face.
when Britain declared war on France. He also found his radical principles challenged
by the violent excesses of the Revolution, and became deeply depressed. A retreat to the 'And vital feelings of delight
countryside to live with his adoring sister Dorothy, together with an inspiring friendship Shall rear her form to stately" height dignified
with the poet Coleridge (p. 88) helped him to recover. Together with Coleridge, he Her virgin bosom swell;
produced work that was to establish the foundations of a new era in English poetry. Their Such thoughts to Lucy I will give
concept of Nature and its beauties as a source of comfort and moral guidance was perhaps 35 While she and I together live
inevitable in a rapidly industrialising country; it shapes our aesthetic" perceptions to this Here in this happy dell," forest clearing
day. Later in life, Wordsworth was appointed Poet Laureate.
Thus Nature spake - The work was done -
How soon my Lucy's race was run!
Three Years She Grew She died, and left to me
40 This heath; this calm, and quiet scene; moor
Three years she grew in sun and shower, This memory of what has been,
Then Nature said, ~ lovelier flower And never more will be.
On earth was never sown;
This Child I to myself will take;
She shall be mine, and I will make
Supporting notes Jli
A Lady of my own. This poem is interesting for its presentation both of Nature and the 'feminine'. on: ,of the basic
principles of Romantic poetry was to place the poet as a first.pe~son speaker ( , ) refl~ct~ng
'Myself will to my darling be on the comfort and inspiration of Nature - which was usually given female characteristics.
Both law and impulse: and with me The poem would often go on to establish a relationship between the male poet and female
The Girl, in rock and plain, Nature. This meant that it was difficult at first for women to write Romantic poetry, as they
10 In earth and heaven, in glade and bower; found themselves in the awkward position of being both speaker (subject) and spo~en about
enclosed garden
Shall feel an overseeing power (object). Later, however, many Victorian women poets were to adapt th~ Roman,b~ formula
To kindle or restrain. for writing nature poetry in creative ways. You might want to look at, Dickinson s ',Taste a
Liquor Never Brewed' (p. 115) for an example of a startlingly unusual Nature ~oem .
'She shall be sportive" as the fawn In this poem, Wordsworth takes both a female figure and Nature and describes "hov: on.e
playfol
That wild with glee across the lawn is absorbed into the other; at the end of the poem, we realise that it is also an elegy. '~ IS ~hls
15 Or up the mountain springs; use of natural imagery as a convention of mourning that we see Rossetti's speaker rejecting in
And hers shall be the breathing balm, 'Song' (p. 117). A number of poems in this anthology make powerful or, Inno~atlve u~e of this
And hers the silence and the calm tradition, nevertheless; see Tennyson's 'It is the day when he was born and Thy ~ol~e IS on
Of mute insensate" things. the rolling air' (pp. 104-105), Hardy's 'The Voice' (www.oxford.co.za). and Cope 5 The
without fteling
Flying Fish' (p. 173). Can you find any others?
'The floating clouds their state shall lend
20 To her; for her the willow bend;
Nor shall she fail to see
Even in the motions of the Storm
Grace that shall mould the Maiden's form
By silent sympathy.
86 87
"---'.

Composed upon Westminster Bridge,S September 3,1802 I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud

Earth has not anything to show more fair: I wandered lonely as a cloud
Dull would he be of soul who could pass by That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
A sight so touching in its majesty: When all at once I saw a crowd,
This city now doth, like a garment, wear A host; of golden daffodils; crowd
The beauty of the morning; silent, bare, Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Ships, towers, domes, theatres, and temples lie Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
Open unto the fields, and to the sky;
All bright and glittering in the smokeless air. Continuous as the stars that shine
Never did sun more beautifully steep And twinkle on the milky way,6
10 In his first splendour, valley,rock, or hill; They stretched in never-ending line
Ne'er saw I, never felt, a calm so deep! 10 Along the margin of a bay:
The river glideth at his own sweet will: Ten thousand saw I at a glance,
Dear God! the very houses seem asleep; Tossing their heads in sprightly" dance. lively
And all that mighty heart is lying still!
'The waves beside them danced; but they
Out-did the sparkling waves in glee:
Supporting notes v9. 15 A poet could not but be gay,
In such a jocund" company: Jolly
This poem is in sharp contrast to Blake's 'London' (p. 80). Nevertheless, together the two
I gazed - and gazed - but little thought
poems encompass the main characteristics of much Romantic poetry; a passionate concern
What wealth the show to me had brought:
for injustice; and a deep emotional and even spiritual response to scenes of beauty.

For oft; when on my couch I lie often

20 In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude;
And then my heart with pleasure :fills,
And dances with the daffodils.

Supporting notes vf)'

Although in recent times the intense romanticism of this poem has sometimes been mocked, it
is a classic example of how the Romantic philosophy of beauty in Nature operates. The
poet sees a vision of natural beauty, which he mentally photographs and then describes in a
poem. This image of beauty is then recalled at later moments to create a sense of happiness
or comfort. (In order to fully appreciate this poem, it is necessary to know that the part of
the stem to which the daffodil flower is attached is very flexible; the flower thus bobs and
'dances' up and down in the slightest breeze.)
Another interesting fact about this poem is that it is one that Wordsworth 'plagiarised'
from his sister Dorothy's diary. She would often write vivid prose descriptions of beautiful
sights she had seen, and then show these to her brother; he would then sometimes rewrite
her piece in the form of a poem. Scholars have begun to investigate the extent to which she
was a 'co-author' of some of Wordsworth's more famous poems.

5 Central bridge over the Thames River in London. 6 Broad. dense band of stars.
 '!

88 89

Five miles meandering with a mazy motion ~

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)
25

Through wood and dale the sacred river ran,

0 valley
0
Q
~
Then reached the caverns measureless to man, 0::
Coleridge was a gifted but tormented person. Although he was a brilliant student W
And sank in tumult to a lifeless ocean: ...l
a
at Cambridge University, his academic career was wrecked by drink, involvement And'mid this tumult Kubla heard from far U
in revolutionary politics, and turbulent affairs. Later he became addicted to opium,
30 Ancestral voices prophesying war! 0::
0
quarrelled with his close friends, struggled with depression, and made his marriage ...l

unhappy by falling hopelessly in love with another woman. He was nevertheless both :>-
The shadow of the dome of pleasure ..:
politically active and a prolific writer, one of the greatest literary critics and poets of f-l
Floated midway on the waves; ...l
his age. He enjoyed creative friendships with a number of other writers, including Where was heard the mingled measure" music, sound ~
::>
Wordsworth, under whose influence he wrote his best poetry. No matter how chaotic From the fountain and the caves. :::s
Coleridge's personal affairs became, he remained energetic throughout his life, and was ..:
35 It was a miracle of rare device, o:
to influence a band of younger writers, including Byron (see p. 90-91). A sunny pleasure-dome with caves of ice!

A damsel with a dulcimer" harp

In a vision once I saw:
KublaKhan I t was an Abyssinian maid,
OR, A VISION IN A DREAM. A FRAGMENT 40 And on her dulcimer she played,
Singing of Mount Abora.'
In Xanadu did Kubla Khan! Could I revive within me
A stately pleasure-dome decree: Her symphony and song,
Where Alph, the sacred river, ran To such a deep delight 'twould win me,
Through caverns measureless to man 45 That with music loud and long,
Down to a sunless sea. I would build that dome in air,
So twice five miles of fertile ground That sunny dome! those caves of ice!
With walls and towers were girdled" round: encircled And all who heard should see them there,
And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills; streams And all should cry, Beware! Beware!
Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree; 50 His flashing eyes, his floating hair!
10 And here were forests ancient as the hills,
Enfolding sunny spots of greenery. Weave a circle round him thrice,
And close your eyes with holy dread,
But oh! that deep romantic chasm which slanted For he on honey-dew hath fed,
0
Down the green hill athwart" a cedarn cover! across / cedar And drunk the milk of Paradise.
A savage place! as holy and enchanted
As e'er beneath a waning moon was haunted
15

By woman wailing for her demon-lover! Supporting notes Iff)

And from this chasm, with ceaseless turmoil seething, This extraordinary fantasy was 'revealed' to the poet during a hallucination or dream induced
As if this earth in fast thick pants were breathing, by opium. It is apparently only part of what was meant to be a much longer work; Coleridge
A mighty fountain rnomently" was forced: at intervals himself describes how, while writing down his vision, he was interrupted by a visitor; after
20 Amid whose swift half-intermitted burst their business was completed, the poet tried to continue with the poem, only to discover that
Huge fragments vaulted like rebounding hail, he could no longer recall his dream.
Or chaffYgrain beneath the thresher's flail:
And 'mid these dancing rocks at once and ever
It flung up momently the sacred river.

1 Kubla was the first Mongol ruler, or 'Khan' of China. Coleridge invents the name of the capital city, calling it
'Xanadu'. 2 Possible reference to Amara, supposed to be the location of paradise.
 ........."."..".".7..~
..~
..?
..'.~.._..!.:.;!'!":';tT·
,
90

In secret we met -
George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824)
2S

In silence I grieve,
That thy heart could forget,
Byron was one of the rare poets who achieved fame (or perhaps notoriety) in his own Thy spirit deceive.
lifetime. While young, he established himself both as a promising politician and as the If! should meet thee
leader of the younger generation of Romantic poets, who wrote passionate poetry and 30 After long years, z
cultivated defiant and glamorous images, the rock stars of their day. He had several How should I greet thee? o
Q
dramatic affairs, but went too far when he fell in love with his half-sister. After she gave With silence and tears. 0::
birth to a child, public outrage forced him to leave Britain. He stayed with the Shelleys o
(see P: 92) in Switzerland and travelled in Italy, continuing to write innovative and daring
o
poetry while living as riotously as ever. He died (in typically dramatic circumstances)
while fighting alongside Greek nationalists in their struggle for independence from the
Turkish Empire.

When We Two Parted

When we two parted
In silence and tears,
Half broken -hearted
To severofor years, cut, separate
Pale grew thy cheek and cold,
Colder thy kiss;
Truly that hour foretold
Sorrow to this.

The dew of the morning

10 Sunk chill on my brow -
It felt like the warning
Of what I feel now.
Thy vows are all broken,
And light" is thy fame; cheap
is I hear thy name spoken,
And share in its shame.

They name thee before me,

A knell to mine ear;
19 A shudder comes o'er me -
Why wert thou so dear?
They know not I knew thee,
Who knew thee too well-
Long, long shall I rue" thee, regret
Too deeply to tell.
 93

Percy 8ysshe Shelley (1792-1822) England in 1819

Shelley, whose poetry combines lyrical beauty with passion, was a born rebel. He was An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying king, -
e~pelled. from ?xford for writing a pamphlet on the need for atheism; next he eloped Princes, the dregs of their dull race, who flow
with a girl of sixteen. A vegetarian and political radical, he led a nomadic life as a writer Through public scorn, - mud from a muddy spring, -
before. abandoning his family to run away to Europe with seventeen-year-old Mary Rulers who neither see, nor feel, nor know,
GodwIn (daughter of the feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft). He later married her But leech-like to their fainting country cling,
after his first wife committed suicide. Together with Byron, they were part of a circle of Till they drop, blind in blood, without a blow, -
outrageous but creative artists. (Mary Shelley was the author of the famous horror novel A people starved and stabbed in the untilled" field,- unploughed
Frankenstein.) Because of Shelley's affairs, his marriage became increasingly unhappy. H~ An army, which Iiberticide/ and prey
drowned at the age of twenty-nine off the coast of Italy, after setting sail in a storm _ Makes as a two-edged sword to all who wield,-
rumours about political murder and suicide persist to this day. His claim that 'poets are Golden and sanguine" laws which tempt and slay; bloody
the unacknowledged legislators of the world' is still cited today. Religion Christless, Godless - a book sealed;
A Senate, - Time's worst statute" unrepealed.l=- law
Are graves, from which a glorious Phantom" may spirit, ghost
Ozymandias' Burst, to illumine our tempestuous day.

I met a traveller from an antique land,

Who said: Two vast and trunkless legs of stone
Supporting notes V
Stand in the desert ... Near them, on the sand, Here Shelley expresses his scorn at the political state of England, seventeen years after
Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown,
0
face Wordsworth wrote a similar sonnet" (see www.oxford.co.za). The 'dying king' is George III,
And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command, one of the Hanoverian (German) line of kings that had been installed on the English throne
Tell that its sculptor well those passions read" in the eighteenth century. His illness made him insane, and in the final years of his life his
understood
Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things, sons, the 'princes' (who were neither popular nor respected), had to manage affairs of state.
The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed:
And on the pedestal these words appear:
10 'My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:
Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!'
Nothing beside remains. Round the decay
Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare
The lone and level sands stretch far away.

1 Greek name for the Egyptian king RamsesII, who had a huge statue of himself built as a monument to his
power. 2 Destruction of liberty.
3 Probably the Act of Union, which legally bound Ireland under English rule.
 95
--, ...:.....

John Keats (1795-1821) .••.~

As a young man Keats studied medicine and became a chemist, a career he gave up :z
-;1:
to concentrate on poetry. Although he moved in circles that included Shelley and o
>-,
Wordsworth, his writing was at first attacked by critics. In spite of financial difficulties,
La Belle Dame Sans MercP
he continued writing significant amounts of poetry, which was to earn him a reputation
as one of the greatest younger Romantic poets. After nursing his brother, who was dying
0, what can ail thee, knight-at-arms,
of tuberculosis, Keats was also infected. His deteriorating health eventually drove him to
Alone and palely loitering?
the warmer climate ofItaly, where he died at the age of only twenty-six. grass-like reeds
The sedge" has withered from the lake
And no birds sing!
When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be 0, what can ail thee, knight-at-arms,
So haggard and so woe-begone?
When I have fears that I may cease to be The squirrel's granary is full,
Before my pen has gleand" my teeming brain, harvested And the harvest's done.
Before high piled books, in charactryl letters of the alphabet
Hold like rich garners" the full ripen'd grain; storehouses I see a lily on thy brow,
5 When I behold, upon the night's starr'd face, 10 With anguish moist and fever-dew
Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance, And on thy cheek a fading rose
And think that I may never live to trace Fast withereth too.
Their shadows, with the magic hand of chance;
And when I feel, fair creature of an hour, 1 met a lady in the meads; meadows
10 That I shall never look upon thee more, Full beautiful, a fairy's child,
Never have relish in the faery" power magic 15 Her hair was long, her foot was light,
Of unreflecting love; - then on the shore And her eyes were wild.
Of the wide world I stand alone, and think
Till love and fame to nothingness do sink. I made a garland for her head,
And bracelets too, and fragrant zone; belt offlowers

Supporting notes til· 20

She looked at me as she did love,
And made sweet moan.
Keats wrote this in 1818, the same year that he was diagnosed as having tuberculosis. His
I set her on my pacing steed,
response was to plunge into intense creative and romantic activity. During this year, he wrote
And nothing else sawall day long;
some of his best poetry and also became engaged.
For sidelong would she bend, and sing
A fairy's song.

25 She found me roots of relish sweet,

And honey wild, and manna" dew;
And sure in language strange she said,
'1 love thee true'.

She took me to her elfin grot;

30 And there she wept, and sighed full sore,
And there I shut her wild wild eyes
With kisses four.

1 French for 'The beautiful woman without pity'.

96 97

And there she lulled me asleep,

And there I dreamed - Ah! Woe betide!
Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861)
35 The latest" dream I ever dreamed
Barrett was a brilliant child, who was educated by the best scholars and tutors. She
On the cold hill side.
studied Latin and Greek from an early age, although it was fairly unusual for a girl of that
I saw pale kings, and princes too, time to be allowed to do so. Her ill health meant that, unlike many Victorian women,
Pale warriors, death-pale were they all; she had plenty of time for writing and reading. A secret romantic relationship with
They cried - 'La belle dame sans merci Robert Browning began through their writing to each other. She eventually ran away
Hath thee in thrall!" to marry him, against the wishes of her tyrannical father. The couple moved to Italy, and
40 hypnotised; enslaved
were extremely happy together. Although her poetry was at first so popular that she was
I saw their starved lips in the gloam 0
dusk considered for the position of Poet Laureate, she was attacked for the political and social
With horrid warning gaped wide, criticism she voiced in her later poems. The subjects she dealt with in these poems (child
And I awoke, and found me here labour, slavery, rape, prostitution, illegitimacy, politics, and nationalism) were considered
On the cold hill's side. to be shocking and inappropriate for a woman writer.
0
45 And this is why I sojourn here, stay From A Curse for a Nation
Alone and palely Ioitering,
Though the sedge is withered from the lake, Prologue
And no birds sing. I heard an angel speak last night,
And he said 'Write!
Questions to consider Write a Nation's curse for me,
1. Here the poet sets out to create a 'medieval' atmosphere. Much Romantic (and later, And send it over the Western Sea.'
Victorian) art attempted a nostalgic recreation of medieval culture. To begin with, the
poem takes the form of a ballad: How do we know this? What other 'medieval' features I faltered, taking up the word:
are used? 'Not so, my lord!
2. How does the question and answer format function in the poem? (Note how the tone of If curses must be, choose another
the poem is set by the very first question in the opening two lines.) To send thy curse against my brother.
3. How are natural phenomena used in the first few stanzas to suggest atmosphere or
mood? What kind of atmosphere is created? 'For I am bound by gratitude,
4. Would you agree that while the mood of the poem is melancholy, haunting, and even 10 By love and blood,
threatening, it cannot be described as harsh or ugly? Why not? What sensual or attractive To brothers of mine across the sea,
elements are found in the poem? Who stretch out kindly hands to me.'
5. The poem clearly deals with a supernatural occurrence. What does this contribute to tone
'Therefore,' the voice said, 'shalt thou write
and mood?
My curse to-night.
6. The poet's description of the fatal consequences of enchantment could well be operating
15 From the summits oflove a curse is driven,
on two different levels. What warning signs does the knight ignore?
As lightning is from the tops of heaven.'

'Not so,' I answered. 'Evermore

My heart is sore
For my own land's sins: for little feet
20 Of children bleeding along the street:

'For parked-up honours that gainsay" deny, contradict

The right of way:
For almsgiving" through a door that is charity
Not open enough for two friends to kiss:
98 99

o 25 'For love of freedom which abates

z
.....
Beyond the Straits;' Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882)
For patriot virtue starved to vice on
Self-praise, self-interest, and suspicion: An American, Longfellow studied in Europe before becoming a professor at Harvard
University. His long narrative poems (such as 'The Song of Hiawatha') were hugely
'For an oligarchic" parliament, government by a few popular both at home and abroad, and he became the most famous American poet of
30 And bribes well-meant. his time. He was widowed twice, with his work becoming increasingly melancholy and
What curse to another land assign, nostalgic in his old age.
When heavy-souled for the sins of mine?'

'Therefore,' the voice said, 'shalt thou write Chaucer

My curse to-night.
35 Because thou hast strength to see and hate An old man in a lodge within a park;
A foul thing done within thy gate.' The chamber walls depicted all around
0
With portraitures of huntsman, hawk, and hound, pictures
'Not so,' I answered once again. And the hurt deer. He listeneth to the lark,
'To curse, choose men.
Whose song comes with the sunshine through the dark
For I, a woman, have only known 0
Of painted glass in leaden lattice bound; bars or strips if lead
40 How the heart melts and the tears run down.'
He listeneth and he laugheth at the sound,
Then writeth in a book like any clerk" scholar
'Therefore,' the voice said, 'shalt thou write
He is the poet of the dawn, who wrote
My curse to-night.
10 The Canterbury Tales, and his old age
Some women weep and curse, I say
Made beautiful with song; and as I read
(And no one marvels), night and day.
I hear the crowing cock, I hear the note
45 'And thou shalt take their part to-night, Of lark and linnet; and from every page type of bird
Weep and write. Rise odours of ploughed field or flowery mead" meadow
A curse from the depths of womanhood
Is very salt, and bitter, and good.'
Supporting notes V
So thus I wrote, and mourned indeed, This is one of a series of sonnets" that Longfellow wrote celebrating the great writers (see
50 What all may read. pp. 34-38 for details of Chaucer's life and extracts from The Canterbury Tales.) Try to identify
And thus, as was enjoined on me, what aspects of Chaucer's writing Longfellow imitates to add flavour to his poem.
I send it over the Western Sea.

Supporting notes ~:
It is not clear exactly which country the speaker in the poem is being urged to curse. Barrett
Browning was a passionate supporter of Italian nationalism and its democratic movements,
which were then being ruthlessly suppressed, and it is possible that the monarchy of Italy is
her target; the reference to the 'Western Sea' also suggests the United States, at that stage
a nation divided and on the verge of a tragic and brutal civil war over the issue of slavery.
However, it is the indictment of Britain in stanzas five to eight that gives this poem its power.

1 Either the Straits of Gibraltar, a headland controlled by Britain that guards the entrance to the Mediterranean
Sea, or the Straits of Dover, another name for the English Channel, the narrow stretch of sea that separates
Britain from France.
 101

Alfred, lord Tennyson (1809-1892) A bringer of new things; and vile it were
For some three suns to store and hoard myself,
Tennyson studied at Cambridge University, where he became close friends with Arthur 30 And this grey spirit yearning in desire
Hallam, a brilliant young man whose early death was to profoundly affect Tennyson. His To follow knowledge like a sinking star,
attempts to come to terms with this loss led to his In Memoriam poems, which established Beyond the utmost bound of human thought.
his fame. He became enormously popular during his lifetime, eventually holding the This is my son, mine own Telemachus,
position of Poet Laureate for forty-two years. His public status was at odds with his To whom I leave the sceptre" and the isle -
melancholy nature; he delayed marriage to his fiancee for over a decade, fearing possible 35 Well-loved of me, discerning to fulfil
mental illness and experiencing religious doubts. Nevertheless, he became probably the This labour, by slow prudence to make mild
most respected figure in Victorian literature, and was granted a title by Queen Victoria. A rugged people, and through soft degrees
He was particularly admired for his technically polished poetry, noteworthy for its Subdue them to the useful and the good.
mastery of sound (his poems must be read aloud) and often dreamlike, nostalgic quality. Most blameless is he, centred in the sphere
40 Of common duties, decent not to fail
In offices of tenderness, and pay
Ulysses1 Meet" adoration to my household gods, fitting
When I am gone. He works his work, I mi~e.
It little profits that an idle king, There lies the port; the vessel puffs her sad;
By this still hearth, among these barren crags, 45 There gloom the dark broad seas. My mariners, .
Matched with an aged wife, I mete" and dole" Souls that have toiled, and wrought, and thought with me -
give out / distribute
Unequal laws unto a savage race, That ever with a frolic welcome took
5 That hoard, and sleep, and feed, and know not me. The thunder and the sunshine, and opposed
I cannot rest from travel: I will drink Free hearts, free foreheads - you and I are old;
Life to the lees" All times I have enjoyed 50 Old age hath yet his honour and his toil.
sediment of wine
Greatly, have suffered greatly, both with those Death closes all; but something ere the end,
That loved me, and alone; on shore, and when Some work of noble note, may yet be done,
10 Through scudding drifts the rainy Hyades- Not unbecoming men that strove with gods.
Vexed the dim sea. I am become a name; The lights begin to twinkle from the r~cks;
For always roaming with a hungry heart 55 The long day wanes; the slow moon climbs; t~e deep
Much have I seen and known - cities of men Moans round with many voices. Come, my friends,
And manners, climates, councils, governments, 'Tis not too late to seek a newer world.
15 Myself not least, but honoured of them all,- Push off, and sitting well in order smite
And drunk delight of battle with my peers, The sounding furrows;' for my purpose holds
Far on the ringing plains of windy Troy.3 60 To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths
I am part of all that I have met; Of all the western stars, until I die.
Yet all experience is an arch wherethrough It may be that the gulfs will wash us down; It
2() Gleams that un travelled world, whose margin fades may be we shall touch the Happy Isles," And
For ever and for ever when I move. see the great Achilles/ whom we knew.
How dull it is to pause, to make an end, 65 Though much is taken, much abides; and though We
To rust unburnished. not to shine in use! are not now that strength which in old days Moved
unpolished
As tho'to breathe were life! Life piled on life earth and heaven, that which we are, we are; One
25 Were all too little, and of one to me equal temper of heroic hearts, . .
Little remains: but every hour is saved Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will
From that eternal silence, something more, 70 To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.

1 Roman name for Odysseus, the Greek hero of Homer's Odyssey. 4 Staff; symbol of royalty and authority.
2 Group of stars; their rising was thought to herald rain. 5 This image refers to rowing through waves.
3 Scene of the Trojan War, an epic battle described in Homer's Iliad. 6 The Greek paradise, where the brave and the good lived after death.
7 The most heroic of the Greeks killed in the Trojan war.
102 103

LV z
Supporting notes ~' 0
CI)

The poem 'Ulysses' assumes some knowledge of the works of the classical Greek author
><
The wish, that of the living whole z
Homer. The Iliad tells the tale of the Trojan War, the subject of many Greek dramas. This
z
No life may fail beyond the grave, ~
was sparked when the beautiful Helen left her husband, a Greek king, for Paris, the son of Derives it not from what we have f-t
0
the king of Troy. The two kingdoms then fought an epic war, in which the gods actively took The likest God within the soul? p::
0
part, and deeds of great heroism were done. Odysseus (Ulysses in the poem) was one of ...:l
generals who fought bravely in this struggle. The Odyssey tells of his exciting adventures and Are God and Nature then at strife, 0
explorations on the voyage home after the war. That Nature lends such evil dreams? ~
p::
So careful of the type" she seems, species I".
...1
So careless of the single life; <t:

That I, considering everywhere

10 Her secret meaning in her deeds,
And finding that of fifty seeds,
She often brings but one to bear,

I falter where I firmly trod,

And falling with my weight of cares
15 Upon the great world's altar-stairs
From In Memoriam A.H.H.
That slope thro' darkness up to God,
LIV I stretch lame hands of faith, and grope,
And gather dust and chaff, and call
Oh yet we trust that somehow good
To what I feel is Lord of all,
Will be the final goal of ill,
20 And faintly trust the larger hope.
To pangs of nature, sins of will,
Defects of doubt, and taints of blood;

That nothing walks with aimless feet;

That not one life shall be destroy'd,
Or cast as rubbish to the void; emptiness
When God hath made the pile complete; LVI

That not a worm is cloven in vain;

0

cut 'So careful of the type?' but no.

10 That not a moth with vain desire From scarped" cliff and quarried stone steep
Is shrive1l'din a fruitless fire, She cries, 'A thousand types are gone:
Or but subserves another's gain. I care for nothing, all shall go.

Behold, we know not anything; 'Thou makest thine appeal to me:

I can but trust that good shall fall I bring to life, I bring to death:
15 At last - far off - at last, to all, The spirit does but mean the breath:
And every winter change to spring. I know no more.' And he, shall he,

So runs my dream: but what am I? Man, her last work, who seem'd so fair,
An infant crying in the night: 10 Such splendid purpose in his eyes,
An infant crying for the light: Who roll'd the psalm to wintry skies,
20 And with no language but a cry. Who built him fanes" of fruitless prayer, temples
104 105

z Who trusted God was love indeed We keep the day.With festal" cheer, festive
0
ca
And love Creation's final law - With books and music, surely we
><
Z 15 Tho' Nature, red in tooth and claw Will drink to him, whate'er he be,
z
~ With ravine; shriek'd against his creed - bloodshed And sing the songs he loved to hear.
f--i
Q
~ Who loved, who suffer'd countless ills, exxx
0
....:I Who battled for the True, the Just,
Be blown about the desert dust, Thy voice is on the rolling air;
Q
~ 20 Or seal'd within the iron hills? I hear thee where the waters run;
p:;
~ 1hou standest in the rising sun,
...l
<:!:! No more? A monster then, a dream, And in the setting thou art fair.
A discord. Dragons of the prime,
That tare ° each other in their slime, tear 5 What art thou then? I cannot guess;
Were mellow music match'd with him. But tho'I seem in star and flower
To feel thee some diffusive power,
25 o life as futile, then, as frail! I do not therefore love thee less:
o for thy voice to soothe and bless!
What hope of answer, or redress? My love involves the love before;
Behind the veil, behind the veil. 10 My love is vaster passion now;
Tho' mix'd with God and Nature thou,
cvn I seem to love thee more and more.

It is the day when he was born, Far off thou art, but ever nigh;
A bitter day that early sank I have thee still, and I rejoice;
Behind a purple-frosty bank 15 I prosper, circled with thy voice;
Of vapour, leaving night forlorn. I shall not lose thee tho' I die.

The time admits not flowers or leaves To

deck the banquet. Fiercely flies The Supporting notes U'.
blast of North and East, and ice These poems are taken from a series that Tennyson wrote in memory of his closest friend,
Makes daggers at the sharpen'd eaves, Arthur Henry Hallam, who died tragically young while on a trip to Europe. Tennyson's efforts
to make sense of his loss coincided with the publication of Darwin's biological theories on
And bristles all the brakes" and thorns thicket
evolution. These argued for a natural, rather than divine origin of the human species, which
)0 To yon hard crescent, as she hangs caused great alarm and scandal, before gaining some degree of acceptance.
Above the wood which grides ° and clangs grinds
Its leafless ribs and.iron horns Questions to consider
1. The original series of poems (over 130 of them) show a progression of emotions, which
Together, in the drifts that pass
are reflected in this selection. What emotional shifts do you notice between the poems?
To darken on the rolling brine
What 'emotional journey' does the speaker make? You may find it helpful to consider
15 That breaks the coast. But fetch the wine,
what emotional stages usually follow a loss or bereavement. Can you identify any of
Arrange the board and brim the glass;
these here?

Bring in great logs and let them lie, 2. The punctuation in all these poems is used simply but effectively to underscore the
To make a solid core of heat; emotional progress of the speaker. How is this accomplished? Look at where the
Be cheerful-minded, talk and treat question marks, colons and dashes occur, and what effect they have; also check where

20 Of all things ev'n as he were by; sentences end.

106 107

z
0
'>"<
3. In the third poem (LV!), the first stanza refers to cliffs and quarries, then popular sites
the new craze of fossil-collecting. How does this allusion to fossilised and extinct bert Browning (1812-1889)
z work in conjunction with the rest of this poem?
z received an unusual education based on the contents of his father's huge
~ 4. Still referring to poem LV', who or what does the 'She' in line 3 refer to? What
f-< can you draw about the impact of evolutionary theories on the Romantic view of N .. and started to write poetry at an early age. On reading Elizabeth Barrett's poems
Cl p. 97), he began writing her admiring letters that led to their secret romance and
~ 5. There is a distinct shift in the way that Nature is used as a vehicle for the poet's feelin
0
in the last three poems. What is the difference between poem LVI and poem Cvl] in . Eventually they ran away together to be married. They lived happily in
...:l
~ respect? And what has happened by the time we reach poem exxx, which is one of
until she died; after this, Browning returned to London and became a well-known
Cl
~ last poems in the series? Does anything in this poem remind you of Wordsworth's 'Th
on the English literary scene. His friends and colleagues sometimes considered
~
~ Years She Grew' (see pp. 84-85)? What does this suggest about how Tennyson poetry eccentric; others admired it for its ability to catch the flavour and rhythm of
...l
<G resolves his grief?
speech. He is best remembered for his dramatic monologues: of which 'My
6. Although the poems express very different feelings and use contrasting language Duchess'is an excellent example.
imagery, the series as a whole has a unified and cohesive feel to it. What
features do all the poems share?

My Last Duchess

Ferrara

That's my last Duchess painted on the wall

Looking as if she were alive. I call
That piece a wonder, now: Fra ° Pandolf's hands friar, brother
Worked busily a day, and there she stands.
5 Will't please you sit and look at her? I said
'Fra Pandolf' by design, for never read
Strangers like you that pictured countenance,
The depth and passion ofits earnest glance,
But to myself they turned (since none puts by
10 The curtain I have drawn for you, but I)
And seemed as they would ask me, if they dursr'' dared
How such a glance came there; so, not the first
Are you to turn and ask thus. Sir, 't was not
Her husband's presence only, called that spot
15 Of joy into the Duchess' cheek: perhaps
Fra Pandolf chanced to say,'Her mantle" laps cloak
Over my lady's wrist too much,' or 'Paint
Must never hope to reproduce the faint
Half-flush that dies along her throat:' such stuff
20 Was courtesy, she thought, and cause enough
For calling up that spot of joy. She had
A heart - how shall I say? - too soon made glad,
Too easily impressed; she liked whate'er
She looked on, and her looks went everywhere.
108
109

25 Sir, 'twas all onel My favour at her breast, (.'J

Supporting notes ~.
The dropping of the daylight in the West,
The bough of cherries some officious" fool The speaker in this poem, the Duke of Ferrara, lived in the sixteenth century. His first wife
-
z

Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule died very young in mysterious circumstances. Browning here imagines a conversation that
She rode with round the terrace - all and each might have taken place during the arrangements for his second marriage, to the Count of
30 Would draw from her alike the approving speech, Tyrol's daughter. Fra Pandolf is an imaginary name for an artist (his title makes it clear that he
Or blush, at least. She thanked men, - good! but thanked is a monk or holy man). Claus of Innsbruck is also an invented name.
Somehow - I know not how - as if she ranked
My gift of a nine-hundred-ycars-old name Questions to consider
With anybody's gift. Who'd stoop to blame 1. One of the more interesting features about this dramatic monologue" is that there is a
35 This sort of trifling? Even had you skill Significant difference, or distance, between the poet and the first-person speaker in the
In speech - (which I have not) - to make your will poem. How do we know this, and why is this distance created?
Quite clear to such an one, and say, 'Just this 2. Given that the only voice we hear is Ferrara's, do you agree that we 'hear' much more
Or that in you disgusts me; here you miss, than he is telling us? How does he unwittingly reveal himself?
Or there exceed the mark' - and if she let 3. What kind of character sketch would you make of Ferrara? You might feel that he is more
40 Herself be lessoned so, nor plainly set than simply a tyrant. Is there an element of fear in his refusal or inability to communicate?
Her wits to yours, forsooth, and made excuse, 4. The form of the dramatic monologue makes for an immediate impact on the reader. Why
- E'en then would be some stooping; and I choose is this so? In what way are we invited to become 'part' of the poem?
Never to stoop. Oh sir, she smiled, no doubt,
Whene'er I passed her; but who passed without
45 Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands;

Then all smiles stopped together. There she stands

As if alive. Will 't please you rise? We'll meet
The company below, then. I repeat,
The Count your master's known munificence"
generosity
50 Is ample warrant that no just pretence Of

mine for dowry will be disallowed; Though

his fair daughter's self, as I avowed At
starting, is my object. Nay, we'll go
Together down, sir. Notice Neptune, I though,
55 Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity, .
Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me!

1 God of the sea.

110 111

Emily Bronte (1818-1848) Walt Whitman (1819-1892)

Born into the gifted but tragically doomed Bronte family, Emily, together with her siblings, Whitman broke new ground for American poetry, consciously identifying himself with
wrote poetry and fantasy from an early age.Together with her sisters Charlotte and Anne, American culture. He was born on the northeastern coast of the USA, and spent much
she published a collection of poems under a male pseudonym. These brought attention of his life wandering from job to job, working as a printer, school-teacher, and journalist.
and interest, but Emily shrank from this. Both reclusive and fiercely independent, she During the American Civil War (the subject of a collection of his poems), he volunteered
worked briefly as a governess to support her brother and father, but became sick with to nurse the wounded. His poetry was unusual (and considered shocking in his time) for
longing for her native countryside and spent the rest of her short life at home. She its courageous acknowledgement of his homosexuality, as well as its fascination with the
died of tuberculosis brought on by her own self-neglect. She is best remembered for her smaller details of daily life.
extraordinary and shocking novel, Wuthering Heights.

When I Heard at the Close of the Day!

No Coward Soul is Mine
When I heard at the close of the day how my name had been receiv'd with plaudits
No coward soul is mine, in the capitol, still it was not a happy night for me that follow'd,
No trembler in the world's storm-troubled sphere: And else when I carousd.' Of when my plans were accomplish'd, still I was not
I see Heaven's glories shine, happy,
And faith shines equal, arming me from fear. But the day when I rose at dawn from the bed of perfect health, refresh'd, singing,
inhaling the ripe breath of autumn,
a God within my breast, When I saw the full moon in the west grow pale and disappear in the morning light,
Almighty, ever-present Deity! When I wander'd alone over the beach, and undressing bathed, laughing with the
Life - that in me has rest, cool waters, and saw the sun rise,
As I - undying Life - have power in thee! And when I thought how my dear friend my lover was on his way coming, a then I
Vain are the thousand creeds" beliefs, doctrines was happy,
10 That move men's hearts: unutterably vain; o then each breath tasted sweeter, and all that day my food nourish'd me more, and
Worthless as withered weeds the beautiful day pass'd well,
Or idlest froth amid the boundless main; sea And the next came with equal joy, and with the next at evening came my friend,
And that night while all was still I heard the waters roll slowly continually up the
To waken doubt in one shores,
Holding so fast by thine infinity; 10 I heard the hissing rustle of the liquid and sands as directed to me whispering to
15 So surely anchored on congratulate me,
The steadfast rock of immortality. For the one I love most lay sleeping by me under the same cover in the cool night,
With wide-embracing love In the stillness in the autumn moonbeams his face was inclined toward me,
Thy spirit animates eternal years, And his arm lay lightly around my breast - and that night I was happy.
Pervades and broods above,
20 Changes, sustains, dissolves, creates and rears.
Though earth and man were gone,
And suns and universes ceased to be,
And thou were left alone,
Every existence would exist in thee.
25 There is not room for Death,
Nor atom that his might could render void: vacant
Thou - thou art Being and Breath,
And what thou art may never be destroyed. 1 This poem is part of a series that Whitman wrote in celebration of what he called 'manly love'.
2 See footnote 2, p. 74.

.""';
 ._ ...

113
112

Ah, love, let us be true

Matthew Arnold (1822-1888) To one another! for the world, which seems
To lie before us like a land of dreams,
The son of a respected teacher, Arnold himself became an inspector of schools. after So various, so beautiful, so new,
graduating from Oxford University. His career gave him deep in~ight ~nto the ~ducatl?~al, Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light,
social, and cultural problems of his age. His poetry is preoccupied WIth questlOns ansl~g Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain;
from these issues, including the loss of religious belief However, he was best known In And we are here as on a darkling plain
his time for his thoughtful prose, and became one of the most admired critics of his day. Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight,
A happily married man, he was eventually made a professor of poetry at Oxford. Where ignorant armies clash by night.

Dover Beach Supporting notes v9.

Arnold wrote this poem while passing through Dover on honeymoon. Dover is a port on the
The sea is calm to-night. southeast coast of England facing France. It is famous for its spectacular white chalk cliffs
The tide is full, the moon lies fair (their colour explains why Arnold describes them as 'glimmering' in this poem). These cliffs
Upon the straits/ - on the French coast the light drop sharply to the beach, which is made up of pebbles that have been washed and rubbed
Gleams and is gone; the cliffs of England stand, by the sea. Waves breaking on these pebble or shingle beaches make a distinctive roaring
Glimmering and vast, out in the tranquil bay. sound that is much louder than sea on sand.
Come to the window, sweet is the night-air!
Only from the long line of spray
Where the sea meets the moon-blanchd" land, whitened
Listen! you hear the grating roar
10 Of pebbles which the waves draw back, and fling,
At their return, up the high strand, Begin,
and cease, and then again begin, With
tremulous cadence slow, and bring
The eternal note of sadness in.
2
15 Sophocles long ago
Heard it on the Aegean,3 and it brought
Into his mind the turbid" ebb and flow muddy
Of human misery; we
Find also in the sound a thought,
20 Hearing it by this distant northern sea.

The Sea of Faith

Was once, too, at the full, and round earth's shore
Lay like the folds of a bright girdle furled.
0
belt
But now I only hear
25 Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar,
Retreating, to the breath
Of the night-wind, down the vast edges drear
0
And naked shingles of the world. pebble beaches

1 Headlands on either side of a channel of water .

/
.
2 Classical Greek author of tragic dramas.
3 Part of the Mediterranean Sea between Greece and Turkey.
 114 115

Anonymous (c.1850) Emily Dickinson (1830-1886)

Translated by Perce Haslam Dickinson was born and lived in the rural town of Amherst in the northeast of America.
Well-educated, she wrote startlingly modern poetry from an early age. Although she
initially tried to publish her work, her friends and literary connections were puzzled
Kilaben Bay Song or shocked by her poems. As she grew older, she became increasingly reclusive, and
eventually refused to meet people or leave her room, although she kept up close and
Hail! Dawn is shining glory doing often intimate correspondences with a number of close friends and scholars, including
The sun shining (blazing with warmth) various women writers she admired. After her death, there was considerable argument
Night moving about what should be done with her poems. They were eventually published in a heavily
Man stirring edited and censored form. The originals were only made available for publication in the
5 Children restless 1950s; since then, Dickinson's distinctive voice has been much admired by critics. Her
Women fire-wood thinking poetry has inspired several modern poets; see Adrienne Rich's 'I am in Danger - Sir _,
Birds singing (p.203).
Animals awakening (sleeping not)
Camp noise grows
10 Men bush towards moving I Taste a Liquor Never Brewed
Women water gathering
Children they hungry, all shouting I taste a liquor never brewed _
Women water collected From Tankards scooped in PearI-
Men spear fish, return Not all the Vats upon the Rhine!
15 People all eating Yield such an Alcohol!
Camp quiet again
Inebriate of Air - am I -
And Debauchee? of Dew _
Supporting notes til Reeling - thro endless summer days -
This is a traditional Australian aboriginal song or chant. You might like to compare it with From inns of Molten Blue-
Watson's 'The Rain that is Male' (p. 260). Both are attempts by modern translators to salvage
When 'Landlords' turn the drunken Bee
some fragments of the lost or dying cultures of indigenous peoples subjected to genocide
10 Out of the Foxglove's door -
or threatened with extinction through assimilation. This refers to the process in which an
When Butterflies - renounce their 'drams" _ drinks, tots
indigenous culture is diluted by a foreign or 'outsider' culture (often a colonial, Western,
I shall but drink the more!
industrialised, or urban one) until little or none of the original traditions, languages, or
structures remain. Till Seraphs" swing their snowy Hats- angels
You can also find a similar poem, celebrating the everyday rituals that accompany the And Saints _ to windows run -
dawn of a new day, by the Zimbabwean poet Joseph Kumbirai, on p. 195. 15 To see the little Tippler
Leaning against the _ Sun _

.,.~f.
1 River in Germany. which runs through a region famous for its vineyards and wine.
2 Person addicted to sensual indulgence.

\.
116 117

z
o
Ul
The Bustle in a House Christina Rossetti (1830-1894)
,...
:.: The Bustle in a House Born into an artistic and intellectual family, Rossetti buried her passionate personality
(J
,... The Morning after Death in religion, charity work, and the care of her family. She was the younger sister of the
Is solemnest of industries flamboyant artist and poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and their unspoken rivalry marked
Enacted upon Earth - much of her life and work. She held an ambiguous position on the edges of the Pre-
Raphaelite Brotherhood, an idealistic group of young artists and writers headed by
5 The Sweeping up the Heart her brother. They promoted a return to standards of beauty uncorrupted by bourgeoise
And putting Love away standards, and a nostalgia for the idealised world seen in medieval and ancient myths,
We shall not want to use again
and these principles are reflected in Rossetti's work. She had a clear sense of her poetic
Until Eternity. vocation, and refused marriage twice (citing religious reasons) in order to focus on her
writing. She was much admired by her contemporaries for the subtlety of her work and
the originality of her religious poetry. Gerard Manley Hopkins (pp. 121~122), as well as
Much Madness is Divinest Sense many other lesser poets, were influenced by her. Rossetti died of breast cancer.
Much Madness is divinest Sense -
To a discerning Eye - Song
Much Sense - the starkest Madness -
'Tis the Majority When I am dead, my dearest,
5 In this, as All, prevail - Sing no sad songs for me;
Assent - and you are sane - Plant thou no roses at my head,
Demur" - you're straightway dangerous- disagree
Nor shady cypress tree:
And handled with a Chain - Be the green grass above me
With showers and dewdrops wet;
And if thou wilt, remember,
Wild Nights - Wild Nights And if thou wilt, forget.

Wild Nights - Wild Nights! I shall not see the shadows,

Were I with thee 10 I shall not feel the rain;
Wild Nights should be I shall not hear the nightingale
Our luxury! Sing on, as if in pain:
And dreaming through the twilight
Futile - the Winds - That doth not rise nor set,
To a Heart in port- 15 Haply I may remember
Done with the Compass - And haply may forget.
Done with the Chart!
Questions to consider
Rowing in Eden -
This poem has been linked to 'The Unquiet Grave' (p. 42). If you have not already done so,
10 Ah, the Sea!
you might like to read the suggestions for comparison and discussion on p. 43.
Might I but moor - Tonight -
In Thee!
118 119

In an Artist's Studio Thomas Hardy (1840-1928)

One face looks out from all his canvases, Hardy was born in Dorset, a beautiful rural part of southwestern England, which was
One selfsame figure sits or walks or leans:
. to be the setting of most of his works. He initially studied as an architect and worked
We found her hidden just behind those screens,
. in London, but was so homesick that he returned to his roots to write novels. These
That mirror gave back all her loveliness.
were successful enough to allow him to become a full-time writer. He married, but
A queen in opal or in ruby dress, the relationship was an unhappy one. Although he was admired by many, most critics
A nameless girl in freshest summer-greens, regarded his novels as gloomy and immoral. Disillusioned by their criticisms, he turned
A saint, an angel- every canvas means to writing poetry. His eight volumes of poetry, which focus on the sufferings and ironies
The same one meaning, neither more nor less. of life and love, brought him further recognition and praise.
He feeds upon her face by day and night,
10 And she with true kind eyes looks back on him,
Fair as the moon and joyful as the light: In Time of'The Breaking of Nations'
Not wan with waiting, not with sorrow dim;
Not as she is, but was when hope shone bright;
Only a man harrowing" clods ploughing
Not as she is, but as she fills his dream.
In a slow silent walk
With an old horse that stumbles and nods
Supporting notes J# Half asleep as they stalk.

This poem refers to the relationship between the poet's brother, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and Only thin smoke without flame
his fiancee, Elizabeth SiddaL At first, he courted her obsessively, and she modelled for many From the heaps of couch-grass;
of his paintings and drawings. She lived with him while they were engaged, compromising Yet this will go onward the same
her reputation - such a step would have been strictly frowned upon in Victorian society. Though Dynasties pass.
Meanwhile he fell in love with another woman, and eventually only married Siddal (after
nine years) because he believed she was dying. A year after their marriage, she committed Yonder a maid and her wight" man
suicide. Rossetti never publicly criticised her brother, but this poem stands as an indictment 10 Come whispering by:
of his cruelty, as well as an unsentimental view of what it meant to be an artist's model. (She War's annals' will cloud into night records
herself had posed for numerous pictures.) Ere their story die.

Questions to consider
1. In what way does the speaker make clear that the woman in the pictures has been robbed
Supporting notes vii
of her own identity? Where exactly is she 'found'? (Look at the nouns in lines 3 and 4. This poem was written during the First World War (1914-1918), sometimes called the Great
Do you agree that these suggest two-dimensional images? What effect does this have?) War for its magnitude and impact on the social structure of Europe. The loss of life alone
2. What stereotypes is the model turned into? (Read lines 5 to 7.) was staggering. See Yeats's 'An Irish Airman Foresees his Death' (p. 130), Owen's poems
3. What link is there between the paintings and the painter's view of his model? What does (pp, 152-153), and Brooke's 'The Soldier' (p. 141) for contrasting views of what it meant to
this suggest about their relationship? Do you think he actually 'sees' her? What does he fight in this war. This poem is a response to the growing feeling that things would never be
see? the same again after the war.
4. As can be seen from the notes above, this poem has a particular history. Can it possibly
succeed without this context? What could its message be in a more general sense?
120 121

Drummer Hodge
Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889)
They throw in drummer Hodge, to rest
Hopkins came from a cultured Anglican family and was an excellent student at Oxford
Uncoffined - just as found:
University. Here he met the poet Robert Bridges (who eventually published much of his
His landmark is a kopje'<crest hill
friend's work). Also while at Oxford, Hopkins was caught up in a new intellectual and
That breaks the veldt" around; grassy plain theological movement towards the Catholic faith. He converted and decided to become
And foreign constellations west
a priest, burning much of his poetry as a sign of commitment. While training for the
Each night above his mound.
priesthood, he developed unique poetic concepts that combined his delight in the beauty
Young Hodge the Drummer never knew- of the natural world with spiritual insight. Encouraged by his religious superiors, he
Fresh from his Wessex! home- began writing again. After his ordination, he served in a number of industrial parishes,
The meaning of the broad Karoo,2 work he found exhausting and discouraging. He was then sent to teach in Ireland, where
10 The Bush, the dusty loam; soil he became severely depressed and later died. His poetry was first published, and his
And why uprose to nightly view distinctive genius recognised, only thirty years after his death.
Strange stars amid the gleam" gloom, dusk

Yet portion of that unknown plain No Worst, There is None

Will Hodge forever be;
15 His homely Northern breast and brain No worst, there is none. Pitched past pitch of grief,
Grow to some Southern tree, More pangs will, schooled at forepangs, wilder wring.
And strange-eyed constellations reign Comforter, where, where is your comforting?
His stars eternally. Mary/ mother of us, where is your relief?
My cries heave, herds-long; huddle in a main, a chief-
2
woe, world-sorrow; on an age-old anvi1 wince and sing-
Supporting notes ffli Then lull, then leave off. Fury had shrieked 'No ling-
This poem, written in 1902, refers to the Anglo-Boer War (now more correctly termed
3
ering! Let me be fell: force I must be brief.' savage,jierce
the South African War), fought after the establishment of the Orange Free State and the o the mind, mind has mountains; cliffs of fall
Transvaal as independent Boer (Afrikaner) republics. South Africa was at that stage a British 10 Frightful, sheer, no-man-fathomed. Hold them cheap
colony, and although the Boers had moved ('trekked') beyond the reach of the established May who ne'er hung there. Nor does long our small
bounds of the colony, the discovery of gold in the Transvaal meant that Britain mounted two Durance deal with that steep or deep. Here! creep,
0
endurance
full-scale wars on South African territory to recover the 'republics'. After some initial defeats Wretch, under a comfort serves in a whirlwind: all
(mainly due to the guerrilla tactics of the heavily outnumbered Boers), the British crushed the Life death does end and each day dies with sleep.
rebels. In the process, they burnt down Boer farms and placed Afrikaner women and children
in concentration camps, where thousands of them died. There was considerable international
criticism of Britain's actions during this time. Supporting notes P
Hardy (unlike Schreiner - see p. 123) expresses no strong views in this strangely peaceful This poem, one of a series known as the 'terrible' sonnets, was written during a period of what
poem, which was inspired by the death in the war of a young drummer from the poet's home would today be recognised as severe clinical depression, or possibly even bipolar affective
town. disorder, which Hopkins suffered towards the end of his life. This poem has already been
linked to Herbert's 'The Flower' (p. 62-63), which also deals with spiritual and emotional
crisis. You might like to look at the suggestions for comparison made there.

1 Mary, mother of Jesus;a source of religious comfort to Catholic Christians.

1 Nan:e given by Hardy to his home region of southwest England. 2 Iron block on which metal is hammered into shape.
2 Dry interior plateau of South Africa. 3 Perforce; necessarily.
122 123

4
z The Windhover: Olive Schreiner (1855-1920)
To Christ our Lord
Olive Schreiner was born to missionary parents in what was then known as the Cape
Colony, and worked as a governess teaching the children of local farmers. She travelled
I caught this morning morning's minion; king- kings favourite
to Britain, where her novel the Story of an African Farm was published under a male
dom of daylight's dauphin," dapple-dawn-drawn Falcon, in his riding
pseudonym" The success of her book gave her access to progressive circles, and she
Of the rolling level underneath him steady air, and striding
continued to write passionately on subjects such as women's rights, colonial imperialism,
High there, how he rung upon the rein of a wimpling" wing rippling
pacifism and racism throughout her life. She returned to South Africa to marry the
In his ecstasy! then, off, off forth on swing,
politician Samuel Cronwright, and although she spent the duration of the First World
As a skate's heel sweeps smooth on a bow-bend: the hurl and gliding
War in England, she went back to South Africa to die. Unconventional and often
Rebuffed the big wind. My heart in hiding
confrontational, she never lacked courage in either her writing or her life.
Stirred for a bird, - the achieve of, the mastery of the thing!

Brute beauty and valour and act, oh, air, pride, plume, here
10 Buckle! AND the fire that breaks from thee then, a billion The Cry of South Africa
Times told lovelier, more dangerous, 0 my chevalier!"
Give back my dead!
No wonder of it: sheer plod makes plough down sillion
0
furrow They who by kop ° and fountain hill
Shine, and blue-bleak embers, ah my dear, First saw the light upon my rocky breast!
Fall, gall themselves, and gash gold-vermi1ion~ bright red Give back my dead,
The sons who played upon me

Supporting notes II· When childhood's dews still rested on their heads.
Give back my dead
This sonnet" is a good introduction to the verbal complexity of Hopkins' poems. This poem is Whom thou hast riven from me
0 torn
particularly dense: words, associations and images are crammed into a tight and demanding By arms of men loud called from earth's farthest bound
framework (in this case, the sonnet form, with only three rhyming sounds - only one rhyme is 10 To wet my bosom with my children's blood!
used for the first eight lines). This is why Hopkins' poems sometimes have a sense of 'straining Give back my dead,
at the seams'. The richness of his writing makes critical analysis of his poetry particularly The dead who grew up on me!
rewarding. Interpreting his poetry is also an extremely personal process; if you and your
classmates work through one of his poems individually, and then report your findings back to
each other, you might be surprised at the different interpretations that emerge.
Supporting notes vi)
This poem is also often given as a good example of the practice of Hopkins' theory of This poem was written in 1900, during the South African War, formerly called the Anglo-Boer
'inscape', in which the uniqueness of a natural object at a particular moment of beauty is War. You will find it helpful to check the supporting notes on p. 119, where you will find
captured, at the same time that the resulting spiritual insight is celebrated. another Boer War poem, written by Hardy. How do these two poems differ?

4 Kestrel or falcon; bird of prey known for its ability to hover against the wind.
5 Son of (and heir to) the king of France.
6 French word for knight or nobleman.
124 125

If you can make one heap of all your winnings

Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss, 1
0
....
...l
And lose, and start again at your beginnings '.."..
Kipling's novels, poems, and short stories epitomise to many the British Empire at its ~
20 And never breathe a word about your loss;
height. Born in India, he began his writing career as a journalist in Lahore (capital of Q
If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew" muscle ~
present-day Pakistan, then part of India) in the 1880s. His vast body of work includes «!
To serve your turn long after they are gone, ><
often satirical * poems in rollicking rhythms that tell colourful tales of West meeting East. Q
And so hold on when there is nothing in you :::>
These made him instantly popular in his time. However, in the latter half of the twentieth ~
Except the Will which says to them: 'Hold on!'
century, as nations around the globe began to count the cost of colonialism, there was
a violent swing away from 'empire literature', and Kipling went rapidly from being one 25 If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue,
of the most widely read and admired writers in the world (and the first British writer Or walk with Kings - nor lose the common touch,
to win the Nobel Prize for Literature) to almost pariah status. In recent years, however, If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you,
as post-colonial" criticism has become increasingly widespread, many are beginning to If all men count with you, but none too much;
recognise that along with the patronising echoes of his time, his work contains many If you can fill the unforgiving minute
cynical glances at the hypocrisies of colonial rule, and real concern for the people and 30 With sixty seconds' worth of distance run, Yours
countries under British dominion. is the Earth and everything that's in it, And -
which is more - you'll be a Man, my son!

If-
If you can keep your head when all about you
Are losing theirs and blaming it on you;
If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you,
But make allowance for their doubting too;
If you can wait and not be tired by waiting,
Or being lied about, don't deal in lies,
Or being hated, don't give way to hating,
And yet don't look too good, not talk too wise:

If you can dream - and not make dreams your master;

10 If you can think - and not make thought your aim;
If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster
And treat those two imposters just the same;
If you can bear to hear the truth you've spoken
Twisted by knaves" to make a trap for fools, dishonest people
15 Or watch the things you gave your life to, broken,
And stoop and build 'em up with worn-out tools:
1 Game of combined skill and luck (involving tossing a coin repeatedly) that attracted bets.
126 127

William Butler Yeats (1865-1939) The Second Coming 'f-"<

~
«
Turning and turning in the widening gyre" spiral :>-<
Ireland's foremost poet, Yeats was born into a gifted family. His father and brother were 0::
The falcon cannot hear the falconer; ~
well-known painters, and he initially followed in their footsteps before deciding on a ....:I
Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; f-<
literary career. Together with Lady Gregory, a writer and cultural nationalist, he began :::>
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world, >:Q
a campaign to revive Irish literature and drama, and founded a national theatre (see
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere ~
p. 132 for another poem from this movement, sometimes called the 'Celtic Twilight'). «.....
The ceremony of innocence is drowned;
Yeats was fascinated by traditional Irish legends, as well as the supernatural. He was also ....:I
The best lack all conviction, while the worst ....:I
an ardent Irish nationalist at a time when the colonial domination ofIreland by Britain
Are full of passionate intensity. ~
had led to guerrilla warfare by Irish rebels. His passion for a beautiful revolutionary,
Maud Gonne, who rejected him, inspired much of his love poetry. He eventually married
Surely some revelation is at hand;
Georgie Hyde- Lees, who was to influence the mysticism of his later writing. The doomed
10 Surely the Second Coming is at hand.
nationalist uprising of Easter 1916 rekindled Yeats's idealistic hopes for a free Ireland,
The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out
and in 1922 he was appointed to the Senate of the new Irish Free State. A year later he
When a vast image out of Spiritus Mundi'
won the Nobel Prize for Literature. His poetry is significant for encompassing the shift
Troubles my sight: somewhere in sands of the desert
from late Romanticism to the new Modernist* principles.
A shape with lion body and the head of a man.'
15 A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun,
Is moving its slow thighs, while all about it
No Second Troy Reel shadows of the indignant desert birds.
The darkness drops again; but now I know
Why should I blame her that she filled my days
That twenty centuries of stony sleep
With misery, or that she would of late
20 Were vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle,
Have taught to ignorant men most violent ways,
And what rough beast, its hour come round at last,
Or hurled the little streets upon the great,
Slouches towards Bethlehem- to be born?
Had they but courage equal to desire?
What could have made her peaceful with a mind
That nobleness made simple as a fire, Supporting notes J)
With beauty like a tightened bow, a kind
The title of this poem borrows from the Biblicalreference to the second coming of Jesus. This,
That is not natural in an age like this,
it was prophesied, would take place after a period of increasing violence and turbulence, and
10 Being high and solitary and most stern?
would mark the end of time. However, in this poem, the speaker imagines the coming of a
Why, what could she have done, being what she is?
frightening and barbaric mythological being, rather than a Christian deity. Written shortly
Was there another Troy for her to burn?
after the First World War, this poem seems to hint at the inevitability of another devastating
war arising out of the brutal settlement of the first.
Supporting notes
This poem, one of many that Yeats wrote about Maud Gonne, likens her to Helen of Troy,
who was reputed to be the most beautiful woman in the world. According to the tales of the
Greek writer Homer, Helen's abduction led to the Trojan War and the ultimate destruction of
the city and civilisation of Troy. (For further details, see the notes to Tennyson's 'Ulysses' on
p. 100-101.) For a less romantic perspective on Helen of Troy, see H.D's 'Helen' on p. 140.

1 literally,'universal spirit'. . .
2 Reference to the Sphinx, a mythological monster worshipped and feared by the ancient Egyptians and Greeks.
3 Birthplace of Jesus. \
 "'11

128 129
_: ,I

'E"-< Easter, 1916 Hearts with one purpose alone 'E"-<

-<
~ Through summer and winter seem ~-<
:>-< I have met them at close of day :>-<
Enchanted to a stone ~
~ Coming with vivid faces ~
~ To trouble the living stream. ....1
....1 From counter or desk among grey
E-< 45 The horse that comes from the road, E-<
;:,
;:, Eighteenth-century houses.
P=l The rider, the birds that range P=l
I have passed with a nod of the head
:E From cloud to tumbling cloud, ~
-..<... Or polite meaningless words,
Minute by minute they change; .....
....1 Or have lingered awhile and said ....1
....1 A shadow of cloud on the stream ....1
.....
..... Polite meaningless words,
ts And thought before I had done
50 Changes minute by minute; ts
A horse-hoof slides on the brim,
10 Of a mocking tale or a gibe" joke, insult splashes
And a horse plashes" within it;
To please a companion
The long-legged moor-hens dive,
Around the fire at the club,
And hens to moor-cocks call;
Being certain that they and I
55 Minute by minute they live:
But lived where motley" is worn: multiple colours
The stone's in the midst of alL
15 All changed, changed utterly:
A terrible beauty is born. Too long a sacrifice
Can make a stone of the heart.
That woman's days were spent
In ignorant good-will,
o when may it suffice?
60 That is Heaven's part, our part
Her nights in argument
To murmur name upon name,
20 Until her voice grew shrill.
As a mother names her child
What voice more sweet than hers
When sleep at last has come
When, young and beautiful,
On limbs that had run wild.
She rode to harriers?" hounds
65 What is it but nightfall?
This man had kept a school
No, no, not night but death;
25 And rode our winged horse;"
Was it needless death after ail?
This other" his helper and friend
For England may keep fairb?
Was coming into his force;
For all that is done and said.
He might have won fame in the end,
70 We know their dream; enough
So sensitive his nature seemed,
To know they dreamed and are dead;
30 So daring and sweet his thought.
And what if excess of love
This other man" I had dreamed
Bewildered them till they died?
A drunken, vainglorious lout.
I write it out in a verse -
He had done most bitter wrong
75 MacDonagh and MacBride
To some who are near my heart,
And Connolly and Pearse
35 Yet I number him in the song;
Now and in time to be,
He, too, has resigned his part
Wherever green is worn,
In the casual comedy;
Are changed, changed utterly:
He, too, has been changed in his turn,
80 A terrible beauty is born.
Transformed utterly:
40 A terrible beauty is born.

4 Padraic Pearse, a teacher and writer; the reference to the winged horse. Pegasus, associated in legend with
poetry, suggests the common literary ground shared by Pearse and Yeats. 7 Britain had promised that once the First World War was over, Ireland would be granted a measure of
5 Thomas MacDonagh. also a poet. independence.
6 John MacBride; his marriage to Maud Gonne, whom Yeats loved, was an unhappy one. 8 James Connolly, a trade unionist and socialist.
130 131

Supporting notes tfI Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869-1935)

Easter 1916 was the date of an attempted coup by Irish nationalists struggling to overthrow
English rule. Although the courage of those who participated was remarkable, if foolhardy, Robinson grew up in a small town in the northeastern part of the United States known
the uprising failed, and its leaders (including those named in this poem) were executed. as New England, and much of his writing involves nostalgic reflection on the changing
The uprising did not have the full support of the Irish people, but they were nevertheless ways of life in this rural community. He studied at Harvard University, and through the
outraged by the executions, which served to draw together the nation against the English. influence of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was impressed by his poetry, he was
Those who died were (and still are) regarded as patriotic martyrs, and the wearing of the given a customs post. This gave him financial security and the opportunity to concentrate
colour green (referred to in line 78) became a symbol of resistance and remembrance. on his writing. His popularity as a poet grew slowly but steadily during his lifetime.
This is not the only poem Yeats wrote about his friends involved in the struggle for
liberation; you might like to look up 'On a Political Prisoner', which was inspired by Constance
Markievicz (described in lines 17-23). Her death sentence for her role in the rebellion was Richard Cory
reduced to life imprisonment. (There is a poem by her sister Eva Gore-Booth on p. 132.)
Whenever Richard Cory went down town,
We people on the pavement looked at him:
An Irish Airman Foresees His Death He was a gentleman from sole to crown,
Clean favoured, and imperially slim.
I know that I shall meet my fate
Somewhere among the clouds above; And he was always quietly arrayed,
Those that I fight I do not hate, And he was always human when he talked;
Those that I guard I do not love; But still he fluttered pulses when he said,
My country is Kiltartan Cross,9 'Good-morning', and he glittered when he walked.
My countrymen Kiltartan's poor,
And he was rich - yes, richer than a king -
No likely end could bring them loss
10 And admirably schooled in every grace:
Or leave them happier than before.
In fine, we thought that he was everything
Nor law, nor duty bade me fight,
To make us wish that we were in his place.
to Nor public men, nor cheering crowds,
A lonely impulse of delight So on we worked, and waited for the light,
Drove to this tumult in the clouds; And went without the meat, and cursed the bread;
I balanced all, brought all to mind, 15 And Richard Cory, one calm summer night,
The years to come seemed waste of breath, Went home and put a bullet through his head.
15 A waste of breath the years behind
In balance with this life, this death.

Supporting notes V
This was written in memory of Major Robert Gregory (the son of Yeats's close friend and
colleague, Lady Gregory), who was killed in action during the last year of the First World War.
Does this poem sound like a traditional elegy?* In what ways is it unusual?

9 A village dose to the airman's home in western Ireland. \'"

132 133

Eva Gore-Booth (1870-1926)

Supporting notes J).
The Celtic Twilight was as much a nationalist as a cultural movement. It drew on the stories
Younger sister of the famous Irish activist and revolutionary, Countess Markievicz, Gore- and traditions of the oppressed and marginalised Irish community (see p. 126 for more details
Booth was a poet associated with the Celtic Twilight, the Irish literary revival led by of this history). Although this poem is written in the romantic style associated with this
Yeats and others. She was also a social worker, socialist, and feminist activist. She left literary movement, it is intensely political; the Irish had been tenants in their own land to the
Ireland to live in Britain with Esther Roper (known for her work in trying to secure the hated English for centuries, and few figures were resented as much as the arrogant absentee
vote for women). Theirs was most probably a lesbian relationship. landlord. Gore-Booth (making use of an argument not dissimilar to Rossetti's in her poem
'Song' - p. 117) underlines the ultimate powerlessness of the oppressor in the face of the
land's indifference. You might like to compare her line of reasoning with that used by the
The Land to a Landlord far more orthodox Samuel Johnson on a similar topic (see' A Short Song of Congratulation',
p. 74). Taking a different view, this poem also presents a deliberately gendered* perspective
You hug to your soul a handful of dust, of nature; see the discussion on p. 85 for further details on the 'masculine' and 'feminine'
And you think the round world your sacred trust - presentations of nature, as well as examples of poems that represent or counter these
But the sun shines, and the wind blows, traditions.
And nobody cares and nobody knows.

o the bracken waves and the foxgloves flame,

And none of them ever has heard your name -
Near and dear is the curlew's cry,
You are merely a stranger passing by.

Sheer up through the shadows the mountain towers

10 And dreams wander free in this world of ours, -
Though you may turn the grass to gold,
The twilight has left you out in the cold.

Though you are king of the rose and the wheat,

Not for you, not for you is the bog-myrtle sweet,
15 Though you are lord of the long grass,
The hemlock bows not her head as you pass.

The poppies would flutter amongst the corn

Even if you had never been born,
With your will or without your will
20 The ragweed can wander over the hill.

Down there in the bog where the plovers call

You are but an outcast after all,
Over your head the sky gleams blue -
Not a cloud or star belongs to you.
 135
-"-
~o
Robert Frost (1874-1963) ~
~
Frost grew up in New England, the beautiful rural northeastern corner o~ the Uni~ed f-<

States, which he was to become famous for describing in his poems. HIs education Mending Wall ~
~
included two years at Harvard University, and he made a living teaching, farming, and o
p:::
doing odd jobs. Shortly before the First World War, he and his family spent three year~ in Something there is that doesn't love a wall,
Britain, where his poems were published for the first time. ~e retu~ned home to growmg That sends the frozen-ground-swell under it
recognition and admiration of his work. He took up teac~mg agam, and ~ecame one .of And spills the upper boulders in the sun,
the best-known modern American poets. Although he IS generally admired as a WIse And makes gaps even two can pass abreast.
observer of the rural scene, some scholars have suggested that a more troubled note lies The work of hunters is another thing:
beneath much of his work. I have come after them and made repair
Where they have left not one stone on a stone,
But they would have the rabbit out of hiding,
The Road Not Taken To please the yelping dogs. The gaps I mean,
10 No one has seen them made or heard them made,
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, But at spring mending-time we find them there.
And sorry I could not travel both I let my neighbour know beyond the hill;
And be one traveller, long I stood And on a day we meet to walk the line
And looked down one as far as I could And set the wall between us once again.
To where it bent in the undergrowth; 15 We keep the wall between us as we go.
To each the boulders that have fallen to each.
Then took the other, as just as fair, And And some are loaves and some so nearly balls
having perhaps the better claim, We have to use a spell to make them balance:
Because it was grassy and wanted wear; 'Stay where you are until our backs are turned!'
Though as for that, the passing there 20 We wear our fingers rough with handling them.
10 Had worn them really about the same, Oh,just another kind of outdoor game,
One on a side. It comes to little more:
And both that morning equally lay There where it is we do not need the wall:
In leaves no step had trodden black. He is all pine and I am apple orchard.
Oh, I kept the first for another day! 25 My apple trees will never get across
Yet knowing how way leads on to way, And eat the cones under his pines, I tell him.
1-' 1 doubted if I should ever come back. He only says, 'Good fences make good neighbours.'
Spring is the mischief in me, and I wonder
I shall be telling this with a sigh
IfI could put a notion in his head:
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
30 'Wby do they make good neighbours? Isn't it
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-
Where there are cows? But here there are no cows.
I took the one less travelled by,
Before I built a wall I'd ask to know
20 And that has made all the difference.
What I was walling in or walling out,
And to whom I was like to give offence.
35 Something there is that doesn't love a wall,
That wants it down.' I could say 'Elves' to him,
But it's not elves exactly, and I'd rather
He said it for himself I see him there,
Bringing a stone grasped firmly by the top
40 In each hand, like an old-stone savage armed.
 137
136

He moves in darkness as it seems to me, William Carlos Williams (1883-1963)

Not of woods only and the shade of trees.
He will not go behind his father's saying, Williams studied medicine, and while he was at university he became friends with the
And he likes having thought of it so well important and controversial poet Ezra Pound (see p. 138). After qualifying as a doctor,
45 He says again, 'Good fences make good neighbours.' Williams returned to his home town in the United States. Here he married and spent
the rest of his life, working as a paediatrician (a doctor specialising in children's illnesses).

Supporting notes 41' His experiences with working-class families influenced much of his writing. Part of a new
generation of modern American poets who were moving towards more natural use of
Both Frost's poems seem to describe simple, everyday events. Do you agree that both could language, Williams' poems combine a conversational style with vivid observation of detail.
also stand as extended metaphors" for something else? Pick one poem (or study each one
in succession), and work out what else the description of mending a wall, or choosing a
road could be about. On what different levels does each poem operate? Compare your
The Red Wheelbarrow
interpretations with those of your studymates. How many different readings emerge? Which
do you find the most valid, and why? so much depends
upon

a red wheel
barrow

glazed with rain

water

beside the white

chickens.

This is Just to Say

I have eaten
the plums
that were in
the icebox

and which
you were probably
savmg
for breakfast

Forgive me
)0 they were delicious
so sweet
and so cold

Questions to consider
You might enjoy comparing this poem to Pound's 'In a Station of the Metro' (p. 138).
Questions about both poems can be found on the following page.
138 139

Ezra Pound (1885-1972) The River- Merchant's Wife: a Letter

While my hair was still cut straight across my forehead

Pound was born in the American mid-west, and became friends with the poets William
I played about the front gate, pulling flowers.
Carlos Williams and Hilda Doolittle (see pp. 137 and 140) at university, He was fired from
You came by on bamboo stilts, playing horse,
his first teaching job, and left for Europe, where he joined other important figures who
You walked about my seat, playing with blue plums.
were establishing new trends in literary circles. Together with T. S. Eliot (p. 144) and the
And we went on living in the village of Chokan:
Irish writer James Joyce, he led the movement towards Modernism" in literature. During
Two small people, without dislike or suspicion.
four years in Paris, he was part of a bohemian group of American literary exiles that
included the writers Ernest Hemingway and Gertrude Stein. Horrified by the aftermath
At fourteen I married My Lord you.
of the First World War, he turned to fascism as the solution to Europe's troubles. During I never laughed, being bashful. 0
shy
the Second World War, he was caught broadcasting right-wing propaganda. He was
Lowering my head, I looked at the wall.
judged to be insane, and instead of standing trial for treason, he was sent to a mental
10 Called to, a thousand times, I never looked back.
institution. On his release, he returned to Italy, where he lived until his death.
At fifteen I stopped scowling,
1
I desired my dust to be mingled with yours
In a Station of the Metro Forever and forever and forever.
Why should I climb the look out?
The apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough. 15 At sixteen you departed,
You went into far Ku-to-yen, by the river of swirling eddies,
Questions to consider And you have been gone five months.
You might find it helpful to compare this poem with another very short poem, Williams' 'This The monkeys make sorrowful noise overhead.
is Just to Say' (p, 137). Here the similarity is not so much one of topic or style, but rather the
ability of the poets to evoke a great deal with very few words. You dragged your feet when you went out.
The following questions might help you come to grips with these poems, as well as 20 By the gate now, the moss is grown, the different mosses,
providing some guidelines for approaching very short poems. Too deep to clear them away!
1. What function does the title serve in both poems? How does this differ from (or enlarge The leaves fall early this autumn, in wind.
on) the usual role of the title in a poem? The paired butterflies are already yellow with August
2. Both poems concentrate on a very immediate, or fleeting, image or experience. How Over the grass in the West garden;
does the brevity (shortness) of the poems underline this fleeting quality? Do they succeed 25 They hurt me. I grow older.
in 'preserving the moment'? If you are coming through the narrows of the river Kiang,
3. Both poems have a distinctive shape. What does Williams' poem resemble? For whom Please let me know beforehand,
is it written, and where do you think it might be found? The shape of Pound's poem, And I will come out to meet you
meanwhile, reflects the influence of very short Chinese and Japanese poems in which an As far as Cho-fu-Sa.
image or emotion is described in a set number of words or syllables.
4. In poems this short, every word counts. In Williams' poem, where the words suggest
ordinary household communication, it is the way the words are laid out on the page that
Supporting notes t9
is significant. What effect does their structuring have? In Pound's poem, however, each This is a free translation of a poem by Li Bai, also known as Li Po (c. 701-762), a Chinese
word (and each punctuation mark) is carefully chosen for effect. Try critically analysing poet whose works were much admired by Pound. The place names in this poem all refer to
this poem, considering each word. Does it evoke an overall emotion as well as an image? various locations in eighth-century China. You might like to compare this poem to the English
translations of works by Li Bai's contemporaries (pp. 31-32).

1 Underground railway system in Paris.

140 141

H. D. (Hilda Doolittle) (1886-1961) Rupert Brooke (1887-1915)

Doolittle was born in the United States, and became friends with Ezra Pound and An attractive and popular figure, Brooke was educated at Cambridge University, where
William Carlos Williams while studying (see pp. 137-138). She joined Pound in Europe, he was a leader in literary circles. His early poetry was much admired and he was awarded a
and together they founded a new movement in modern poetry (called the 'Imagist fellowship for further study, but he suffered a breakdown soon afterwards (possibly
movement') that focused on the significance of actual physical images. She married the because of the turmoil he experienced in coming to terms with his homosexuality).
poet Robert Adlington, and worked with him translating works in Greek and Latin and While recovering, he travelled to the United States, Canada, and the Pacific islands. He
editing an important literary journal. She also wrote novels, as well as an account of her volunteered to serve in the Navy as soon as the First World War broke out, and the poetry
psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud, considered by many to be the founder of modem he sent home established him as the most celebrated (if unrealistic) war poet of his times.
psychology. After her marriage ended, she moved to Switzerland. In 1915 he was posted to the Mediterranean, where he died of blood-poisoning.

The Soldier
All Greece hates
the still eyes in the white face, If! should die, think only this of me:
the lustre" as of olives- gloss, sheen That there's some corner of a foreign field
where she stands, That is for ever England. There shall be
And the white hands. In that rich earth a richer dust concealed;
A dust whom England bore, shaped, made aware,
All Greece reviles Gave, once, her flowers to love, her ways to roam,
the wan" face when she smiles, pale A body of England's, breathing English air,
hating it deeper still Washed by the rivers, blest by suns of home.
when it grows wan and white,
10 remembering past enchantments And think, this heart, all evil shed away,
and past ills. 10 A pulse in the eternal mind, no less
Gives somewhere back the thoughts by England given;
Greece sees unmoved,
Her sights and sounds; dreams happy as her day;
God's daughter.' born oflove,
And laughter, learnt of friends; and gentleness,
the beauty of cool feet
In hearts at peace, under an English heaven.
15 and slenderest knees,
could love indeed the maid,
only if she were laid, Supporting notes efJ' ...
white ash amid funereal cypresses." This poem is an interesting remnant of a particularly rose-coloured tradition of patriotism,
which glorified fighting and dying for one's country (today the notion of dying for a cause is
Supporting notes 1# more likely to be idealised). These sentiments were unable to survive the gruesome realities
of the First World War; although Europe had a history of bloody wars going back centuries,
Here we find a completely different vision of Helen of Troy, and the Trojan War, to that found
nothing like the horrors of modern trench warfare had ever been experienced before. This
in the poems 'Ulysses' by Tennyson (pp. 100-101) and 'No Second Troy' by Yeats (p. 126).
war was also probably the first in which both working-class and aristocratic soldiers suffered
(You will find information on both Helen herself and the Trojan War in the contextual notes
equally devastating losses and injuries. Brooke's poem was to be prophetic; his body lies
to these poems.) Tennyson and Yeats each glorify different aspects of the tragic saga; what
buried on a small Greek island. See Hardy's 'In Time of "The Breaking of Nations" (p. 119),
exactly enthrals each of them? What is H. D.'s response to the legend, and how does her
Yeats' 'An Irish Airman Foresees his Death' (p. 130) and Owen's 'Futility' and 'Dulce et
poem contrast with theirs? How do you explain the differences? Do you think the gender of
Decorum est' (pp. 152-153), as well as the notes on these poems, for a variety of reflections
these poets might be a factor?
on the First World War.
1 Helen of Troy, whose abduction led to the Trojan War.
2 This could be a comparison either to olives themselves, or olive trees, which have silver-coloured leaves.
3 According to Greek mythology, Helen was born after Zeus, ruler of the gods, seduced Leda (a human woman).
4 Trees often planted in graveyards.
142 143

Questions to consider ,
Read this poem carefully, and then turn to Wilfred Owen's 'Dulce et decorum est (p. 153),
Katherine Mansfield (1888-1923)

and read the supporting notes on both poems. . . Mansfield was born in New Zealand, but went to London to study. Her first marriage
1. Both speakers describe a soldier's response to dying in action. Yet the poems dlffe~ In
lasted only a few days, and she became involved with John Middleton Murry, an
their use of language, imagery, tone, and conclusions drawn. Isolate these contrasting
influential editor and literary figure, whom she later married. They shared a sometimes
elements, establishing how these are communicated in each case. Your s~udy group
stormy friendship and various literary projects with the novelist D. H. Lawrence and
might like to divide into two groups, one to study each poem, before reporting back to
his unconventional wife, Frieda. (Lawrence described their four-way relationship in his
each other. . 7 novel Women in Love.) Mansfield's writing was original and wide-ranging; she was best
2. What impact would each poem have had on the audience of the time. th ht th known for her short stories. She travelled regularly to France and Switzerland in the
3. Why was Brooke's poem so much more popular? Does this suggest any oug son e hopes of shaking off the tuberculosis that eventually killed her.
role that poetry might play in a time of crisis? .
4. What seems to be the primary intention underlying each poem? Do you think that both
are valid, especially in times of war? . To God the Father
5. Are both poems sincere? How can this be 50? Do you agree that Brooke ISperhaps a poet
of the past, and Owen a poet of the present? To the little, pitiful God I make my prayer,
The God with the long grey beard
And flowing robe fastened with a hempen ° girdle rope
Who sits nodding and muttering on the all-too-big throne of Heaven.
What a long, long time, dear God, since you set the stars in their places,
Girded" the earth with the sea, and invented the day and night. encircled
And longer the time since you looked through the blue window of Heaven
To see your children at play in a garden ...
Now we are all stronger than you and wiser and more arrogant,
10 In swift procession we pass you by.
'Who is that marionette" nodding and muttering puppet
On the all-too-big throne of Heaven?
Come down from your place, Grey Beard,
We have had enough of your play-acting!'
15 It is centuries since I believed in you,
But to-day my need of you has come back.
I want no rose-coloured future,
No books of learning, no protestations and denials -
I am sick of this ugly scramble,
20 I am tired of being pulled about-
o God, I want to sit on your knees
On the all-too-big throne of Heaven,
And fall asleep with my hands tangled in your grey beard.
144 145

T. S. Eliot (1888-1965)
III f-<
o

You tossed a blanket from the bed,

Eliot was born in the United States and studied at Harvard University and Oxford. His 25 You lay upon your back, and waited;
friend Ezra Pound (see p. 138) encouraged him to settle in Britain, where he married Vivien You dozed, and watched the night revealing
Haigh- Wood. Theirs was a very troubled marriage, which ended in separation. Eliot worked The thousand sordid images
in a bank for several years while gathering a reputation as an editor and critic. Meanwhile, Of which your soul was constituted;
his first collections of poetry were establishing him as the sophisticated new voice of a They flickered against the ceiling.
disillusioned age. He became a director at the publishing house Faber & Faber, and guided 30 And when all the world came back
their publications of poetry along the new lines ofModernism,* a movement he and others And the light crept up between the shutters
such as Pound had established. By now he was one of the most influential literary figures in And you heard the sparrows in the gutters,
Britain. In later life, he accepted the doctrines of the Anglican Church, a step that marked You had such a vision of the street
a shift in his poetry from cynicism to mysticism. He also became increasingly traditional in As the street hardly understands;
his politics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948. 35 Sitting along the bed's edge, where
You curled the paper from your hair,
Or clasped the yellow soles of feet
Preludes In the palms of both soiled hands.

IV

The winter evening settles down His soul stretched tight across the skies
With smell of steaks in passageways. 40 That fade behind a city block,
Six o'clock. Or trampled by insistent feet
The burnt-out ends of smoky days. At four and five and six o'clock;
And now a gusty shower wraps And short square fingers stuffing pipes,
The grimy scraps 44 And evening newspapers, and eyes
Of withered leaves about your feet Assured of certain certainties,
And newspapers from vacant lots; The conscience of a blackened street
The showers beat Impatient to assume the world.
10 On broken blinds and chimney-pots,
And at the corner of the street I am moved by fancies that are curled
A lonely cab-horse steams and stamps. Around these images, and cling:
And then the lighting of the lamps. 50 The notion of some infinitely gentle
Infinitely suffering thing.
II
Wipe your hand across your mouth, and laugh;
The morning comes to consciousness The worlds revolve like ancient women
15 Of faint stale smells of beer Gathering fuel in vacant lots.
From the sawdust-trampled street
With all its muddy feet that press
To early coffee-stands. Supporting notes II·
With the other masquerades" pretences, play-acting In his poems, Eliot's purpose is to evoke images and emotions by association, rather than
20 That time resumes, description. This practice of using language rather like music - for emotional and aesthetic"
One thinks of all the hands effect rather than to communicate meaning - was set out by Eliot as a new creative philosophy,
That are raising dingy shades and was to become a hallmark of Modernist* poetry. In 'Preludes', he gives four different
In a thousand furnished rooms. evocative cameos or scenes, rather than a story sequence or philosophical argument.
146 147

E-<
o All this was a long time ago, I remember,
And I would do it again, but set down
This set down
This: were we led all that way for
Birth or Death? There was a Birth, certainly,
We had evidence and no doubt. I had seen birth and death,
But had thought they were different; this Birth was
Hard and bitter agony for us, like Death, our death.
40 We returned to our places, these Kingdoms,
Journey of the Magi' But no longer at ease here, in the old dispensation; order, system
With an alien people clutching their gods.
I should be glad of another death.
'A cold coming we had of it,
Just the worst time of the year
For a journey, and such a long journey:
The ways deep and the weather sharp,
Supporting notes til·
Eliot wrote this poem, about a life-changing experience, in the same year he converted to the
The very dead of winter.'
Anglican Church and finally took on British citizenship - both choices that meant permanent
And the camels galled, sore-footed, refractory; stubborn, obstinate
changes in his life. The first five lines are adapted from a seventeenth-century sermon, and
Lying down in the melting snow.
the second stanza is packed with allusions to the New Testament. The 'three trees' in line 24
There were times we regretted
refer to the three crosses described in the crucifixion story; the 'vine-leaves' and the 'lintel' in
The summer palaces on slopes, the terraces,
line 26 suggest the parables Jesus told in which he metaphorically described himself as a vine
10 And the silken girls bringing sherbet." sweet Oriental drink
and a door; the 'dicing' in line 27 possibly alludes to the soldiers gambling for Jesus' clothes
Then the camel men cursing and grumbling
at the foot of the cross; the 'pieces of silver' in the same line refer to the thirty pieces of silver
And running away, and wanting their liquor and women,
which Judas, one of Jesus' disciples, was paid as a reward for betraying his leader; and the
And the night-fires going out, and the lack of shelters,
'wine-skins' in line 28 suggest another parable, which features the image of new wine in old
And the cities hostile and the towns unfriendly
wine-skins.
15 And the villages dirty and charging high prices:
A hard time we had of it.
At the end we preferred to travel all night,
Sleeping in snatches,
With the voices singing in our ears, saying
20 That this was all folly.

Then at dawn we came down to a temperate valley,

Wet, below the snow line, smelling of vegetation;
With a running stream and a water-mill beating the darkness,
And three trees on the low sky,
zs And an old white horse galloped away in the meadow.
2
Then we came to a tavern with vine-leaves over the lintel,
Six hands at an open door dicing for pieces of silver,
And feet kicking the empty wine-skins.
But there was no information, and so we continued
30 And arrived at evening, not a moment too soon

Finding the place; it was (you may say) satisfactory.

1 According to the Bible, wise men from the East who travelled to pay homage to the baby Jesus.
2 Beam set above a door.
148 149

Claude McKay (1890-1948) Edna st. Vincent Millay (1892-1950)

Born in Jamaica in the Caribbean, McKay moved to the United States as a young man. Millay was born in the United States and educated at Vassar College, a prestigious
A skilled writer, he wrote both poetry and novels. His poems reflect his perceptions university for women. She soon established a reputation as a bold and witty poet, and
of life in Jamaica and New York, and his novels deal honestly with the experiences of was the leader of a new generation of writers who were sophisticated and daring, both in
black communities in the Caribbean, the United States, and Europe. He also produced a their writing and their lifestyles.
respected sociological work on life in Harlem (a black residential area in New York City).

I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed

IfWe Must Die
I, being born a woman and distressed
If we must die, let it not be like hogs By all the needs and notions of my kind,
Hunted and penned in an inglorious spot, Am urged by your propinquity" to find closeness
While round us bark the mad and hungry dogs, Your person fair and feel a certain zest" enthusiasm
Making their mock at our accursed lot. To bear your body's weight upon my breast:
If we must die, 0 let us nobly die, So subtly is the fume" oflife designed, essence
So that our precious blood may not be shed To clarify the pulse and cloud the mind,
In vain; then even the monsters we defy And leave me once again undone, possessed.
Shall be constrained" to honour us though dead! forced Think not for this, however, the poor treason
o kinsmen! we must meet the common foe! 10 Of my stout" blood against my staggering brain, strong
10 Though far outnumbered let us show us brave, I shall remember you with love, or season
And for their thousand blows deal one deathblow! My scorn with pity, -let me make it plain:
What though before us lies the open grave? I find this frenzy insufficient reason
Like men we'll face the murderous, cowardly pack, For conversation when we meet again.
Pressed to the wall, dying, but fighting back!
Questions to consider
1. At first glance, this poem looks like a formal sonnet" However, we soon discover that it
Supporting notes is wickedly funny and mocking in its intention. What basic point is the speaker trying to
This poem was written as a response to race riots that took place in Harlem in 1919. Later, spell out, and to whom? Why is the use of the sonnet form here especially humorous?
it was to become a poem of encouragement in times of war. In its use of the sonnet" form, 2. If you agree that contrast forms the main ingredient of the humour, identify how this
it borrows directly from the poetry of previous ages. Do you agree that it sounds more like operates. What tone is used? And what kind of language? Given the subject of the
a nineteenth-century (or earlier) poem than a twentieth-century one? What features does it poem, do you think this is appropriate, or deliberately inappropriate? How does the use
share with the sonnets by Wordsworth (p, 84) or Milton (p, 65), for example? Why do you of language and syntax" compare with the topic (or argument) of the poem?
think the writer chose to use this form? 3. How does the poet use the formal structure of the sonnet to emphasise her argument?
4. Traditionally, the sonnet was often used as a form of love poetry - see, for example, the
sonnets of Sidney (p. 48) and Shakespeare (pp. 52-54). Do you agree that this sonnet,
however, is almost an anti-love poem? In what ways does it subvert the tradition?
5. The sonnet form is sometimes used for subversive purposes; on the previous page, we see
Claude McKay using this form for a far more serious, but still unusual purpose. There are
other examples of sonnets being used to frame controversial or surprising views in this
book; can you find them?
150 151

A poem should be equal to:

Archibald MacLeish (1892-1982) Not true.
MacLeish was educated at Yale University and Harvard Law School. He joined the For all the history of grief
circle of American artists in Paris in the 1920s, where he came under the influence of 20 An empty doorway and a maple leaf
Ezra Pound (p. 138). Another significant influence was T. S. Eliot (p. 144). A notable
poet and playwright, MacLeish became increasingly absorbed by left-wing politics. On For love
his return to the United States, he held a series of important governmental positions, The leaning grasses and two lights above the sea -
including Librarian of Congress and Assistant Secretary of State. He was later appointed
to a professorship at Harvard. A poem should not mean
But be.

Ars Poetical
0
A poem should be palpable and mute tangible, real
As a globed fruit,

Dumb
As old medallions to the thumb,

Silent as the sleeve-worn stone

Of casement" ledges where the moss has grown - window

A poem should be wordless

As the flight of birds.

A poem should be motionless in time

10 As the moon climbs,

Leaving, as the moon releases

Twig by twig the night-entangled trees,

. Leaving, as the moon behind the winter leaves,

Memory by memory the mind -

15 A poem should be motionless in time

As the moon climbs.

1 This title (which means 'the art of poetry') is taken from a work on the subject of poetry by the classical Latin
poet, Horace.
 ....•. ._ ..

152

Wilfred Owen (1893-1918) Dulce et Decorum Est

Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,

Owen came from a humble background and began writing poetry at an early age. Unable
Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge,
to afford university fees, he studied at a technical college, and did community work in
Till on the haunting flares we turned our backs,
an impoverished parish. Two years before the First World War broke out, he went to
And towards our distant rest began to trudge.
France to teach English. After the war began, he returned home to join the army. His
Men marched asleep. Many had lost their boots,
first-hand experience of the horrific conditions and casualties involved in the fighting
But limped on, blood-shod. All went lame, all blind;
in Europe were to have a dramatic influence on his poetry. He was injured and sent to
Drunk with fatigue; deaf even to the hoots
hospital in Scotland to recover. Here he met the poet Siegfried Sassoon, who encouraged 1
Of tired, outstripped Five- Nines dropping softly behind.
his writing. He returned to battle and was awarded the Military Cross for bravery, only to
be killed a week before the war ended. At first his brutally realistic and bitter war poems Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! - An ecstasy of fumbling,
were ignored by the public; however, he slowly came to be recognised as one of the finest )0 Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time;
poets of the First World War. But someone still was yelling out and stumbling
And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime.'...
Dim through the misty panes and thick green light,
Futility As under a green sea, I saw him drowning.

Move him into the sun - 15 In all my dreams before my helpless sight,
Gently its touch awoke him once, He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning.
At home, whispering of fields unsown.
Always it woke him, even in France, If in some smothering dreams you too could pace
Until this morning and this snow. Behind the wagon that we flung him in,
If anything might rouse him now And watch the white eyes writhing in his face,
The kind old sun will know. 20 His hanging face, like a devil's sick of sin;
If you could hear at every jolt, the blood
Think how it wakes the seeds - Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs,
Woke, once, the clays of a cold star. Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud
10 Are limbs, so dear-achieved, are sides, Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues, -
Full-nerved - still warm - too hard to stir? 25 My friend, you would not tell with such high zest
Was it for this the clay grew tall? To children ardent for some desperate glory,
- 0 what made fatuous" sunbeams toil foolish The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est
To break earth's sleep at all? Pro patria mori."l

Supporting notes fff'

o
One of the features of the First World War was the use of chemical weapons for the first
time. The most notorious was 'mustard' gas, which corroded the lungs, causing a horrible
death in which victims effectively drowned in their own blood. Soldiers used gas-masks (the
'helmets' in line 10) to protect themselves. This poem graphically describes the effects of
such a gas attack.
You might like to compare these two poems by Owen with Rupert Brooke's 'The Soldier'.
Suggestions for discussion can be found on p. 142.

1 Chemical gas bombs.

2 Sticky chemical sometimes used to trap birds.
3 Ironic quotation from the Latin poet Horace: 'Sweet and fitting it is to die for one's country'. \
154 155

Elizabeth Cloete Mao Tse-tung (1893-1976)

No information is available about Cloete, other than that she was a South African who Mao Tse-tung (also spelt Zedong) came from a peasant background, and was attracted
wrote this poem in 1931. to the political doctrine of communism as a young man. He helped to form the Chinese
Communist Party, and remained its leader for fifty years. His followers fought a prolonged
civil war for control of the country, eventually overcoming both the occupying Japanese
The Spartan Woman forces and the Chinese Nationalists. The Chinese People's Republic, with Mao as its
head, was established in 1949. Mao embarked on a programme of accelerated economic
A spartan woman is Africa,
Q tough, austere and industrial development that was to lead to extensive abuse of human rights. Two
Under the sun's relentless rays she lies, low points of his regime were the infamous Cultural Revolution (in which millions were
With stern fingers pointing steadily upwards, killed, unfairly punished, or banished to remote areas) and the Chinese invasion and
Her broad breast bare to the sky, annexation of Tibet. Mao remained effectively in control of the country until his death
5 She watches with an immovable face, in 1976, attaining almost mythical status among his followers. In China, his sayings and
Those who seek to nestle on her heart, poems were so extensively distributed as to make him probably the most widely read poet
But it is hard, and the heat of her breath is scorching. of the twentieth century.
Vainly they strive to rest in her treacherous arms.
They cling to the hem of her garments praying for life, Lou Mountain Pass
10 Yet not a quiver betrays her thought. February 1935
Yet how they love her!
Once having seen her, once having known her, West wind fierce,
They see, they love, they know no other. immense sky,wild geese honking,
Their last cry is always to be buried on her breast. frosty morning moon.
15 None but the bravest, none but the best Frosty morning moon.
Shall earn her favour, Horse hooves clanging,
From them she will withhold nothing. bugles sobbing.
And maybe there shall arise a mighty race,
That maybe shall move with iron tread, Tough pass,
20 Towards the hills of God. long trail, like iron.
Yet with strong steps
10 we climbed that peak.
Supporting notes Climbed that peak:
This poem has certain features in common with Olive Schreiner's 'The Cry of South Africa' green mountains like oceans,
(see p. 123). There are also other poems in this book that give Nature human and especially setting sun like blood.
feminine qualities. You might like to find these (Wordsworth would be a good place to
start - see pp. 84-85) and compare them, especially if you are interested in the way that
writing is gendered* (shaped by the socially constructed understandings of masculinity and
Supporting notes II
femininity). During the civil war, Mao led his followers on the gruelling 'Long March', a 9700 km trek
across some of China's wildest terrain. It took over a year, and bonded those who survived
into a close and determined military unit. Mao wrote this poem to celebrate a battle against
the Nationalist forces during the Long March, the taking of a particularly daunting mountain
pass. You might find it interesting to compare this poem with the early Chinese poems found
on pp. 31-32. What differences and similarities can you find?

....... :..
 E. E. Cummings (1894-1962)
one day anyone died i guess
. (and noone stooped to kiss his ~ace)
busy folk buried them side by SIde
The son of a clergyman, Cummings studied at Harvard University and joined a
little by little and was by was
ambulance unit in France during the First World War. His first book, an account of
experiences in a French detention camp, established his reputation as a modern all by all and deep by deep
He introduced striking visual and typographical innovations in his poetry, and and more by more they dream their sleep
unconventional use of punctuation and lower-case letters has had a lasting impact on noone and anyone earth by april
style of modern poetry. His work ranges from sharp satire" to romantic and moving wish by spirit and if by yes.

Women and men (both dong and ding)

summer autumn winter spring
35 reaped their sowing and went their came
sun moon stars rain

anyone lived in a pretty how town

anyone lived in a pretty how town
(with up so floating many bells down)
spring summer autumn winter
he sang his didn't he danced his did.

Women and men(both little and small)

cared for anyone not at all
they sowed their isn't they reaped their same
sun moon stars rain

children guessed(but only a few

10 and down they forgot as up they grew
autumn winter spring summer)
that noone loved him more by more

when by now and tree by leaf

she laughed his joy she cried his grief
15 bird by snow and stir by still
anyone's any was all to her

someones married their everyones

laughed their cryings and did their dance
(sleep wake hope and then)they
20 said their nevers they slept their dream

stars rain sun moon

(and only the snow can begin to explain
how children are apt to forget to remember
with up so floating many bells down)
158 159

Every page a victory.

Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) Who cooked the feast for the victors?
A German by nationality, Brecht was sympathetic to class and labour. i~sues,and aligned Every ten years a great man.
himself with local communist groups. His radical an~ outs~ok~n wntI.ngs :,ere banned 25 Who paid the bill?
by the Nazis, and after the establishment of Hitlers totalItarIan regIme in G.ermany
during the 1930s, he emigrated to the United States. Here he worked transl~t1ng and So many reports.
producing his plays. After the Second World War, he returned t? East B~rl1n, where So many questions.
he founded a company of actors, the Berliner Ensemble, as a vehicle fo~ his work. and
theories of acting. He married the actress Helene Weigel, an.d she continued to direct
the company after his death. Today he is recognised as a leading modern German poet
Supporting notes ~.
and playwright. Brief explanations of the events referred to in this poem are given here. Thebes (lines 1-3)
was the burial place of kings, and a temple site in ancient Egypt. Babylon (lines 4-5) was a
great capital of the ancient Middle East; successive invaders destroyed and rebuilt it. Lima
(line 6) is the capital of the South American country Peru; it was once the stronghold of the
ancient and wealthy Inca civilisation. The Great Wall of China (line 7) was a long defensive
barrier built to repel invaders (see also footnote 2, p. 31). Rome (lines 8-10) was the centre
of the Roman empire; its rulers were known as Caesars. Many of them ordered monuments or
arches to be built to mark the conquest of other lands or peoples. Byzantiu m (lines 10-11)
was the eastern capital of the Roman Empire, later named Constantinople. Today it is the
Questions from a Worker who Reads capital of Turkey, and is called Istanbul. Atlantis (lines 11-13) was a mythical island civilisation
that was supposedly engulfed by the sea. Alexander, also known as Alexander the Great (line
Translated by Michael Hamburger 14), was a brilliant young general of the ancient world; he conquered lands stretching from
Greece to India. The Gauls (line 16) were the inhabitants of France who were defeated by
Who built Thebes of the seven gates? Julius Caesar, probably the greatest of the Roman rulers. Philip of Spain (line 18) was the
In the books you will find the names of kings. king of Spain during the sixteenth century; he sent a fleet of ships known as the Armada to
Did the kings haul up the lumps of rock? attack England, but was defeated. Frederick the Second (line 20) was an eighteenth-century
And Babylon, many times demolished, German king, and a key figure in a major war in central Europe that lasted seven years.
Who raised it up so many times? In what houses
Of gold-glittering Lima did the builder~ live? .
Where, the evening that the Wall of China was finished,
Did the masons go? Great Rome
Is full of triumphal arches. Who erected them? Over ~hor_n
10 Did the Caesars triumph? Had Byzantium, much praised in song,
Only palaces for its inhabitants? Even in fabled Atlantis
'The night the ocean engulfed it
The drowning still bawled" for their slaves.

The young Alexander conquered India.

15 Was he alone?
Caesar beat the Gauls.
Did he not have even a cook with him?
Philip of Spain wept when his armada
Went down. Was he the only one to weep?
20 Frederick the Second won the Seven Years'War. Who
Else won it?
 "'1
160 161
II

Hart Crane (1899-1932) Malvinia Reynolds (1900-1978)

Crane's short life was not an easy one. He did not finish high school, but his two volumes Reynolds was an American singer, guitarist, and song-writer who followed in the protest
of poetry nevertheless marked him as a talented and powerful writer, with a bleak vision .: folk tradition established by musicians such as Woodie Guthrie and Pete Seeger. Their
of life. His work resembles Walt Whitman's (p. 111) in its fascination with American aim was to express political criticism in a way that was both powerful and accessible,
experiences and values. An alcoholic, he had a succession of unhappy love affairs with in the form of ballads," chants, and easily remembered songs. Reynolds' songs are often
both men and women. On a voyage home after a period of travel and study in Mexico, he apparently simple and understated, but make telling points nevertheless.
committed suicide by jumping over the side of the ship.

What Have They Done to the Rain?

My Grandmother's Love Letters
Just a little rain falling all around,
There are no stars to-night The grass lifts its head to the heavenly sound,
But those of memory. Just a little rain, just a little rain,
Yet how much room for memory there is What have they done to the rain?
In the loose girdle" of soft rain. belt
5 Just a little breeze out of the sky,
There is even room enough The leaves nod their heads as the breeze blows by,
For the letters of my mother's mother, Just a little breeze with some smoke in its eye,
Elizabeth, What have they done to the rain?
That have been pressed so long
Into a corner of the roof Just a little boy standing in the rain,
10 That they are brown and soft, 10 The gentle rain that falls for years,
And liable to melt as snow. And the grass is gone, the boy disappears,
And rain keeps falling like helpless tears,
Over the greatness of such space And what have they done to the rain?
Steps must be gentle.
It is all hung by an invisible white hair.
15 It trembles as birch limbs webbing the air.
Supporting notes ~.
This song was written at the height of the Cold War between the United States and its allies,
And I ask myself: and what was then the communist Eastern bloc, headed by the USSR. It refers to the threat
of radioactive 'fallout' (minute particles of deadly waste matter from either a nuclear bomb
'Are your fingers long enough to play explosion or a leaking nuclear power station, that would be spread through the atmosphere
Old keys that are but echoes: by wind and rain). This fear stalked the northern hemisphere for decades after the Second
Is the silence strong enough
World War (which ended when American pilots dropped nuclear bombs on two Japanese
20 To carry back the music to its source cities). There was tremendous concern about the Sickness, death, and long-term poisoning
And back to you again
that such fallout would cause for decades after an explosion or leak.
As though to her?'

Yet I would lead my grandmother by the hand

Through much of what she would not understand;
25 And so I stumble. And the rain continues on the roof
With such a sound of gently pitying laughter.
162 163

Roy Campbell (1901-1957)

Questions to consider
1. This poem is particularly interesting because it combines a far-sighted warning with
stereotypical (and even patronising) views of its topic. Do you agree, and if 50, can you
B~rn. in Natal, Campbell studied at Oxford University for a year and lived briefly in
locate these elements?
Britain, where he successfully published his first volume of poetry, establishing himself as
2. Look very closely at the presentation of both the Zulu mother and her baby. What positive
an energetic and inventive writer. On his return to South Africa, he founded a satirical
and negative attributes are suggested by the language used to describe them?
literary journal (Voorslag, which means 'whiplash') with the respected poet William
3. This poem conveys an atmosphere that is both tranquil and threatening. What words
Plomer. He left once again to wander through France and Spain before settling in
are used to sustain both moods? Look especially closely at the last stanza. What final
Portugal. A prolific writer and translator, he regularly published poetry as well as two
message is suggested?
autobiographies. His personality was as colourful and flamboyant as his writing (his jobs
4. In the presentation of the Zulu mother, we find a return to the Romantic tradition of
included a brief stint as a bull-fighter), but his support of fascism earned him considerable
likening the female body to natural phenomena. Wordsworth's 'Three Years She Grew'
criticism. However, he fought on the side of the British during the Second World War.
(pp. 84-85) is a good example of this practice. How exactly does Campbell do this here,
He died in a car crash in Portugal.
and what effect does it have?

The Zulu Girl

When in the sun the hot red acres smoulder,
Down where the sweating gang its labour plies,
A girl flings down her hoe, and from her shoulder
Unslings her child tormented by the flies.

She takes him to a ring of shadow pooled

By thorn-trees: purpled with the blood of ticks,
While her sharp nails, in slow caresses ruled,
Prowl through his hair with sharp electric clicks.

His sleepy mouth plugged by the heavy nipple,

10 Tugs like a puppy, grunting as he feeds:
Through his frail nerves her own deep languors ripple
Like a broad river sighing through its reeds.

Yet in that drowsy stream his flesh imbibes" drinks

An old unquenched unsmotherable heat -
15 The curbed ferocity of beaten tribes,
The sullen dignity of their defeat.

Her body looms above him like a hill

Within whose shade a village lies at rest,
Or the first cloud so terrible and still
20 That bears the coming harvest in its breast.

.,_"_
164 165

Sterling Brown (1901-1989) They have forgotten

what had to be endured -
Brown was one of the first recognised African-American poets. He was educated
That they, babbling young ones,
Williams College and Harvard University, and was a teacher before becoming nr,·,+p"N"":'·'
With their paled faces, coppered lips,
of English at Howard University, a post he held for over 50 years. His writings tocused And sleek hair cajoled" to Caucasian" straightness, coaxed
on the struggles of black Americans of Mrican descent (then known as Negroes)
25 Might drown the quiet voice of beauty
the period between the two world wars. As well as poetry, he wrote critical works on the .•.. With sensuous stridency;
presentation and significance of blacks in American literature. His poems borrow from <
traditions of storytelling and songs. Together with Langston Hughes, he dispelled the. And might, on hearing these memoirs of their sires,
sentimental and patronising myth of the happy, childlike rural Negro, instead giving .. Giggle,
powerful testimony to the sufferings and triumphs of African-Americans. Two of his And nudge each other's satin clad
most famous students include the Nobel Prize-winning author Toni Morrison and 30 Sleek sides ....
Kwame Nkrumah, who led Ghana to independence.

Supporting notes I)'

This poem is addressed to the grandchildren of those black Americans who were slaves
before being liberated after the American Civil War. The speaker argues that these young
descendants of slaves have lost touch with their history and heritage of suffering.

Children's Children
When they hear
These songs, born of the travail" of their sires, labour, sziffering
Diamonds of song, deep buried beneath the weight
Of dark and heavy years;
They laugh.

When they hear

Saccharine! melodies of loving and its fevers,
Soft-flowing lies oflove everlasting;
Conjuring divinity out of gross flesh itch;
10 They sigh
And look goggle-eyed
At one another.

They have forgotten, they have never known,

Long days beneath the torrid Dixie- sun
15 In rniasma'd" riceswamps; foul air
The chopping of dried grass, on the third go round
In strangling cotton;'
Wintry nights in mud-daubed makeshift huts,
With these songs, sole comfort.

1 Chemical used as an artificial sweetener.

2 The southern states of the United States, which relied heavily on slave labour until the civil war between the
northern and southern states in the 1860s ended slavery.
3 Cotton was the chief crop of the southern states; harvesting it was backbreaking work. 4 Racial type of European origin. \

....
166 167

Langston Hughes (1902-1967) Stevie Smith (1902-1971)

One of the first major African-American poets, Hughes was born in the American Smith, born Florence Margaret, was nicknamed after a racing jockey because she was
South, and travelled in Europe and Mrica before returning home to study and write. A so short. She lived in London throughout her life, and published three novels and two
leader of the Harlem Renaissance (a flowering of talent and cultural creativity in Harlem, volumes of poetry before her eccentric style became popular. Her poetry, often illustrated
a black residential area of New York City), he became known as the 'poet laureate of with her own comic drawings, was playful and witty, even when handling darker themes.
Harlem'. Together with Sterling Brown (see previous page), he was an influential figure She worked as a radio broadcaster, and had a distinctive voice; many of her admirers
in advancing 'Negritude', a cultural movement that promoted black achievement. He remember her reading her poems aloud over the air. She wrote this famous poem shortly
was an innovator of 'jazz' poetry, which was drawn from the speech and music of black before making an unsuccessful attempt to commit suicide.
Americans, and worked with musicians to perfect this genre; A meticulous writer,
he continually reworked his poems, while also writing novels, children's books, and
newspaper articles. Not Waving but Drowning

Nobody heard him, the dead man,

Mother to Son But still he lay moaning:
I was much further out than you thought
Well, son, I'll tell you. And not waving but drowning.
Life for me ain't been no crystal stair.
It's had tacks in it, Poor chap, he always loved larking" joking, teasing
And splinters, And now he's dead
And boards torn up, It must have been too cold for him his heart gave way,
And bare places with no carpet on the floor ... They said.
Bare.
Oh, no no no, it was too cold always
But all the time
10 (Still the dead one lay moaning)
I'se been a-climbin' on,
I was much too far out all my life
10 And reachin'landin's
And not waving but drowning.
And turnin' corners,
And sometimes goin' in the dark
Where there ain't been no light.
So, boy, don't you turn back.
15 Don't you set down on the steps
'Cause you'll find it kinda hard.
Don't you fall now...
For I'se still goin' honey,
I'se still climbin',
20 And life for me ain't been no crystal stair.

,,
168 169

w. H. Auden (1907-1973)
Stop All the Clocks
Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone,
The son of a doctor, Auden went to Oxford University to study science. However, he
Prevent the dog from barking with a juicy bone,
became part of a group of creative young writers, and was inspired to change careers.
Silence the pianos and with muffled drum
After university he travelled widely, witnessing the civil wars in both China and Spain. A
Bring out the coffin, let the mourners come.
radical socialist as a young man, he was to become more conservative in later years. His
poems were accepted for publication by T. S. Eliot (see p. 144), and he was recognised Let aeroplanes circle moaning overhead
as a brilliant new contributor to modern poetry. A homosexual, he married Erika Mann, Scribbling on the sky the message He Is Dead,
daughter of the famous writer Thomas Mann, so that she could flee persecution in Nazi Put crepe" bows round the necks of the public doves,
Germany. In 1939, he left for the United States, where he eventually took up citizenship, Let the traffic policemen wear black cotton gloves.
a decision that cost him some popularity. Nevertheless, he was appointed Professor of
poetry at Oxford, where he spent the rest of his life. His poetry is known for its range He was my North, my South, my East and West,
and ability to transform conventional forms. 10 My working week and my Sunday rest,
My noon, my midnight, my talk, my song;
I thought love would last for ever: I was wrong.
Roman Wall Blues
Over the heather! the wet wind blows The stars are not wanted now: put out everyone;
I've lice in my tunic and a cold in my nose. Pack up the moon and dismantle the sun;
15 Pour away the ocean and sweep up the wood.
The rain comes pattering out of the sky, For nothing now can ever come to any good.
I'm a Wall soldier, I don't know why.

The mist creeps over the hard grey stone, Supporting notes e9'
My girl's in Tungria;2 I sleep alone. This is actually the first of a pair of poems, more accurately titled 'Two Songs for Hedli
Anderson'. It became widely known (and informally renamed 'Stop All the Clocks') after the
Aulus goes hanging around her place, worldwide distribution of the popular film, Four Weddings and a Funeral, in the mid-1990s.
I don't like his manners, I don't like his face. In this film, it was read aloud by one of the characters, and this led to new interest in Auden's
works by the general public. This is not only elegy" in its purest and most powerful form; it is
Piso's a Christian, he worships a fish;'
also a particularly moving and poignant love poem. You may want to compare it with other
10 There'd be no kissing if he had his wish.
elegies in this book. See those by Ben Jonson (p. 59), Wordsworth (pp. 84-85), Tennyson
She gave me a ring but I diced it away; (pp, 102-105), Jonker (p, 216), Cope (p, 173), Bryer (p. 244) and de Kok (p. 254-255), and
I want my girl and I want my pay. look at how the relationship of the speaker to the deceased (lover, friend, parent, fellow poet)
shapes these works.
When I'm a veteran with only one eye
I shall do nothing but look at the sky.

Supporti ng notes ~
In early times, Britain was one of the Roman Empire's occupied territories, and Roman soldiers
were sent there to enforce the authority of the conqueror. However, the occupying militia
had difficulty with fierce local tribes, which attacked from the north. Thus the Roman Wall
(also known as Hadrian's Wall, named after the Emperor at the time) was built as a defensive
structure across the northern part of Britain. Parts of it still stand.

1 Small grey-green bushes with purple flowers typically found in the north of England and Scotland.
2 Province in Italy. 4 Thin black fabric, worn to indicate mourning in Western cultures until about fifty years ago.
3 A fish was one of the figures used by the early Christians to symbolise Jesusas the risen Christ.
170 171

Elizabeth Bishop (1911-1979) Modikwe Dikobe (1913-?)

Bishop was an American poet and short story writer whose influence has continued Modikwe Dikobe, the pen-name of Marks Rammitloa, was born in the Transvaal and
growing since her death. After a childhood marred by the loss of her parents, she studied raised in Sophiatown, a black township that was known for its cultural diversity and
at Vassar College, where she connected with important writers, thinkers, and activists. liveliness before it was rezoned as a 'white' residential area, and demolished by the
She travelled widely, and lived in Brazil with her lover, the architect Lota Soares, for apartheid government. He had limited access to schooling, and gained much of his
many years. Although Bishop was not prolific, preferring to polish her poems, she won education through correspondence. He held a variety of humble jobs, including selling
major national awards for her work, including the Pulitzer Prize, and was Poet Laureate newspapers. His first novel (The Marabi Dance), together with his poetry, identified him
of the United States for two years. She refused to categorise herself as a lesbian poet or as a writer passionately concerned with black oppression under apartheid.
even a woman poet, insisting that writers' personal lives should remain private.

One Art
Khoikhoi-Son-Of- Man
The art of losing isn't hard to master;
so many things seem filled with the intent I thought I was soul and skin
to be lost that their loss is no disaster. Pedigree muntu 1
Until yesterday I heard the truth
Lose something every day. Accept the fluster Grandfather was a Khoisan.'
of lost door keys, the hour badly spent.
The art of losing isn't hard to master. A slave of a trekboer
Fleeing from the Cape laws
Then practice losing farther, losing faster: Freeing slaves.'
places, and names, and where it was you meant
to travel. None of these will bring disaster. At night
He was tied to an oxwagon wheel
10 I lost my mother's watch. And look! my last, or 10 Groaning
next-to-last, of three loved houses went. Day by day leading sixteen span" pairs of oxen
The art of losing isn't hard to master. Fleeing from the Cape.

I lost two cities, lovely ones. And, vaster, Night by night

some realms I owned, two rivers, a continent. Somewhere there was a cock-crow
15 I miss them, but it wasn't a disaster. 15 A barking dog
A smell of damp fuel
- Even losing you (the joking voice, a gesture Then he realised that beyond that ridge
I love) I shan't have lied. It's evident Could be a village
the art of losing's not too hard to master Of people like him.
though it may look like (Write it!) like disaster.
20 He unfastened himself,
Trotted out of the camp,
Vanished into the night.

1 Slang term for an African; now considered degrading.

2 Hunter-gatherer tribe (initially called Bushmen) indigenous to the Cape; now largely exterminated.
3 The 'trekboers' were farmers of Dutch descent who left the Cape and travelled ('trekked') on wagons drawn
by oxen into the interior of the country. One of the reasons they left was to escape new laws that made slavery
illegal, and which would have forced them to free their slaves.
172 173

At dawn he was at a village

Begging to be taken into the tribe
Jack Cope (1913-1992)
25 'A tribesman, hunter, chief's servant and messenger.'
Cope grew up in Natal, where he tried farming before turning to journalism as a career.
Swift as an antelope" was he buck He worked in London for several years before returning to South Africa to become a
Outstripping runners full-time writer. He wrote novels, short stories and poems, and edited the influential
Chased by dogs. literary journal Contrast, as well as editing the works of a number of South African poets.
'Ka modirno'," they swore. One of his aims was to make South African writing accessible to a wider audience. He
so 'He is a man of the cloud. retired to Britain some time before his death.
Ompone ke tswa kaer"
A legendary tale: where have you seen me?
'I have seen you from the cloud.' The Flying Fishl
Khoikhoi - Son-of- Man.
35 I knew since yesterday (For Ingrid)
that he was my grandfather
The level ocean lies immeasurably blind
Khoikhoi - Son-of- Man.
swept through green deeps to glutinous· weed. sticky

But the flying fish, how they leap away

in water-flashes to the enamelled" sun! coated with glossy metal
They break along the foam-lipped chorus
of sea swells. Mysterious
the sounds they loosen, arrows
singing on the air and lost:
mysterious the glass-winged birds
10 of the long blind sea.

On the storm-swung streams they ride

over free oceans over the locked ice
the groans of midnight fires
and moons returning on the tide.
15 Light as great winged travellers
of the endless South
urgent as birth
from gloomed fishweed and the dead underwave
the flying fish sing to light.

Supporting notes ",.

This poem is an elegy" for the Afrikaans poet Ingrid Jonker, who committed suicide by
drowning while only in her early thirties. Cope had a turbulent affair with her in the early
1960s, and was devastated by her death. (See p. 216 for notes on Jonker herself and an
example of her poetry.)

4 'By God' or 'I swear on oath' (Tswana).

5 These words are translated in the next line. 1 Flying fish are small tropical fish with wing-like fins that they use to leap from the sea into the air.
174 175

Questions to consider .
After reading this poem, turn to Sally Bryer's 'Ingrid Jonker' (p. 244), Both ,poe~s are wntten
Dylan Thomas (1914-1953)
to honour the same poet, and use similar metaphors. Yet they are also quite different.
Born in Wales, Thomas was the son of a teacher, and began writing as a teenager. Initially
1. What central images do both poets use, and why did they choose these images? (Jonker's
a journalist, he became increasingly successful as a broadcaster and poet. He was a careful
method of suicide will give a clue.)
writer who laboured at his poems, which became famous for their vivid natural imagery
2. What are the chief differences in the way that the two poets approach their topics? Lool~,
and intensely lyrical style. A colourful and tragic figure, he was an alcoholic, a fact that
for example, at the use of pronouns in Bryer's poem, and the way :~e dead woman IS
was unfortunately glamorised as part of his larger-than-life public image. His readings
physically conjured up. Apart from the subtitle, is Cope's poem specifically addressed to
of his own poetry were extremely popular, and led to a series of lecture tours to the
anyone? Does any human figure actually appear in it? . ,
United States. On his fourth trip, he died of alcoholic poisoning in New York City, after
3. One of these poems, while written as an elegy, also functions as a stralg~tf~rward lynC~
a tremendous drinking binge.
poem. Which one is it? How then do we know that the writer has Jonker s life and deat
in mind?
4. Which poem do you prefer? Which is more personal? Which one do you think ~ffers
In My Craft or Sullen Art
greater hope? (Remember that there are no 'right' or 'wrong' answers to these questlonsl)

In my craft or sullen art

Exercised in the still night
When only the moon rages
And the lovers lie abed
With all their griefs in their arms,
I labour by singing light
Not for ambition or bread
Or the strut and trade of charms
On the ivory stages
10 But for the common wages
Of their most secret heart.

Not for the proud man apart

From the raging moon I write
On these spindrift" pages sea-spray
)5 Nor for the towering dead
With their nightingales and psalms
But for the lovers, their arms
Round the griefs of the ages,
Who pay no praise or wages
20 Nor heed my craft or art.

Questions to consider
1. How does the speaker see his 'art', according to the first stanza? What words suggest that
the business of creating poetry is hard work?
2. Thomas was famous for 'transferring' words that describe a specific mood to ordinary
nouns; see, for example, 'the moon rages' (line 3) and 'singing light' (line 6). What
could these constructions mean? Is the speaker describing the moon and the light, or
something else? Can you find other examples of this kind of pairing in this poem?
176
177

3. Closely examine the structure of the poem. Look at the words that begin eac~ line;
with one exception, how many syllables does each one have? What word or war s are
D. J. Opperman (1914-1985)
repeated? What effect is created as a result? Also look at the rhyme scheme. How many
This South African poet is considered one of the foremost Afrikaans poets and literary
rhyme-end sounds are there in the whole poem, and how are these laid out? How does
scholars of the twentieth century. He taught at both Stellenbosch University and the
the poet's careful use of rhyme underline the theme of the poem? . University of Cape Town. He is perhaps best known as the editor of the standard and
4 Why does the poet refer to his pages as 'spindrift' (line 14)7 What does this suggest
definitive late-twentieth century anthology of Afrikaans poetry, Die Groote Verseboek.
about the nature of poetry? .
5 A central irony" is suggested throughout this poem. What is it? (See the last two hnes.)

Christmas Carol

Translated from the Afrikaans by Anthony Delius

Three outas" from the High Karoo! men

saw the star, believed the angel true,

took knob-sticks, and three bundles with

and set forth along a jackal path,

following that bright and moving thing

that shone on shanty, sack and spring,

on zinc and sacking of District Six-

in a broken bottle a candle flicks

where salt fish hangs and donkeys jib; halt

10 and lights them kneeling by the crib.

Biltong. sheep fat and eggs they've piled spiced dried meat
humbly before God's small brown child.

With hymn and prayer for thanks, they tell

That a child will save this folk as well ...

15 And on her nest, throughout the whole affair

a bantam clucks with a suspicious stare.

Questions to consider
This translation from the Afrikaans recasts the story of the birth of Jesus, setting it in a slum
part of District Six, a racially mixed residential area in Cape Town that was bulldozed in
the 1960s under apartheid legislation (see Essop Patel's 'In the Shadow of Signal Hill' for
further notes on District Six). The 'three wise men' ('outas' is a slang Afrikaans term that
loosely translates as 'guys' or 'chaps') are obviously humble men (possibly shepherds, in
keeping with the biblical story) who bring as their gifts food traditionally eaten in simple rural
communities. The implication is also that both they and the baby they visit are Coloured - the
contested term used in South Africa to describe people of mixed-race descent. (Given that

1 Dry interior plateau of South Africa.

 "_"""."._-,,,-,

178 179

this poem was written several decades ago, it is clear that not just a religious, but a political
point is being made.) You will find it interesting to compare this poem with others about the
Anthony Delius (1916-1989)
same subject, including Eliot's 'Journey of the Magi' (p. 146-147) and the poem by Wright
(p. 187). You will also find helpful notes and suggestions for discussion on p. 188.
Born in Cape Town, Delius was educated at Rhodes University. He was a respected
journalist (at one stage he was the leader writer for the liberal newspaper 'Ibe Cape Times),
as well as a poet, satirist, and travel writer. Later he moved to London, where he worked
in broadcasting. His poetry and fiction won him a number of prizes.

Deaf-and- Dumb School

On the black tarmac playground dark
Nuns, a white statue of the Virgin I watch
Bare feet of the muted children jerk
And scuffle over endless silence. Such

Is their element. Though I have heard

Them flute like evening swallows in the sky
The sounds were sad, irrelevant, absurd
And could not pierce the silences of play,

Nor break the glass that frames their world.

10 A soundless quality of painting grips
A small boy leaning from a bench enthralled
In thoughts that dance on other finger-tips.

One with the cry and stiffness of a crane

Dances before a dumb-struck clientele,
15 Beyond, some cheerless footballers bemoan
A speechless player's bungled goal.

And all around communication glimmers

From hand to eye, and each attentive face
Turns to a dream of mimicry and mummers; play-actors
20 Like songless planets signalling through space.

Sound there is, but silence underlies

The fire-flies of gesture. One cannot catch
Exactly what the muffled outcry says,
Or what it is the nuns and children watch.

25 Silence like a window shows the room

Of minds that make their signs and mouth their cries,
But what leans out to touch you from the dream
Only the white statue and the darkness realise.

1 Mother of Jesus.
 181

Questions to consider
This poem presents an unusually sensitive attempt to observe and enter the world of hearing- Gwendolyn Brooks (1917-2000)
impaired and mute children. Today, however, we would not use the term 'deaf-and-dumb'
to describe people with these particular physical challenges. Although the use of politically Brooks grew up in Chicago in the United States. Her distinctive poetic
correct language can sometimes verge on the ridiculous, or come across as patronising, it
her a place as one of the first major black American women poets She w '0"- d
'P L ' f Illi " . as appointe
is worth noting that in the case of those with physical and mental illnesses or impairments,
oet aureate
•
0 111015, the Amencan state in which she lived and enjoy d
' J e
.
mentonn g
advocacy groups have made some very interesting and assertive recommendations about the younger wnt~rs. Sh~ received fifty-one honorary degrees, as well as numerous fellowships
language they prefer to use to describe themselves. and awards, including the Pulitzer Prize, probably the USA's most prestigious literar
~~. y
The whole issue of language sensitivity is a topic that you and your classmates might like
to investigate more closely. Several poems in this anthology that were written during earlier
historical periods contain language that today would be considered offensive or inappropriate:
look at Modikwe Dikobe's poem (p, 171), for example. Also look at how Gcina Mhlophe uses
We Real Cool
the word 'tsotsi' (p. 271), for instance. Can you find any other examples? What does this
The Pool Players.
suggest about language and its relation to society?
Seven at the Golden Shovel 1

We real cool. We
Left school. We

Lurk late. We
Strike straight. We

Sing sin. We
Thin gin. We

Jazz June. We
Die soon.

1 A typical Chicago club.

 f(
l
182 183 ,

Silence took charge, a blessed burial of words.

Guy Butler (1918-2001)
Each forgot his failure, longing, boredom, fury
in that subsidence of even a pretence at speech.
Butler had a happy childhood on a farm in the Eastern Cape, an experience described
We stood a long time, still, just listening:
in the first volume of his well-known autobiography. During the Second World War he
25 ten thousand sun-struck cicadas- ecstatically screaming;
served in North Africa and Italy; afterwards, he studied at Oxford. Eventually he became
near and far hundreds of doves in relays
Professor of English at Rhodes University, Grahamstown. A respected South African poet
imperturbably repeating themselves to each other;. .
and educator, he was always fascinated by the tension between the influence of Europe
pine wood sighing into the wind from a thousand shimmering needles;
and the experience of Africa that he saw in the works of many of his contemporaries.
wind already burdened with the grumbling,
30 perpetual, unpitied,
crumbling of the surf

Returning, the talk returned

but attempted nothing whatever.
What can be healed or hidden?
35 We accepted separation
as the ear those ignorant sounds
that filled that primitive silence
with sadness and with praise:
cicadas; doves; wind; surf

Near Hout Bay

Stopping the car, our childhood friends, now hosts,

suggested we stroll to the fabulous view.
Blinding sun, and heat beating up from a path
gritty with pinkish granite crystals,
curtains of pines permitting
expected glimpses of throbbing cerulean" sky blue
and steep striated" rockface plunging grooved
through broken mirrors, torn lace, beautiful lawns of sea.

There had been much talk in the car, far less on the climb:
10 talk which, try as we would to make it heal or hide,
only exposed the gaps, unbandaged sentence by sentence
the gashes and wounds of time, great spaces and falls
between us all. Each thread of phrase drifted from lips
like a spider's web from a cave in a thousand-foot cliff,
15 out, out into distance, finding nothing to cling to -
the next land Buenos Aires.l

We gave up the effort. They tried a bit longer,

stopped in mid-sentence as we all stopped moving
in the space and the heat
20 before the sufficiently epic view.

1 Port on the Atlantic coast of South America. 2 Insects that make a high, rhythmic chirping sound.
184 185

Lawrence Ferlinghetti (1919-) Es'kla (Ezekiel) Mphahlele (1919-2008)

The American poet Ferlinghetti was one of the first representatives of the 'Beat Generation') Mphahlele was born in the Transvaal. He became literary editor of Drum, the influential
a style of poetry and song-writing that sprang up in the 1950s as part of the American magazine of black culture in the 1950s. His writing was banned in South Mrica, and
'counter-culture' movement. The object was to escape from conventional middle-class he had no choice but to spend twenty years in exile, first living in Nigeria, and then
values, and to write poetry that reflected mysticism, youth culture, radical political and teaching in France and the USA. His impressive literary achievements, both as a novelist
social stances, and which had an improvised or informal style. He co-founded the famous and a poet, gained him international recognition and numerous awards. On his return
San Francisco bookshop, City Lights, which also branched out into publishing, providing to South Africa in the 1980s, he was at first placed under a banning order, but was
a platform for radical and innovative new voices. nevertheless granted the post of Professor of African Literature at the University of
the Witwatersrand. His philosophies continue to be honoured by the Es'kia Institute,
Constantly Risking Absurdity founded to support local efforts in the arts and literature.

Constantly risking absurdity

and death
whenever he performs
above the heads
of his audience
A Poem
the poet like an acrobat
What is there that we can do or say
climbs on rhyme
will sustain them
to a high wire of his own making
in those islands
and balancing on eyebeams
where the sun was made for janitors?
10 above a sea of faces
paces his way What is there that we can say or do
to the other side of day
will tear the years
performing entrechats" balletic leaps
from out the hands
and sleight-of-foot tricks of those who man the island galleys,
15 and other high theatrics
and all without mistaking will bring them home and dry and mend them
any thing 10 bring them back
for what it may not be to celebrate
with us the song and dance and toil ofliving?
For he's the super realist
20 who must perforce perceive What is it that we must do or say
taut truth for children scattered
before the taking of each stance or step 15 far from home
in his supposed advance by hawks let loose to stay the judgement day?
toward that still higher perch
25 where Beauty stands and waits The weeds run riot where our house is fallen
with gravity ourselves we roam
to start her death-defying leap the wilderness.
And he 20 'Go tell them there across the seas go tell him,'
a little charleychaplin man
30 who mayor may not catch so they say, 'his mother's dead six years,
her fair eternal form he dare not come
spreadeagled in the empty air he dare not write
of existence. the stars themselves have eyes and ears these days.'
186 187

You who fell before the cannon or

25

the sabred" tooth sword-like David Wright (1920-1994)

or lie on hallowed
ground: oh tell us what to say or do. Deaf from childhood, Wright left South Africa for Britain as a teenager, and was educated
first at a school for the hearing-impaired and then at Oxford University. He pursued a
So many routes have led to exile since distinguished career as a writer and academic, which included writing poetry and literary
30 your day our Elders criticism, and translating Old and Middle English. He repeatedly visited South Africa,
we've been here and maintained a strong interest in South African literature.
and back in many cycles oh so many:

no terrain different drummers borrowed From On the Margin

dreams, and there
35 behind us now An anniversary approaches:' of the birth of god
the hounds have diamond fangs and paws of steel. In a stable, son of a virgin and a carpenter,
But really issued from loins of omnipotent" glory: all-powerful
No time for dirge" or burial without corpses: mourning song A babe, ejected from the thighs, greased in mucus and blood,
teach us, Elders,
how to wait Weeping with its first breath, suffering the cold air, high king
40 and feel the centre, tame the time like masters, Of the galaxies, and powerless as a fieldmouse.
sing the blues Over him breathe the oxen; shepherds who have seen a star
so pain will bleed and let the islands in, Honour the obscure event; and, they say, three travelling
for exile is a ghetto of the mind.
0 slum, enclosed area
Magi," or charlatans" This is the messenger of hope; imposters, cheats

Supporting notes q: in The military have been instructed to deal with him.
A wholesale killing, their invariable strategy,
Written when apartheid was at its height, this poem refers to the fate of imprisonment While abolishing a generation, fails of effect.
or exile that faced most political activists. The first three stanzas refer to Robben Island, a
small island just off the coast of Cape Town, for years a notorious maximum-security prison
We are asked to believe all this (it's only to start with).
for those convicted of political offences. It is now a museum and world heritage site. The
What a jumble of the impossible and casual,
remainder of this poem refers to the experience of political exile; you might like to read these
15 Of commonplace mixed with violence; ordinary muddle;
lines in conjunction with Arthur Nortje and Stephen Watson's poems on the same topic, both
The props and characters scrufi)r; at best unheroic.
titled 'In Exile' (pp. 231 and 261).
Yet accordant with the disposition of things holy
As we understand them; whose epiphanies" are banal; revelations /
commonplace, boring
20 Not very aesthetic; gnomic/ unremarkable;
And very much like what we have to put up with daily.

Supporting notes V
This poem presents a version of the story of the birth of Jesus as told in the New Testament.
This event took place in a stable, and shepherds were among those who came to give praise.
Wise men from the East (almost certainly astrologers) were alerted to a significant event by
the appearance of a guiding star, and followed it to the stable, where they presented the

1 The festival of Christmas.

2 Wise men from the East.
3 Brief moralising statement or generalisation.
188

baby with gifts. The ruler of the territory meanwhile heard of the birth of a powerful new.
king, and ordered the occupying Roman forces to murder all boys under the age of ...•.
Tatamkulu Afrika (1921-2002)
years. The baby Jesus, however, escaped the massacre. (These are the events referred to in A reclusive figure with a fascinating life history, Afrika wrote under the above pseudonym
the third stanza.) to maintain his privacy. A passionate convert to Islam, he found a home in the Cape
Muslim community after spending much of his life wandering around the world.
Questions to consider Although he wrote fiction from an early age, including novels, he began writing and
You might find it interesting to compare this poem to Eliot's 'Journey of the Magi' (p. 14E)..:. publishing poetry only in the late 1980s, and was recognised late in his life as one of
147), a very different work on the same topic. South Africa's leading poetic voices. His poetry is marked by a compassionate and acute
1 What element do the poems share? Both contain notes of practical realism, even cynicism;
observation of the shabbier side of urban life.
can you identify these? Why do the respective speakers introduce these details?
2 What are the chief differences in tone between the two poems? It will help if you identify
who is speaking in each poem. Which is the more detached voice?
3 How does the poet's own voice emerge or operate in the Eliot poem? Judging from these
poems, what perspectives would you say their authors have on the religious events they
describe?
4 Towards the end of each poem, there is a shift in tone that results in a rather surprising
conclusion. What is the final message of each poem, and how do these conclusions
The Handshake
differ?
5 You might now like to read Opperman's South African treatment of this subject on p. 177
(For Nelson Mandela)
and apply the above questions to this far more context-specific and political poem.

The day before,

I saw the low sun fell
my shadow inwards from the door.
Longer than the floor,
head, shoulders, kinked
up onto the opposite wall,
it could have been yours,
you suddenly such
a very tall man,
10 and I knew
I dared not sing your praises though
I am a spinner of words that readily strings
baubles" of glass and sounding brass, trinkets, cheap decorations
and have a way
15 with the most of men.
So there were no pattings of drums,
clashings of calabash,'
rattlings of teeth or shells,
as you stood, garlanded, in the great hall.
20 But I thought you smiled a little
at the ordinariness of my poems:
or did you mock
the shaking of my hands?
I could not tell.

1 Container made from hollowed-out fruit or vegetable.

190 191

25 The light, bright like any other old man's, shared

as an interrogation's, beat the loneliness of the long road.
down from the far, I did not have to ask you why
imperial roof and I could have touched you sometimes walk
you, had I stretched 70 the silent places in the last of night,
30 an arm, but we were trapped, remembering your dear dead,
insectile, in the shared refurbishing your dream.
yet isolating amber' of the air, We could have been friends:
the white quiff of your hair but you have so many hands to shake,
stilled as a flame 75 how will you remember mine,
35 in a stopped cinema reel, holding to yours like a drowning man's?
lean, aware And though your feet stayed flesh,
guards about you, poised, you are the truer icon for that,
patient, stepped must fill so wide a space you would never hear
with you from a TV frame, 80 me bonga-ing" in my skins in the wind.
40 and I could not tell.
Kingliness clung
to you, less
Supporting notes ffI
in classic Roman folds" This poem describes a meeting with Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela. Born three years before
than a tribal blanket's fall: Afrika, Mandela became the leader of the African National Congress, which organised
45 yet you were no tribal man, and maintained opposition to apartheid for decades. Mandela was tried for 'treason' and
skin's almost olive stayed sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964. He was sent to the maximum-security prison for
midway, your wide, encompassing smile political offenders on Robben Island, where he continued to serve as a symbol of courage
neither chief's nor tsar's." and moral resistance. He was released early in 1990, and stepped back into his role as leader
Only your immobility, of the ANC. He was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 1993, and after South Africa's 1994
50 slow tongue, quiet tap elections, he became the country's first democratically elected President. He stepped down
of your papers on the podium, from the Presidency in 1999, but remains possibly South Africa's best-known and most loved
showed you knew public figure.
you were the icon,' must Although this speaker in this poem claims that his is not a formal praise poem * in
take us with you in a dream the traditional sense, this piece nevertheless acts both as a praise poem and a moving
55 less cliche than a hunger of the soul. remembrance of a moment of personal contact.
At the end, you turned,
took my hand,
tricked me into thinking we were alone,
thanked me with the grave
60 courtesy of the old.
But I hardly heard:
as old ears opened now
to only the language of the eyes.
A little shy,
65 yours met mine,

2 Gold-coloured fossilised plant sap; insects were sometimes trapped in it.

3 Reference to the togas (garments) worn by rulers of the Roman Empire.
4 Russian emperor.
5 Holy image or symbol. 6 Sound made by African drums.

. .v-"
192 193

Philip Larkin (1922-1985) Agostinho Neto (1922-1979)

Born in Britain and educated at Oxford University, Larkin spent most of his life as a An Angolan nationalist who fought for the liberation of his country, Neto was ~lso a
university librarian in the north of England, deliberately avoiding the literary scene of poet who was deeply concerned with the issues facing colonial and post-colonial Africa.
London. His writing is remarkable for its transformation of ordinary topics and practical During Portuguese rule over Angola, he was repeatedly imprisoned for revolutionary
language into thought-provoking poetry. A great fan of jazz music, he was a columnist activities. After independence in 1975, he held the position of President until his death.
on the subject for the newspaper The Daily Telegraph. He is regarded one of Angola's foremost literary figures.

Talking in Bed The Grieved Lands

Talking in bed ought to be easiest, The grieved lands of Africa

Lying together there goes back so far, in the tearful woes of ancient and modern slave
An emblem" of two people being honest. sign, symbol in the degrading sweat ofimpure dance
of other seas
Yet more and more time passes silently. grieved
Outside, the wind's incomplete unrest
Builds and disperses clouds about the sky, The grieved lands of Africa
in the infamous sensation of the stunning perfume of the
And dark towns heap up on the horizon. flower
None of this cares for us. Nothing shows why crushed in the forest
At this unique distance from isolation 10 by the wickedness of iron and fire
the grieved lands
10 It becomes still more difficult to find
Words at once true and kind, The grieved lands of Africa
Or not untrue and not unkind. in the dream soon undone in jinglings of gaolers' keys
and in the stifled laughter and victorious voice of laments
15 and in the unconscious brilliance of hidden sensations
of the grieved lands of Africa

Alive
in themselves and with us alive

They bubble up in dreams

20 decked with dances by baobabs 1 over balances
by the antelope 0 buck
in the perpetual alliance of everything that lives

They shout out the sound of life

shout it
25 even the corpses thrown up by the Atlantic
in putrid" offering of incoherence and death rotten
and in the dearness of rivers.

1 African trees bearing edible fruit.

194 195

They live
the grieved lands of Africa
Joseph Kumbirai (1922-1986)
30 in the harmonious sound of consciences
contained in the honest blood of men Kumbirai is considered one of the finest Shona-language poets Zimbabwe has produced.
in the strong desire of men Some of his works have been translated into English, by both himself and others. Born
in the sincerity of men on a mission station, he became a Catholic priest and teacher. He also lectured in African
languages at the University of Zimbabwe.
in the pure and simple rightness of the stars' existence

3S They live Dawn

the grieved lands of Africa
because we are living Translated from the Sbona by Douglas Livingstone
and are imperishable particles
Cock-crow and early-rise!
of the grieved lands of Africa.
Venus, the morning star, appears
a first light, growing.
The sky is a blood-orange;
the first zestful breeze delights the heart
but shrivels up the morning star.
The roosters'voices fade
while the light gets brighter;
the elephants of dawn have finished washing.
10 The first dew steams
along with smoking hearths;
birds awaken, chirruping.
Brilliantly, pristine,
the great sun appears
15 like a large and glittering forehead.
Children warm their backs,
shouting: The sun,
the sun is King!
Their little polished heads
20 shimmer and glitter
like leaves turning from the west.
As the sun sets, so we set;
as the sun rises, so we rise:
the sun, the sun is King!

Supporting notes ~.
This poem draws on the African tradition of praise poetry,* in which an important person
or phenomenon is described and celebrated in glowing and deliberately exaggerated terms.
Repetition and natural imagery are typically used. This poem may remind you of the traditional
Aboriginal chant found on p. 114, in which the new day is described in almost ritual terms.
196

(6) There is an echo yet

Denise Levertov (1923-1997) of their speech which was like a song.
It was reported their singing resembled
Levertov was born in Britain to a Russian-Jewish family. Her father converted to 30 the flight of moths in moonlight.
Christianity and became a priest, but remained determined to draw the two religions Who can say? It is silent now.
together. During the 1930s, the Levertov home was a refuge for Jews escaping from Nazi
Germany. Levertov was educated privately at home; during the Second World War she
worked as a nurse and afterwards married an American soldier, also a writer. She returned Supporting notes ~'
with him to the United States, and remained there, teaching at various universities and
This poem deals with the shattering effect of war on the Vietnamese people. During the
writing and editing poetry. She was a noted anti-war activist during the period of the
1960s and 70s, the USA sent conscripted troops to Vietnam to fight against guerrilla forces
American war in Vietnam. Her work is significant for its exploration of religious themes
that were striving to unite North and South Vietnam under socialist rule. This intervention in
and close observation of daily human events.
what amounted to a civil war was enormously costly (especially in terms of lives lost), caused
great suffering to the Vietnamese people, and was eventually ineffective. Many Americans
protested bitterly against their country's involvement in a foreign nation's struggle.

What Were They Like?

(1) Did the people of Viet Nam

use lanterns of stone?
(2) Did they hold ceremonies
to reverence the opening of buds?
(3) Were they inclined to quiet laughter?
(4) Did they use bone and ivory,
jade! and silver,for ornament?
(5) Had they an epic poem?
(6) Did they distinguish between speech and singing?

10 (1) Sir, their light hearts turned to stone.

It is not remembered whether in gardens
stone lanterns illumined pleasant ways.
(2) Perhaps they gathered once to delight in blossom,
but after the children were killed
15 there were no more buds.
(3) Sir, laughter is bitter to the burned mouth.
(4) A dream ago, perhaps. Ornament is for joy.
All the bones were charred.
(5) It is not remembered. Remember,
20 most were peasants; their life
was in rice and bamboo.
When peaceful clouds were reflected in the paddies
and the water buffalo stepped surely along terraces,
maybe fathers told their sons old tales.
25 When bombs smashed those mirrors
there was time only to scream.

1 Green sernl-predous stone, often used in Oriental carving and sculpture.

198

Antonio Jacinto (1924-1991)

35
I wanted to write you a letter
my love,
that you would not read without sighing
This Angolan poet and short-story writer, like Neto (p. 193), combined literary and
that you would hide from papa Bombo
cultural work with revolutionary activities against Portuguese colonial rule of his land.
that you would withhold from mama Kieza
He spent many years in prison, but when independence came in 1975, he was appointed
that you would reread without the coldness
Minister of Culture and Education.
4() of forgetting
a letter to which in all Kilombo
no other would stand comparison ...
Letter from a Contract Worker
I wanted to write you a letter
I wanted to write you a letter my love
my love, 45 a letter that would be brought to you by the passing wind
a letter that would tell a letter that the cashews and coffee trees
of this desire the hyenas and buffaloes
to see you the alligators and grayling
0
fish
of this fear could understand
of losing you 50 so that if the wind should lose it on the way
of this more than benevolence that I feel the beasts and plants
of this indefinable ill that pursues me with pity for our sharp suffering
10 of this yearning to which I live in total surrender ... from song to song
lament to lament
I wanted to write you a letter
55 gabble to gabble
my love,
would bring you pure and hot
a letter of intimate secrets,
the burning words
a letter of memories of you,
the sorrowful words of the letter
15 of you
0
I wanted to write to you my love ...
of your lips red as henna reddish dye
of your hair black as mud 60 I wanted to write you a letter ...
of your eyes sweet as honey
of your breasts hard as wild orange But oh my love, I cannot understand
20 of your lynx" gait wild cat why it is, why it is, why it is, my dear
and of your caresses that you cannot read
such that I can find no better here ... and 1- Oh the hopelessness! - cannot write!

I wanted to write you a letter

my love,
25 that would recall the days in our haunts
our nights lost in the long grass
that would recall the shade falling on us from the plum
trees
the moon filtering through the endless palm trees
30 that would recall the madness
of our passion
and the bitterness
of our separation ...
200 201
--.-._..

Maya Angelou (1928-)

25 Does my sexiness upset you?
Does it come as a surprise
That I dance like I've got diamonds
Angelou was born and brought up in the southern United States, and the flavour of her At the meeting of my thighs?
black working-class roots marks her writing. She was sexually abused as a child by a
family friend, an experience which left her mute (unable to speak) for years. A civil rights Out of the huts of history's shame
activist and one of the first black American writers to identify with feminist concerns, .10 I rise
she is best known for her autobiographical books. She read one of her poems at the Up from a past that's rooted in pain
inauguration of President Bill Clinton, and remains a popular speaker and teacher. I rise
I'm a black ocean, leaping and wide,
Welling and swelling I bear in the tide.

35 Leaving behind nights of terror and fear

I rise
Into a daybreak that's wondrously clear
I rise
Still I Rise Bringing the gifts that my ancestors gave,
40 I am the dream and the hope of the slave.
You may write me down in history I rise
With your bitter, twisted lies, I rise
You may trod me in the very dirt I rise.
But still, like dust, I'll rise.

Does my sassiness upset you?

0
cheeky wit
Why are you beset with gloom?
'Cause I walk like I've got oil wells
Pumping in my living room.

Just like moons and like suns,

to With the certainty of tides,
Just like hopes springing high,
Still I'll rise.

Did you want to see me broken?

Bowed head and lowered eyes?
15 Shoulders falling down like teardrops,
Weakened by my soulful cries.

Does my haughtiness offend you?

Don't you take it awful hard
'Cause I laugh like I've got gold mines
20 Diggin' in my own back yard.

You may shoot me with your words,

You may cut me with your eyes,
You may kill me with your hatefulness,
But still, like air, I'll rise.
 203

Helen Segal (1929-1988) Adrienne Rich (1929-2012)

Born and educated in Johannesburg, Segal worked as a typist and teacher. Her poetry is One of America's leading feminist poets and critics, Rich belonged to a generation that
characterised by short, irregular lines. first married and had children, then moved on to more politically radical and women-
centred lifestyles. While teaching at university, she became involved in protesting against
the American war in Vietnam. In the 1970s, she was awarded a major prize for literature,
The Sea is All Male which she personally rejected, but claimed on behalf of the black lesbian poet Audre
Lorde (see p. 218) and 'in the name of all women'. Her sometimes angry, sometimes
The sea is all male
tender poetry explored new ways of using language to tell women's stories.
that is why some women
walk in it
till they drown in ecstasy. 'I am m
. Danger - SI·f'-
No earthly man
could hold them
'Half-cracked" to Higginson, living, half-mad
handle
afterward famous in garbled versions,
rule them;
your hoard of dazzling scraps a battlefield,
the secret depths
now your old snood" hairnet
10 salt-song
reckless order of the sea mothballed at Harvard
tosses aside imagination and you in your variorum monument
because it is. equivocal° to the end - having double meaning
who are you?
They seek heroic consummation;
15 brains and bones Gardening the day-lily,
blood and brawn 10 wiping the wine-glass stems,
have baffled. your thought pulsed on behind
a forehead battered paper-thin,
On the floor of the sea
ploughing the heavy waters you, woman, masculine
20 they strain to the limit in single-mindedness,
beyond their limit 15 for whom the word was more
crash, are crushed, than a symptom -
jet to surface for a breath;
have found a land-locked lover a condition of being.
25 foaming blind words Till the air buzzing with spoiled language
in deafened ears; sang in your ears
whirled in cruel embrace 20 of Perjury" lies told under oath
that peaks their world-wise shell
breaking brittle bonds and in your half-cracked way you chose
30 they are. silence for entertainment,
chose to have it out at last
On the surface on your own premises .
. Spent and placid

weedy hair
combing waves
 ........

205
----,:.~

Supporting notes ;;))

Ted Hughes (1930-1998)
This poem refers to the nineteenth-century American poet Emily Dickinson. (For details of
Dickinson's life and a selection of her poems, see pp. 115-116.) Higginson (line 1) was a Much of Hughes's poetry reft.ected his encounters with nature while growing up in rural
friend with literary contacts to whom Dickinson wrote for advice on her poems. His response Yorkshire (in the north-east of England). He focuses not only on the beauty but on
was not encouraging, and she gave up trying to publish her work. Harvard University holds the violence of the natural world, a distinctive and sometimes brutal approach. While
much Dickinson memorabilia (lines 4-5); the 'variorum monument' (line 6) refers to the full studying at Cambridge, he met the gifted young poet Sylvia Plath (see p. 209). They
publication of Dickinson's poems (which finally took place during the 19505), together with married in 1956, and had two children, but the marriage was not a success. Also an
editorial comments. The last stanza refers to Dickinson's decision to withdraw from human author of children's books and plays, Hughes was appointed Poet Laureate in 1984, a
contact and society during the last years of her life. position he held until his death. He is considered one of the finest poets of his generation.
You might enjoy placing Rich's poem against those of Dickinson, to see how Rich borrows
from the earlier poet. What obvious feature of Rich's poem immediately suggests Dickinson's
poetry? How else does Rich suggest her debt to Dickinson? The Thought- Fox

I imagine this midnight moment's forest:

Something else is alive
Beside the clock's loneliness
And this blank page where my fingers move.

Through the window I see no star:

Something more near
Though deeper within darkness
Is entering the loneliness:

Cold, delicately as the dark snow,

10 A fox's nose touches twig, leaf;
Two eyes serve a movement, that now
And again now, and now, and now

Sets neat prints into the snow

Between trees, and warily a lame
15 Shadow lags by stump and in hollow
Of a body that is bold to come

Across clearings, an eye,

A widening deepening greenness,
Brilliantly, concentratedly,
20 Coming about its own business

Till, with sudden sharp hot stink of fox

It enters the dark hole of the head.
The window is starless still; the clock ticks,
The page is printed.
206 207
'\'Jr"
~,

Questions to consider I squirt commercial sure-fire

1. Identify the central metaphor" on which this poem is based, and trace its development. Down the black throat ~ it just coughs.
(The title will help you.) Why do you think the speaker chooses a fox returning to its lair It ridicules me - a trap of iron stupidity
to symbolise the dawning of an idea? 30 I've stepped into. I drive the battery
2. What does this metaphor suggest about the creative process, as viewed by this speaker? As if I were hammering and hammering
According to this poem, how does he experience composing or writing? The frozen arrangement to pieces with a hammer
3. Altho~gh the fox in this poem is a symbolic or metaphorical one, it is described in vividly And it jabbers laughing pain-crying mockingly
realistic terms. How does the close observation of the animal and its movements in Into happy life.
stanzas three to six correspond with the coming of inspiration? In the last stanza, what
role does the poet/speaker play? 35 And stands
Shuddering itself full of heat, seeming to enlarge slowly
Like a demon demonstrating
A more-than-usually-complete materialisation-
Suddenly it jerks from its solidarity
40 With the concrete, and lurches towards a stanchion'
Bursting with superhuman well-being and abandon
Tractor Shouting Where Where?

Worse iron is waiting. Power-lift kneels

The t~actor stands frozen - an agony
Levers awake imprisoned deadweight,
To think of All night
45 Shackle-pins bedded in cast-iron cow-shit.
Sno,; packed its open entrails. Now a head-pincering gale,
The blind and vibrating condemned obedience
A spill of molten ice, smoking snow,
Pours into its steel. Of iron to the cruelty of iron,
Wheels screeched out of their night-locks-
At white heat of numbness it stands
In th e ai.me d hoS.lOgof ground-level fieriness.
Fingers
50 Among the tormented
It defies flesh and won't start.
Tonnage and burning of iron
Ha~ds are like wounds already
10 Inside armour gloves, and feet are unbelievable Eyes
As if the toe-nails were all just torn off. Weeping in the wind of chloroform/
I stare at it in hatred. Beyond it
The copse hisses - capitulates miserably
0 clump 0/ trees And the tractor, streaming with sweat,
In t~e.fieeing, failing light. Starlings, ss Raging and trembling and rejoicing.
15 A dirtier sleetier snow, blow smokily, unendingly, over
Towards plantations Eastward.
All the time the tractor is sinkin 0-
Thro~gh the degrees, deepening I:>
Into Its hell of ice.

20 The starting lever

Cracks its action, like a snapping knuckle.
The battery is alive - but like a lamb
Trying to nudge its solid-frozen mother -
W?ile the seat claims my buttock-bones, bites ,
25 WIth the space-cold of earth, which it has joined
In one solid lump. 1 Post, device used to shut cattle up in stalls,
2 Strong-smelling anaesthetic gas.
 209

Essop Patel (1930-2007) Sylvia Plath (1932-1963)

Patel was a Johannesburg attorney who became a judge of the High Court. His first Plath was born in the north-eastern USA. Her father, a German immigrant and biology
volume of poetry established him as a compelling and committed political poet. Together professor, died after a long and traumatic illness when she was eight, an experience she
with Tim Couzens he edited The Return 0/ the Amasi Bird' Black South African Poetry, an constantly referred to in her later writing. She met the poet Ted Hughes (see p. 205)
anthology which first exposed to a wide audience the wealth of black poetry in South while on a scholarship to Cambridge, married him and had two children. However, their
Africa. He also edited the writings of the Drum-era journalist, Nat Nakasa, who killed marriage broke down. Plath had a history of clinical depression, and shortly after the
himself while in exile. publication of her first novel, she committed suicide. Although some of her poetry is
extremely gloomy, it is always strikingly original, and capable of great tenderness and
compassion.
In the Shadow of Signal Hill
in the howling wind You're
by the murky waters
of the sea Clownlike, happiest on your hands,
children of colour Feet to the stars, and moon-skulled,
gather shells Gilled like a fish. A common-sense
and hold them to their ears Thumbs-down on the dodo's! mode.
and listen to the lamentations of slaves Wrapped up in yourself like a spool,
in the dungeon of death Trawling your dark as owls do.
Mute as a turnip from the Fourth
in the howling wind ofJuly2 to All Fools'Day,J
10 by the murky waters o high-riser, my little loaf
of the sea
sons of langa 10 Vague as fog and looked for like mail.
gather at the ruins of district six Farther off than Australia.
and sharpen the spears of the night Bent-backed Atlas," our travelled prawn.
15 and the heroes from the island urge Snug as a bud and at home
go towards the fiery dawn ... Like a sprat" in a pickle jug. small fish
15 A creel" of eels, all ripples. fishing basket
Jumpy as a Mexican bean.
Supporting notes Right, like a well-done sum.
Signal Hill is a strikingly shaped hill or small peak overlooking the harbour of Cape Town. It A clean slate, with your own face on.
has been used as a lookout post since the early days of the Cape colony. From it, the viewer
can see Robben Island (during the apartheid years, a notorious prison for those convicted of
political crimes: see also the notes to Mphahlele's 'A Poem', p. 185); the bare scar where the
suburb of District Six stood before its occupants were evicted and its buildings demolished
under the Group Areas Act (apartheid legislation which restricted racial groups to certain
residential areas) - see also the notes to Opperman's 'A Christmas Carol' (p. 177-178); and
Langa, a black township on the fringes of Cape Town.

1 Flightless bird. now extinct.

2 Day of Independence in the USA.
3 April Fool's Day, 1 April.
4 Mythical figure who. according to legend, carried the world on his back.
210 211

Pheasant" Douglas Livingstone (1932-1996)

You said you would kill it this morning. Livingstone was born in Malaysia, and came to southern Africa as a boy, living in
Do not kill it. It startles me still, both Zambia and Zimbabwe before settling in South Africa. He trained as a marine
The jut of that odd, dark head, pacing bacteriologist, and was in charge of research into sea pollution at the Centre for Scientific
and Industrial Research in Durban until his death. His award-winning poetry vividly
Through the uncut grass on the elm's hill. describes the characters, environment, and wildlife of southern Africa, and is often witty
It is something to own a pheasant, and satirical.' He was also a critic and the author of several radio plays.
Or just to be visited at all.

I am not mystical: it isn't

The Sleep of Lions
As if! thought it had a spirit.
It is simply in its element.
0, Mare Atlanticum,
10 That gives it a kingliness, a right. Mare Arabicum et Indicum,
The print of its big foot last winter Oceanus Orientalis,
The tail-track, on the snow in our court - Oceanus Aethiopicus
save me
The wonder of it, in that pallor from civilization
Through crosshatch of sparrow and starling. my pastory
15 Is it its rareness, then? It is rare. from further violation.

But a dozen would be worth having, Leave me my magics

A hundred, on that hill- green and red, 10 and tribes;
Crossing and recrossing: a fine thing! to the quagga, dodo,
the sleep of my lions.
It is such a good shape, so vivid.
20 It's a little cornucopia." Rust me barbed fences.
It unclaps, brown as a leaf, and loud, Patrol what remains.
15 Accept bricks, hunting rifles
Settles in the elm, and is easy. and realists, telephones
It was sunning in the narcissi." and diesels
I trespass stupidly. Let be, let be. to your antiseptic main.
0

sea

Grant me a day of
20 moon-rites and rain-dances;
when rhinoceros
root in trained hibiscus borders;
when hippo flatten, with a smile,
deck-chairs at the beach resorts.

25 Accord me a time
of stick-insect gods, and impala
no longer crushed by concrete;
when love poems like this
can again be written in beads.
5 Large bird (about the size of a guinea fowl) with green and red feathers; often hunted and eaten.
6 Horn filled with natural produce; a symbol of abundance.
7 White spring flowers.
212

Questions to consider
If you wo~k together with your classmates, you should be able to piece togeth~r
ipho Sepamla (1932-2007)
contextual information needed to appreciate this poem,
in the Transvaal, Sepamla trained as a teacher and worked in .. .
1. Who is speaking in this poem, and to whom? How do we know this? The first officer.He encouraged and trained black writers throughout his life, and served
are written in Latin, and the word 'Mare' means 'Sea', Can you now work out the director of the Federated Union of Black Arts (FUBA). Together with Serote
other Latin words mean? Why do you think this ancient language is being used . 239) and Mtshali (p. 229), he was one of the giants of the black poetry movement
2. What do you think the word 'pastory' (line 7) means? (The poet has made it up - ..
the 1970s, sometimes called 'the new black poetry' or 'Soweto poetry'. This described
no t f nd itI iIn a diictionary.) you
lives of black South Africans with uncompromising realism, and was deeply critical
3. The quagga (a partly striped zebra) and the dodo (a large flightless bird) are both exti apartheid. Sepamla's poetry is notable for the way it blends English with township
Why do you think they are mentioned here?
dialects and vernacular languages.
4. The 'stick-insect' god of line 26 refers to the original Khoisan belief that the pr .
ti .,. ayl
man IS was sacred. Why IS this particular tradition invoked?
5, Rhi~oceros, hippo and impala are all wild animals indigenous to Africa. Hibiscus is
~ulbvated and imported flowering shrub. What does this information add to
The Loneliness Beyond
Interpretation of the last two stanzas?
Like raindrops pattering
They come singly and in pairs
Then as a torrent the rush of feet
Shuffles onto platforms
5 Dragging the last strains of energy.

I've seen hearts palpitating

Behind a single maskless face
Tired from the hurrying of the city
Spirits maimed by commands.

10 I've heard the clicks of tongues grumbling

Laughter rising above the grouse" of mouths
That never rest
From grinding complaints.
enclosure
Like sheep herded into a kraal"
is They crowd numbered coaches
Hopeful of a safe landing.

I've watched the multitudes rub shoulders

And I've wondered what they do
With the loneliness beyond;

20 I've seen throngs of people

Disappear into little holes of resting
And I've pondered what might be happening
With the loneliness beyond.
 215

Michael Gilkes (1933-)

Supporting notes JI. 00

~
:>i
...1
This deceptively simple poem makes use of intertextuality* to make a number of interesting ~
Gilkes was born in Guyana in the West Indies. He studied in Britain, and is much points about colonialism, gender, and more specifically, the cliches used to market the o
...1
in demand in the United States as a gifted teacher of creative writing and Caribbean Caribbean as a tourist' paradise'. It draws on a number of 'classic' Western texts, including ~
..:
literature. However, he also has a base in St Lucia, where he is active in educational Shakespeare's The Tempest (there is also possibly a masked reference to his sonnet 'My :r:
()

reform. He is also one of the most prominent figures in Caribbean film and theatre, and Mistress' Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun') and Gerard Manley Hopkin's 'No Worst, There ~
has written several award-winning plays. is None' (see pp. 53 and 121). Post-colonial" writings often draw on Western culture for ~
purposes of reinvention, questioning, and sometimes mockery. Why do you think these
particular cross-references are used here?
From Prospero's Island

Miranda

There on the beach

all copper and corns ilk hair,
the eyes a blur of blue
she might have been the girl
5 on the brochure
of this green, paradisal island.
But mind, her mind has mountains
where deep forests grow,
0
liana hung:- rope-like creeper
10 another Eden where, as yet,
no bird has sung.

I t calls to her in dreams

She cannot go there yet.
There's too much needing
15 to be done
there, on the beach.
Each day, sand to be swept,
firewood to fetch:
The island's not the paradise
20 it seems.

Lately,
there have been storms
and hammering seas,
and she must run
25 to comfort Caliban'
when he screams.

In Shakespeare's The Tempest, a sub-human monster who was lord of the island until Miranda and her father
took over. In post-colonial criticism, often identified as a symbol of the demonised indigenous inhabitants of a
colonised territory.
 217

Ingrid Jonker (1933-1965)

Supporting notes J)
This poem was written in response to the notorious killings at Sharpeville in 1960. Police
opened fire on an unarmed crowd of blacks who were protesting against the degrading
One of South Mrica's leading young Afrikaans poets, Jonker was born in the Cape
pass laws that restricted their movements and freedom. Riots and further deaths followed
spent her short life in Cape Town. She was outspoken in her condemnation of "n<lrr ....
A.

throughout the country, including the various townships and places listed in this poem.
and her writing was also unusual in its intimate portrayal of often painful ~H1VUUI"
Former President Nelson Mandela chose this poem to introduce his first parliamentary
Deeply disheartened by her private and political circumstances, she committed
address after the first non-racial and democratic elections in South Africa in 1994.
by walking into the sea and drowning. Local scholars and poets continue to translate
be inspired by her poems.

The Child Who Was Shot Dead by Soldiers at Nyanga

The child is not dead

the child lifts his fists against his mother
who shouts Mrika! shouts the breath
of freedom and the veld"
in the locations of the cordoned" heart

The child lifts his fists against his father

in the march of the generations
who shout Mrika! shout the breath
of righteousness and blood
10 in the streets of his embattled pride

The child is not dead

not at Langa nor at Nyanga
not at Orlando nor at Sharpeville
nor at the police station at Philippi
15 where he lies with a bullet through his brain.

The child is the dark shadow of the soldiers

on guard with rifles saracens' and batons
the child is present at all assemblies and law-givings
the child peers though the windows of houses and into the hearts of mothers
20 this child who just wanted to play in the sun at Nyanga is everywhere
the child grown to a man treks through all Africa
the child grown into a giant journeys through the whole world

Without a pass

1 Name given to armoured cars.

218

Audre Lorde (1934-1993) Kofi Awoonor (1935-)

Lorde was an outspoken black American poet who fearlessly used her writing to proclaim Awoonor was educated in his home country (Ghana), London, and the United States. He
her identity as a feminist and a lesbian. She was active in the black power movements of was imprisoned during the 1970s, an experience that turned him into a political activist.
the late 1960s, and taught at various universities in the United States. In the last years of Considered Ghana's leading poet, he has held a number of prestigious academic and
her life she retired to the Caribbean, where she died after a long and courageous battle diplomatic posts (including that of ambassador to the United Nations), and has edited
against cancer. various literary journals. His works include plays, critical works, a history of Ghana, and
two novels. His poetry draws from African oral traditions.

Coal
The Weaver Bird
I
is the total black, being spoken The weaver bird built in our house
from the earth's inside. And laid its eggs on our only tree
There are many kinds of open We did not want to send it away
5 how a diamond comes into a knot of flame We watched the building of the nest
how sound comes into a word, coloured And supervised the egg-laying.
by who pays what for speaking. And the weaver returned in the guise of the owner
Preaching salvation to us that owned the house
Some words are open like a diamond They say it came from the west
on glass windows Where the storms at sea had felled the gulls
10 singing out within the passing crash of sun 10 And the fishers dried their nets by lantern light
Then there are words like stapled wagers Its sermon is the divination of ourselves
in a perforated book - buy and sign and tear apart- And our new horizons limit at its nest
and come whatever wills all chances But we cannot join the prayers and answers of the communicants. t
the stub remains We look for new homes every day,
15 an ill-pulled tooth with a ragged edge. 15 For new altars we strive to rebuild
Some words live in my throat The old shrines defiled by the weaver's excrement.
breeding like adders. Others know sun
seeking like gypsies over my tongue
to explode through my lips Supporting notes J)
20 like young sparrows bursting from shell. This poem is a metaphorical lament on the impact of Western missionaries on African
Some words traditional culture. As such, it is an example of the growing body of pest-colonial" writing
bedevil me. that reflects or analyses the impact of colonialism and empire-building by mostly European
countries on what we would now call developing countries. A number of the poems in
Love is a word, another kind of open.
this anthology deal explicitly or implicitly with these issues; see Neto's 'The Grieved Lands'
As the diamond comes into a knot of flame
(p, 193), Livingstone's 'The Sleep of Lions' (p. 211) and Gilkes's 'Miranda' (p. 214). Can you
25 I am Black because I come from the earth's inside
find any others?
now take my word for jewel in the open light.

1 Those who participate in the Christian ritual of holy communion.

220 221

Don Mattera (1935-) Keorapetse William Kgositsile (1938-)

Mattera grew up in Sophiatown, and now lives in Johannesburg. His colourful past has Poet, academic, and political activist, Kgositsile was born in johannesburg, where he
included spells as a footballer and gang leader. He founded a union for black journalists, currently lives. In 1961, by which time he was a vocal member of the soon-to-be-banned
and was banned for his part in the Black Consciousness movement of the 19708. (Serote's African National Congress, he left South Africa. He spent the next twenty-nine years in
poem 'For Don M. - Banned' was written for Mattera during this period; see p. 239.) exile in the United States and Tanzania, where he taught literature and creative writing.
Mattera is best known for his poetry, but has also written short stories, plays, and an He was one of the first poets to bridge and blend African and Mrican-American poetic
autobiography. He has received both literary and human rights awards, and has been and rhetorical traditions; his close study of black American poetry led to a passion for
awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of KwaZulu-Natal. jazz, which is interwoven into the subject and rhythms of his writing. The recipient of
many awards, he was made South Africa's National Poet Laureate in 2006.

Remember

Remember to call at my grave Montage: Bouctou' Lives

When freedom finally
Walks the land Even nature at her best
So that I may rise In singing her mesmerising beauty
To tread familiar paths With the permanent rainbow
To see broken chains That is the wonder of Mosioatunya'
Fallen prejudice 5 Says nothing of the woman of Mali
Forgotten injury
My Mali sisters are a rainbow
Pardoned pains.
Even the deaf and dumb
10 And when my eyes have filled their sight Would aspire to sing
Do not run away for fright
Here Keats would have found voice
If I crumble to dust again
10 And song instead of the finality
It will only be the bliss Of deadness
Of a long-awaited dream He dubs beauty and love
15 That bids me rest Though we do not see human gesture
When freedom finally walks the land ... Nor life in his Grecian urn

is My sisters of Mali could

Supporting notes J; Teach any rainbow
This poem was written during the years of apartheid, and the speaker envisages freedom in The impartial beauty
Of nature through a rainbow
South Africaonly in the distant future, long after his death. Although Mattera's prophecy
Of centuries of memory and mutations
of freedom was fulfilledin his own lifetime,he dedicates this poem to the many who died
before it came. 20 Look at the flow of that ebony elegance
Walking that walk
Striding through your heart
Turning Bamako3 into a dream

Reference to T1mbuktu (spelled T1mbouctou in French), the ancient trading city in the heart of Mali.
2 Mosioatunya or 'the smoke that thunders', also known as Victoria Falls, is the spectacular waterfall on the
Zambezi River bordering Zambia and Zimbabwe. Rainbows appear constantly in the mist thrown up by the
falling water.
3 The capital city of Mali.
 22

And that blue-eyed ivory contrast over there Look up this poem on the Internet or in a library. Is KgositsHe perhaps
25 That strut is a vector on the graph Western notions of art and beauty? Also look at the way race and beauty are nn>':cio'<I'''A in

Linking Africa to where this poem. Is there anything that reminds of you Shakespeare's 'My Mistress' Eyes Are
And all of that all in Nothing Like the Sun' (p. 53)? . .
Between bespeaks where 4. The poem follows a straightforward layout except for the fourth stanza. Why do you
think the shape of the lines on the page change here?
Which woman have you not met here
30 In Mali I have seen my mother
My daughter I have seen
My grandmother and her very own too
My wife friends comrades
All the women I love and hurt
35 All the women without whom
I am not even here
All the women without whom
Neither you nor I
Could claim an identity
40 Which all that lives has

I wish I had enough

Art of eloquence and grace to sing
The woman of Mali

Supporting notes 11/

'Bra Willie', as Kgosltsile is affectionately known, borrows from and pays tribute to artists
who have Inspired him. These include great jazz musicians such as John Coltrane and poets
(both American and South African) such as Gwendolyn Brooks (p, 181) and Wally Mongane
Serote (p. 239). The title of one of his best-known poetry collections, a compilation taken
from his previous works, This Way I Salute You, is an obvious tip of the hat to the first line of
Serote's great poem 'City Johannesburg' (on p. 240-241). While drawing from the jazz and
poetic traditions he came to love while in exile in the United States, Kgosltsile also borrows
and reinterprets the African tradition of the praise poem" in his writing. The poem above is
an obvious example.

Questions to consider
1. How do we know this Is a praise poem? What aspects of the traditional praise poem does
the poet use? (Note how the poem moves from praising a specific set of women to more
general praise, for Instance, as well as the way family relationships are invoked. Also look
at the last stanza or verse - what does the speaker reveal about himself?)
2. This poem is very interesting in terms of the gender attitudes It reveals. Do you agree with
the speaker's attitudes to women? Do you think he is being sentimental? Or is he being
honest?
3. We already know that Kgosltsile draws on different poetic and artistic traditions in his
work, to debate them or honour them. Why do you think the speaker here refers to
Keats's famous poem 'Ode to a Grecian Urn'? (There are poems by Keats on pp. 94-96.)
 225

Masts I
Geoffrey Haresnape (1939-) (red hard-
yell- ly
Born in Natal, Haresnape spent most of his career in the English Department at the dare
ow
University of Cape Town. His critical works include a collection of pioneering writings blue) to
and a study of the novels of the South African writer Pauline Smith. He has always are breathe
maintained a keen interest in South African poetry, and took over from Jack Cope as pick- when
the editor of the literary magazine Contrast. He has published several prize-winning up lift-
collections of poems and a novel. stick ing
criss- each
In and Around the Yacht Basin - Simon's Town' crossed
or press-
Beyond slant -ion:
the rigging2 tangle ed one
are
when slip
rootstalks the would
rhizomes"
o- jar
of Club Mykonos'
cean the
apartments
breathes whole.
Cape
Dutch4 gable
fungi A brash South Easter"
barges in
floral
upon the game,
filigrees?
displacing
of English iron.
all.
The
scrubby hills Questions to consider
protest 1, This poem is a delightful experiment in form and shape. Why has the writer laid out the
words on the page this way? How do the differing patterns contribute to meaning?
that Europe's garden 2. Read the second section carefully; you will need to do some reorganising to make sense
wasn't always out of the word order. Why does the poet arrange the words like this? Can you visualise
planted here. a 'picture' of the scene? Do you know of any other poems that present a visual image?
(You might like to use a library or the Internet to track down George Herbert's poem
*** 'Easter Wings'.)
3. In much of the poem, the writer seems to play with words and patterns simply to create
old cling strings giant
different moods and pictures; yet there does seem to be a more serious point. Can you
tyres like of identify this?
necklacing
mussels the pier.

***

1 Naval base and residential area on the Cape Peninsula.

2 Ropes that support masts.
3 Luxury resort with pseudo- Mediterranean architecture.
4 Eighteenth-century Cape farm architecture, famous for its beauty.
6 Strong wind which blows during summer in the Cape.
5 Ornamental patterning in wire and metal.
 227
---'~.: -'

Seamus Heaney (1939-) Margaret Atwood (1939-)

Born into a Catholic family in rural Northern Ireland, Heaney studied and later lectured Atwood is a Canadian novelist, poet and essayist, as well as a feminist and activist who
at Queens University in Belfast. He is almost certainly Ireland's greatest living poet, . supports the Green Party of Canada. She is best known for her challenging novels, which
as well as a playwright and translator. His work is deeply rooted in the history of his include works that she calls 'social science fiction', and has won both the Booker Prize
country, including the tragic violence of modern-day Northern Ireland. He has held and the Arthur C. Clarke Award. She has also published fifteen collections of poetry,
professorships in Poetry at Oxford and Harvard. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for many reinterpreting myths and fairytales.
Literature in 1995, partly in recognition for the compassion with which he regards his
divided and troubled country. He now lives in Dublin.
Nothing

Follower Nothing like love to put blood

back in the language,
My father worked with a horse-plough, the difference between the beach and its
His shoulders globed like a full sail strung discrete" rocks & shards, a hard separate
Between the shafts and the furrow. cuneiform,' and the tender cursive'
The horses strained at his clicking tongue. of waves; bone & liquid fishegg, desert
& saltmarsh, a green push
An expert. He would set the wing out of death. The vowels plump
And fit the bright steel-pointed sock. again like lips or soaked fingers, and the fingers
The sad rolled over without breaking. 10 themselves move around these
At the headrig] with a single pluck harness softening pebbles as around skin. The sky's
not vacant and over there but close
Of reins, the sweating team turned round
against your eyes, molten, so near
10 And back into the land. His eye
you can taste it. It tastes of
Narrowed and angled at the ground,
15 salt. What touches
Mapping the furrow exactly.
you is what you touch.
I stumbled in his hob-nailed! wake,
Fell sometimes on the polished sad;
15 Sometimes he rode me on his back
Dipping and rising to his plod.

I wanted to grow up and plough,

To close one eye, stiffen my arm.
All I ever did was follow
20 In his broad shadow round the farm.

I was a nuisance, tripping, falling,

Yapping always. But today
It is my father who keeps stumbling
Behind me, and will not go away.

1 Early form of writing developed in the Middle East, consisting of marks made on clay tablets or stone.
1 Reference to 'hob-nailed' boots (boots with metal studs in the sole). 2 Joined-up writing or script. in which the letters are connected.
 ··~
229
--_ ..•.-

Wopko Jensma (1939-7) Mbuyiseni Oswald Mtshali (1940-)

Raised in South Africa, Jensma was of Dutch descent. At the height of the apartheid Mtshali was born in the Free State but moved to Johannesburg, where the publication of
regime, he insisted on being reclassified as black (at the time, every citizen was obliged to his first volume of poetry, Sounds if a Cowhide Drum, was hugely successful. Probably the
be racially identified and 'classified'). An artist as well as a poet, his collections of poetry first collection of poems to describe daily life in black townships under apartheid, it sold
feature his own woodcuts. His unorthodox and angry poetry, distinctive for its lack of more copies than any other book of poetry in South Africa at the time. It has recently
punctuation, has always been identified with black protest poetry, and his second volume been reissued with a Zulu translation. Mtshali, who studied in the United States and
of poems was banned. Repeatedly admitted to psychiatric hospitals for what appeared to taught in Soweto, was one of the first exponents of the 'new black poetry' of the Black
be schizophrenia, he disappeared in 1993. Consciousness movement of the 19705. His work was banned for several years.

From Not Him Men in Chains

he forbids us to dance 'The train stopped

he always leads the church service at a country station.
he has a stable job
'Through sleep curtained eyes
he is always on time for work
I peered through the frosty window,
5 he never gets drunk and saw six men:
he has respect for most people men shorn
everybody respects him of all human honour
we love our daddy like sheep after shearing,
but sometimes I notice
bleating at the blistering wind,
10 when a kwela' blasts from the radio
10 'Go away! Cold wind! Go away!
he wiggles his toes
Can't you see we are naked?'

'They hobbled into the train

on bare feet,
wrists handcuffed,
15 ankles manacled' chained
with steel rings like cattle at the abbatoirs
shying away from the trapdoor.

One man with a head

shaven clean as a potato
20 whispered to the rising sun,
a red eye wiped by a tattered
handkerchief of clouds,
'Oh! Dear Sun!
Wadt you warm my heart
25 with hope?'
'The train went on its way to nowhere.

1 Lively form of township music, featu ring the penny-whistle; made internationally famous through Mango
Groove's song 'Special Star'.
 _

Questions to consider
1. A close examination of this poem will be useful in identifying different kinds of imagery.
Arthur Nortje (1942-1970)
Remember that similes" are usually indicated by the use of the words 'as' and 'like',
Nortje studied at the University of the Western Cape, and worked as a teacher before
whereas metaphors" are more directly stated. What similes and metaphors can you
winning a scholarship to Oxford University. He then taught in Canada before returning
identify here?
to Oxford. It would seem from his poetry, which reflects an extreme sense of personal
2. We find two central similes that are used to describe the men in chains. What do they
and cultural dislocation, that he regarded his time overseas as a period of exile. He died
have in common? Why does the speaker use this kind of imagery? Is his intention to
tragically young as a result of a drug overdose.
patronise or degrade the prisoners, or is he using these images for a different reason?
What is the accumulative impact?
3. How does the speaker describe the sun in the third stanza? (Think of the qualities we
normally associate with the sun; does the imagery here seem surprising?) How does this
In Exile
add to the overall tone of the poem?
Open skies flare wide enough
4. What effect does the last line have?
to make me vaguely anxious.
Nimbus" wisps storm-cloud
trace patterns of the past.

Wind sweeps between the towers

through tunnels, old and new.
My heart is
hollowed with the boots passing through.

Garments gather and play about

10 my limbs: they tremble to a return
gust. Leaves and transient" passing
streetscape conjure up that southern

blue sky and wind-beautiful

day, creating paradise.
15 Otherwise:
the soul decays in exile.

But wrong pigment has no scope,

so clot the blue channel of memory.
On a sand slope
20 I build a picture of the sea.

The grains that slide away

are wind-breathed, are stirred by finger.
Benign, a cloud
obscures the sun, this hunger.

Questions to consider
You might find it interesting to compare and contrast this poem with Stephen Watson's
poem of the same title on p. 261-263. What features do they have in common, and what
differences can you find?
 """""""""" .. """" .. ,,, " "w."", ·_·

232 233

Eva Bezwoda (1942-1976) Jeni Couzyn (1942-)

Bezwoda grew up in South Africa and studied at Natal University. Together with Couzyn was born in Johannesburg and has lived in London since the mld-1960s. She
poet Lionel Abrahams and her husband Robert Royston, she began a publishing . was a founder member of the Poet's Conference and the Poet's Union, and has taught at
with the aim of introducing the works of black poets to the public. Bezwoda was the University of Victoria in Canada. Her poetry includes chants and spells for women.
psychologist, and her poetry reflects her concern for inner suffering. She died in
LAJHU'JU;

probably as a result of suicide, after a long period of depressive illness.

The Red Hen's Last Will and Testament to The Last Cock on Earth

A Woman's Hands Mr Cockatoo I'm through.

You
A woman's hands always hold something: can take your splendid
A handbag, a vase, a child, a ring, an idea. reasoning and quick
My hands are tired of holding 5 precision and elegant
They simply want to fold themselves. vision somewhere
On a crowded bus, I watched a nun's empty hands else.
Till I reminded myself that she clutched God. You can take your
My hands are tired of holding. fine red comb and fast
I'd gladly let them go, and watch a pair of hands 10 feathered sex and high
Run ownerless through the world, concepts somewhere
10 Scattering cooking pots and flowers and rings. else.
Your race can take its
good influence and careful
15 words and strong wings and
bright eyes some other
place.
You may be the
last manifestation but
20 you're not worth it.
Now
that there's artificial
insemination' since the
evolution of the cock

2S as a different species
you may as well wither
too.
Hens need something
else. You make us feel
30 abandoned. You make us
feel like a place cocks
Pop into. We stay in the
place alone.

1 Impregnation by medical means.

234

z
><
N
35
We await your visitation.
You pop in and pop out.
Michael Ondaatje (1943-)
;:J
0 When we wake up in the
U Ondaatje was born in Sri Lanka and now lives in Canada. An PY1·rPTTlP'h, a,ccoiml)m:hi~d
Z
.... morning it is poet and novelist, he has also written a moving memoir of his childhood in
silent. Running in the Family. He became widely known when his novel The English Patient first
,.I_>l,
All the hens in the won the prestigious Booker Prize, and was then made into a major film, which won nine
40 farmyard feel exactly as Oscars, including one for Best Film.
I do about you. We have
decided to quit.
You all The Cinnamon Peeler
can take off on your
,15 massive Coxes High Powered
If I were a cinnamon peeler
Jet Propelled
I would ride your bed
wings.
and leave the yellow bark dust
We hens will stay here
on your pillow.
laying our eggs in the
50 warm straw, dreaming of Your breasts and shoulders would reek
foxes. you could never walk through markets
without the profession of my fingers
floating over you. The blind would
stumble certain of whom they approached
10 though you might bathe
under rain gutters, monsoon.

Here on the upper thigh

at this smooth pasture
neighbour to your hair
15 or the crease
that cuts your back. This ankle.
You will be known among strangers
as the cinnamon peeler's wife.

I could hardly glance at you

20 before marriage
never touch you
- your keen nosed mother, your rough brothers.
I buried my hands
in saffron,' disguised them
2S over smoking tar,
helped the honey gatherers ...

1 A spice with a subtle flavour and scent, also used as a dye,

236 237

When we swam once

I touched you in water
Sindiwe Magona (1943-)
and our bodies remained free,
30 you could hold me and be blind of smell. Magona was born in a rural Eastern Cape village. She has written plays, children's books
and novels, and is best known for her memoirs describing her life during and after
You climbed the bank and said
apartheid - from teacher to abandoned mother and domestic worker, to employee of
this is how you touch other women the United Nations in New York, to AIDS activist back in South Africa. She has been
the grass cutter's wife, the lime burner's daughter. awarded many honours, both at home and abroad, for her work promoting islXhosa,
And you searched your arms literacy and women's rights, and continues to work as a powerful motivational speaker
35 for the missing perfume and activist.
and knew

what good is it
to be the lime burner's daughter
left with no trace
40 as if not spoken to in the act of love
as if wounded without the pleasure of a scar. Poem to a Brother
You touched Language fails me
your belly to my hands In our mother tongue, I'd ask
in the dry air and said Ngowesingaphi ke lo?
45 I am the cinnamon Die hoeveelste een is die?' I'd ask
peeler's wife. Smell me. in Mrikaans.
But in English
Supporting notes ~ .. I'm plain tongue-tied
Trying to fashion a simple
Cinnamon is a very fragrant spice, with a distinctive sweet smell. It is used in baking and Question that would elicit
some Asian cooking. It grows and is harvested in tropical countries such as Sri Lanka. 10 The numeral, the number and order,
Telling me of your profane fecundity" fertility

But, ma'an, I can't be

Bothered any more
Don't tell me, do not introduce me
15 To one more brat that has
Sprung from your unbridled loins.

I wince each time you

Open your buck-toothed mouth
Announce: Sisi, this is
20 My daughter/son! Beats me
How you keep track of
All these children's names when
You hardly see them
Never feed them
25 Seldom soothe their cares away.

1 These two lines, in Xhosa and Afrikaans, translate roughly as 'how many does this one make?'
238 239

Father, you call yourself!

Reckless sperm -spewer, I believe Wally Mongane Serote (1944-)
A more apt epithet" name
For such brainless breeders; Serote was born in Sophia town, and went to school in the townships of Alexandra and
30 Men who spit seed with the Soweto. His political activism led to a period of detention (imprisonment without trial),
Reckless abandon of dogs and after studying art at Columbia University in the United States, he lived in exile in
A
Pissing against unnamed street Botswana. His return to his homeland as the apartheid regime began to unravel marked
.....
if!
Poles or on random tufts of grass the beginning of a period in which a number of exiled South African artists and musicians
Out on the unfeeling, unthinking veldt" graJs/andJ carne home. He served as a Member of Parliament after the 1994 elections, and chaired
the parliamentary committee for Arts and Culture. He is now in charge of Freedom Park,
a national heritage site in the city of Pretoria. A novelist as well as a poet, he has won
a number of noteworthy awards, and remains one of the most significant poets to have
emerged from the politically radical 'new black poetry' movement of the 1970s.

Alexandra!

Were it possible to say,

Mother, I have seen more beautiful mothers,
A most loving mother,
And tell her there I will go,
Alexandra, I would have long gone from you.

But we have only one mother, none can replace,

Just as we have no choice to be born,
We can't choose mothers;
We fall out of them like we fall out oflife to death.

10 And Alexandra,
My beginning was knotted to you,
Just like you knot my destiny.
You throb in my inside silences
You are silent in my heart-beat that's loud to me.
15 Alexandra often I've cried.
When I was thirsty my tongue tasted dust,
Dust burdening your nipples.
I cry Alexandra when I am thirsty.
Your breasts ooze the dirty waters of your dongas,2
20 Waters diluted with the blood of my brothers, your children,
Who once chose dongas for death-beds.
Do you love me Alexandra, or what are you doing to me?

1 Black township outside Johannesburg.

2 Ravines caused by soil erosion; associated with drought and overcrowding.
240 241

You frighten me, Mama, Jo'burg City

You wear expressions like you would be nasty to me, I travel on your black a~d white and robotted roads
25 You frighten me, Mama, 20 Through your thick iron breath that you inhale
When I lie on your breast to rest, something tells me, At six in the morning and exhale from five noon.
You are bloody cruel. Jo'burg City
Alexandra, hell That is the time when I come to you,
What have you done to me? When your neon" flowers flaunt from your electrical wind,
30 I have seen people but I feel like I'm not one, 25 That is the time when I leave you,
Alexandra what are you doing to me? When your neon flowers flaunt their way through the falling darkness
I feel I have sunk to such meekness] On your cement trees.
I lie flat while others walk on me to far places. And as I go back, to my love,
I have gone from you, many times, My dongas, my dust, my people, my death,
35 I come back. 30 Where death lurks in the dark like a blade in the flesh,
Alexandra, I love you; I can feel your roots, anchoring your might, my feebleness
I know In my flesh, in my mind, in my blood,
When all these worlds became funny to me, And everything about you says it,
I silently waded back to you That, that is all you need of me.
40 And amid the rubble I lay, 35 Jo'burg City, Johannesburg,
Simple and black. Listen when I tell you,
There is no fun, nothing, in it.
When you leave the women and men with such frozen expressions,
Expressions that have tears like furrows of soil erosion,
40 Jo'burg City, you are dry like death,
Jo'burg City, Johannesburg, Jo'burg City.
City johannesburg"
Questions to consider
This way I salute you: The above two poems by Serote have already been compared with Blake's 'London'. You
My hand pulses to my back trousers pocket might like to turn to p. 80, and work through the questions set out there.
Or into my inner jacket pocket
For my pass, my life,
5 Jo'burg City.
My hand like a starved snake tears my pockets
For my thin, ever lean wallet,
While my stomach groans a friendly smile to hunger, For Don M. - Banned
Jo'burg City.
10 My stomach also devours coppers and papers it is a dry white season
Don't you know? dark leaves don't last, their brief lives dry out
Jo'burg City, I salute you; and with a broken heart they dive down gently headed for the earth,
When I run out, or roar in a bus to you, not even bleeding.
I leave behind me, my love, it is a dry white season brother,
15 My comic houses and people, my dongas4 and my ever whirling dust, only the trees know the pain as they still stand erect
My death, dry like steel, their branches dry like wire,
That's so related to me as a wink to the eye. indeed, it is a dry white season
but seasons come to pass.
3 City at the heart of the urban sprawl centred on the mining industries in and around Gauteng. Historically, it has
relied on black labour while remaining a white residential area.
5 Luminous gas used in lighting and coloured signs.
4 See footnote 2. previous page.
242

Supporting notes J) alau Tawali (1947-2006)

Under the apartheid government, a banning order meant exile to a remote
restrictions on movement, no contact with colleagues or fellow activists, and , born on a tiny Pacific island off the coast of Papua New Guinea, and graduated
any speeches, publication, or political activity. Serote wrote this brief but .: University of Papua New Guinea. A poet, dramatist and short-story writer,
Don Mattera, a friend and fellow poet who was banned during the 19705. the National Literature Competition in his twenties, and his works have been
further information on Mattera, and a sample of his poetry.) published in Pacific and Australian journals. In the 1970s, he .worked for the
for Moral Rearmament in Europe. In later years, he worked actively as a pastor.
Questions to consider
1. This short poem is deceptively simple. Much of the language and imagery on
two different levels. Work through the poem identifying these 'double' images.
Old Woman's Message
Do you agree that the poem is a mini-allegory"? If so, what 'lesson .:'
teach? . ••S..t.i.ck these words in your hair
.•And take them to Polin and Manuai
2. What tone or mood is conveyed by this poem? Look closely at how this is
suggested. . my sons:
3. The first line is repeated three times in the poem, and slightly altered each time ....
the ripe fruit falls and returns
effect do these small changes have on the tone and development of the poem?
to the trunk - its mother.
But my sons, forgetful of me,
4. This poem also speaks to two very different audiences. It carries a very personal
of comfort for Don Mattera; but who else does it address?
are like fruit borne by birds.
I see the sons of other women
returning. What is in their minds?
10 Let them keep the price of their labour

but their eyes are mine.

I have little breath left
to wait for them.
I am returning to childhood.
15 My stomach goes to my back

my hands are like broom sticks,

my legs can fit in the sand crab's hole.
I am dry like a carved image
only my head is God's.
20 Already I sway like a dry falling leaf

I see with my hands -

oh tell Polin and Manuai to hurry
and come to my death feast.

Questions to consider
The tendency for young people to leave rural communities for cities in order to pursue jobs
and education has become increasingly marked in the last several decades. One result is that
throughout the globe, rural, isolated, and impoverished areas tend to be disproportionately
populated by children and the elderly. Pleas by older folk for their children to return home
are common. This is one example of such a request; Charles Mungoshi's 'A Letter to a Son'
(p. 245-246) is another. What do these poems have in common? What might be some of
the so~ial and cultural consequences of the movement of young and able-bodied people to
urban areas, especially in developing countries?
242 243

Supporting notes JI Kumalau Tawal i (1947-2006)

Under the apartheid government, a banning order meant exile to a remote rural location,
restrictions on movement, no contact with colleagues or fellow activists, and an embargo on Tawali was born on a tiny Pacific island off the coast of Papua New Guinea, and graduated
any speeches, publication, or political activity. Serote wrote this brief but powerful poem for from the University of Papua New Guinea. A poet, dramatist and short-story writer,
Don Mattera, a friend and fellow poet who was banned during the 1970s. (See p. 220 for he won the National Literature Competition in his twenties, and his works have been
further information on Mattera, and a sample of his poetry.) regularly published in Pacific and Australian journals. In the 1970s, he worked for the
campaign for Moral Rearmament in Europe. In later years, he worked actively as a pastor.
Questions to consider
1. This short poem is deceptively simple. Much of the language and imagery operates
The Old Woman's Message
on two different levels. Work through the poem identifying these 'double' words and
images. Do you agree that the poem is a mint-allegory"? If so, what 'lesson' does it
Stick these words in your hair
teach? And take them to Polin and Manuai
2. What tone or mood is conveyed by this poem? Look closely at how this is evoked or
my sons:
suggested.
the ripe fruit falls and returns
3. The first line is repeated three times in the poem, and slightly altered each time. What
to the trunk - its mother.
effect do these small changes have on the tone and development of the poem?
But my sons, forgetful of me,
4. This poem also speaks to two very different audiences. It carries a very personal message
are like fruit borne by birds.
of comfort for Don Mattera; but who else does it address?
I see the sons of other women
returning. What is in their minds?
10 Let them keep the price of their labour
but their eyes are mine.
I have little breath left
to wait for them.
I am returning to childhood.
15 My stomach goes to my back
my hands are like broom sticks,
my legs can fit in the sand crab's hole.
I am dry like a carved image
only my head is God's.
20 Already I sway like a dry falling leaf
I see with my hands -
oh tell Polin and Manuai to hurry
and come to my death feast.

Questions to consider
The tendency for young people to leave rural communities for cities in order to pursue jobs
and education has become increasingly marked in the last several decades. One result is that
throughout the globe, rural, isolated, and impoverished areas tend to be disproportionately
populated by children and the elderly. Pleas by older folk for their children to return home
are common. This is one example of such a request; Charles Mungoshi's 'A Letter to a Son'
(p. 245-246) is another. What do these poems have in common? What might be some of
the social and cultural consequences of the movement of young and able-bodied people to
urban areas, especially in developing countries?

\...
 245

Sally Bryer (1947-) Charles Mungoshi (1947-)

Bryer is the daughter of professional and artistic parents, and was brought up and Mungoshi is part of a generation of Zimbabwean writers who consciously sought
educated in Johannesburg. She went on to study art in Italy. She published her first to express their sense of identity and nationalism during their country's struggle for
collection of poems in 1973. She now lives in Canada. liberation during the 1970s. He has worked as an editor, publisher, academic and actor.
Internationally recognised as a writer (in both English and Shona), his work includes
novels, short stories and children's books, as well as poems.
Ingrid Jonker

(Afrikaans poet, drowned herself aged 33)

A Letter to a Son

You walked straight into the water Now the pumpkin is ripe.
like a hungry bird, your curly head We are only a few days from
intent as a heron.' the year's first mealie cob.
You walked into the waves The cows are giving us lots of milk.
like Persephone' herself, Taken in the round it isn't a bad year at all-
your eyes dried seeds, your body a husk of light. if it weren't for your father.
Your punishment was finding yourself Your father's back is back again
in a foreign element. You spoke and all the work has fallen on my shoulders.
through interpreters. Your lips and fingers Your little brothers and sisters are doing
10 betrayed you, turned away 10 fine at the day-school. Only Rindai
from the darkness behind your eyes, is becoming a problem. You will remember
tried to sell themselves. we wrote you - did you get our letter? -
Your child dies, and lives on. you didn't answer - you see, since your
Your screams become seasonal. father's back started we haven't been able
15 to raise enough to send your sister Rindai
15 We travel in packs. Hunting and hunted to secondary school. She spends most of the time
we carry nets and each of us captures crying by the well. It's mainly because of her
a relic of pain, stark as bone. that I am writing this letter.
Those of us who never saw a likeness I had thought you would be with us last Christmas
learn to tell the seasons of madness 20 then I thought maybe you were too busy
20 from the sea. In every fragment of glass and shell and you would make it at Easter -
I pass, your dark eyes encounter me. it was then your father nearly left us, son.
Then I thought I would come to you some time
before the cold season settled in - you know how
25 I simply hate that time of year -
but then your father went down again
and this time worse than any other time before.
We were beginning to think he would never see
another sowing season. I asked your sister Rindai
3(} to write you but your father would have none of it
- you know how stubborn he can get when
he has to lie in bed all day or gets
1 Bird that fishes in rivers or dams. one of those queer notions of his that
2 Figure in Greek legend who was kidnapped by the king of the underworld (the realm of the dead). Her return everybody is deserting him!
to the earth heralded the coming of spring, but while underground, she ate six seeds of a pomegranate (type of
fruit), thus condemning herself to spend winter there each year.
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35 Now, Tambu, don't think I am asking for money - S
although we had to borrow a little from
those who have it to get your father to hospital . h
9 and you know how he hates having to borrow!
~ That is all I wanted to tell you. a
O
Z
40 I do hope that you will be with us this July.
It's so long ago since we last heard from you -
b
246 -
I hope this letter finds you still at the old address. b
It is the only address we know.

u
YOUR MonTER i
O
l Questions to consider
r
l From an entirely different corner of the globe, Kumalau Tawali has written a very similar
e poem, 'The Old Woman's Message' (p. 243). You might enjoy comparing the two pieces.
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e )
a
H Bano
obhai
) lives
: in
> Cape
a
Town
[
. He
q
has
n
s work
I ed
as a
O teach
O er
and hen the first slave was brought to the cape 247
an
actuar when the first slave was brought to the cape
y, he looked at the awesome mountain
and which roots us to an eternal beauty
has hundreds of years later, and affirmed
publis
hed i am as free and as tall as this mountain
numer this mountain is more chained than i am
ous i will climb to the top one day
collect and call the adhaan before dawn
ions
of my voice will carry across the seas
poetry 10 to my loved ones in a land
and i may never see again
spiritu and they will know that i
al
medita and the treasures i carry within me
tions, are safe and always will be
as 15 for as long as beauty
well and this mountain survive
as a
novel,
Hereti
Supporting notes V
c. His When the Dutch first occupied the Cape in the seventeenth century, they brought Muslim
poems slaves from Indonesia (as well as from elsewhere) to work the land. However, this poem gives
are the traumatic topic of slavery a very different treatment to that seen in Cowper's 'The Negro's
strikin Complaint' (p, 78-79) and Nichol's 'Taint' (p. 253). Here the natural beauty of the Cape (the
g for famous landmark of Table Mountain in particular), as well as the religious faith that binds the
their slave to the community from which he has been wrenched, both offer a measure of comfort
lyrical and hope. The 'adhaan' (morning prayer) referred to in line 8 suggests the resilience of the
Simpli human spirit in even the most alien and inhumane circumstances.
city
and
expres
sion
of
politic
al,
person
al,
and
spiritu
al
passio
n. He
is a
devote
d
husba
nd
and
father.

w
 \ '.

\ -,
248 249

Jeremy Cronin (1949-)

Cronin was a philosophy student at the University of Cape Town when he was born and educated in the Eastern Cape, and was the South African Amateur
under the Terrorism Act during the apartheid regime. Hespent the next seven boxing champion in his youth. He worked for the Port Elizabeth Museum
political prisoner. On his release, he returned to Cape Town and published a projects. He now runs a spaza sh~p in the. township of Zw:ide, where he
poems about his prison experiences, which attracted immediate recognition. A < set up poetry workshops at the local library 1-11ssecond coll~ctlOn of po:ms
member of the South Mrican Communist Party, he is currently the Deputy .... Olive Schreiner prize. His writing is particularly concerned WIth the tensions
Public Works. He continues to write and publish poetry. the rural and urban spheres, and the past and the present.

Faraway city, there

Faraway city, there with

We spent the night drumming and dancing
salt in its stones, under its
Singing songs of courage.
windswept doek''
Was it not the last We
There in our Cape Town where would be together?
they're smashing down homes When the ripening period comes
of the hungry, labouring people We catapult
- will you wait for me, my love? Into the waiting world
Like the seed of dry pods.
In that most beautiful,
desolate city of my heart The crunching frost
10 where if staying on were passive 10 Under my unshod feet
life wouldn't be what it is. The biting breeze
Of that winter's dawn
Not least for those rebuilding Skinning my naked body
yet again their demolished homes Menacing sticks and threatening words
with bits of plastic, port jackson" saplings, 15 Before I was forced
15 anything to hand - unshakeably To break the icy stream
Was it a sort of vendetta?
Defiant, frightened, broken, Numb in body and soul
and unbreakable are the people of our city. I cursed through chattering teeth
20 Like a caged beast
- Will you wait for me, my love? And defied the cutman's stiletto
That left a crimson ring
Supporting notes ~ Round my shrunken stick of manhood
Where the stigma was
While Cronin was in prison, his wife, Anne Marie, died unexpectedly. This is one of the 25 And I declared the divine words
poems he wrote as a response; it is partly a Jove poem, partly an elegy,* and partly a political Of the ultimate stage
statement.
'I'm a man!'
250 251
---,r:.:.

Supporting notes JI John Agard (1949-)

This poem describes some aspects of a traditional initiation rite found in many
African cultures, in which youths are taken apart, subjected to certain physical rigours, taught Agard was born in Guyana in the West Indies, and emigrated to the UK in 1977 ~ith his
N
their duties as men, and finally circumcised. The 'cutman' (line 21) was usually someone senior partner, Grace Nichols (see P: 253), He is one of the mos~ respected and adm~red
~ and respected in the community, such as a sangoma (healer or seer) or especially revered Caribbean poets, and is in great demand as a performer of hIS own poems., He gIves
elder. The practice has come under scrutiny in recent years after botched circumcisions have· the Catholic liturgy and the cricket commentaries he listened to as a boy as influences
in some cases led to HIV-transmission, infection, and even death. that led to his love of language. He is known for his fascination with the rhythm: of
Caribbean speech and the oral quality of poetry. He works as ~ freelanc~ poet ,and wrrter,
and has served as the BBC's (British Broadcasting Corporation) poet-m-residence. He
has written numerous books for children and was awarded the Qpeen's Gold Medal for
poetry in 2012.

Poetry Jump-Upl
Tell me if ah seeing right
take a look down de street

Words dancin
words dancin
till dey sweat
words like fishes
jumpin out a net words
wild and free joining de
poetry revelry
10 words back to back
words belly to belly

Come on everybody
come and join de poetry band
dis is poetry carnival
15 dis is poetry bacchanaF
when inspiration call
take yu pen in yu hand
if you dont have a pen
take yu pencil in yu hand
20 if you dont have a pencil
what the hell
so long de feeling start to swell
just shout de poem out
'~"8~~~':'
\
1 In Caribbean dialect, a party. .
2 Drunken festival, named after Bacchus, the Greek god of wine.
\
 'Ij'r
253 it
-_.J,-;.

25
Words jumpin off de page
tell me if Ah seeing right
Grace Nichols (1950-)

words like birds A poet and novelist, Nichols was born in Guyana, and moved to Britain in her twenties.
jumpin out a cage She came to public attention when her book of poems dealing with slavery,I Is a Long
take a look down de street Memoried Woman, won the Commonwealth Poetry Prize in 1983 (the poem below is from
words shakin dey waist this collection). By turns energetic, funny, and angry, her work is perhaps best appreciated
30 words shakin dey bum when performed orally, and public recitals by her and her partner John Agard (see p. 251)
words wit black skin have heightened the popularity of both poets.
words wit white skin
words wit brown skin
word wit no skin at all
Taint
35 words huggin up words
an saying I want to be a poem today
But I was stolen by men
rhyme or no rhyme
the colour of my own skin
I is a poem today borne away by men whose heels
I mean to have a good time had become hoofs ..
whose hands had turned:talons'
40 Words feelin hot hot hot
big words feelin hot hot hot bearing me down
lil words feelin hot hot hot to the trail
even sad words cant help of darkness
tappin dey toe
But I was traded by men
45 to de riddum of de poetry band
10 the colour of my own skin
traded like a fowl like a goat
Dis is poetry carnival
dis is poetry bacchanal like a sack of kernels I was
so come on everybody traded
join de celebration for beads for pans
50 all yu need is plenty perspiration 15 for trinkets?
an a little inspiration
No it isn't easy to forget
plenty perspiration
What we refuse to remember
an a little inspiration
Daily I rinse the taint
Supporting notes ~. of treachery from my mouth

Like Si~rs's p~em on p. 258, this is written in a particular dialect or variation of English Questions to consider
(you might e.nJoycompanng the two poems). Here the influence is predominantly Caribbean The issue of slavery remains as current as ever, whether we are dealing with the difficulties
or West Indian. The spelling is largely phonetic, so it is especially important to read this of coming to terms with its history, or facing the appalling reality that it remains far from
poem aloud. Other poets in this anthology who play with words, or create sound effects eradicated. The trafficking of women and children in particular is now a major global industry,
so that their poems must be heard or read aloud to be understood and enjoyed, are Lesego and has become a hideous modern version of the slave trade, one that often preys on those
Rampolokeng (p. 280), Isabella Motadinyane (p, 278), and Cathy Park Hong (p. 288). who are economically desperate. You might find it useful to turn to p. 78-79 for a perspective
from a different era. The notes and questions there will help you to compare the two poems.
 Ingrid de Kok (1951-) And this woman's hands are so heavy when she dusts
the photographs of other children
~:
De Kok was born and educated in South Africa. She has spent part of her life
they fall to the floor and break. . ~i
Clumsy woman, she moves so slowly 6
....
studying in Canada, and sometimes grapples in her writing with the difficulties of
between the two cultures. She is a Fellow of the University of Cape Town, where as jf in a funeral rite. I>:
e
Z
also an Associate Professor in Extra-Mural Studies. She is a respected "'VI.l1UI~U
On the pavements the nannies meet.
>-<

South African literature and culture, and co-ordinates programmes designed to

'These are legal gatherings.
reading. Her poems have earned her recognition both at home and abroad. They talk about everything, about home,
while the children play among them,
their skins like litmus," their bonnets clean.
Small Passing
2
For a woman whose baby died stillborn, and who was told by a man to stop mourning,
'becausethe trials and horrors suffered daily by black women in this country are more Small wrist in the grave. Baby
significant than the loss of one white child: no one carried live between
houses, among trees. Child
1
shot running,
40 stones in his pocket,
In this country you may not
boy's swollen stomach
suffer the death of your stillborn,
full of hungry air.
remember the last push into shadow and silence,
Girls carrying babies
the useless wires and cords on your stomach,
not much smaller than themselves.
the nurse's face, the walls, the afterbirth in a basin.
45 Erosion. Soil washed down to the sea.
Do not touch your breasts
still full of purpose. 3
Do not circle the house,
pack, unpack the small clothes. I think these mothers dream
10 Do not lie awake at night hearing headstones of the unborn.
the doctor say 'It was just as well' Their mourning rises like a wall
and 'You can have another.' no vine will cling to.
In this country you may not 50 They will not tell you your suffering is white.
mourn small passings. They will not say it is just as well. .
They will not compete for the ashes of infants,
15 See: the newspaper boy in the rain I think they may say to you:
will sleep tonight in a doorway. Come with us to the place of mothers.
The woman in the busline 55 We will stroke your flat empty belly,
may next month be on a train let you weep with us in the dark,
to a place not her own. and arm you with one of our babies
20 The baby in the backyard now to carry home on your back.
will be sent to a tired aunt,
grow chubby, then lean, Questions to consider .
return a stranger. This poem has already been compared with Jonson's 'On My Firs.t Son: and 'On My ~Irst
Mandela's daughter tried to find her father Daughter' (see p. 59). You might like to turn to the suggestions for discussion and comparison
25 through the glass. She thought they'd let her touch him. 1 on p. 60.

1 During Nelson Mandela'$ years as a political prisoner, family members had to sit behind a glass panel while 2 Chemical substance that changes colour to pinkish-red under acid conditions. The implication is that these
visiting him. No physical contact was allowed. children are white, as they burn easily in the sun.
256 257

Questions to consider
Dambudzo Marechera (1952-1987) Marechera constantly battled with the question of where he belonged. While his poetry
often refers to Africa. he also uses intertextuality* - allusions to other important works of
Marechera was born in Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia), where he spent a troubled childhood. literature - to thread Western influences through his writing. Although the references are
After being expelled from the University of Rhodesia during political unrest, he left very subtle, it could be argued that this poem is a nod to Dylan Thomas's 'In My Craft Or
for Britain, where he continued along a path of rebellion and self-destruction dogged Sullen Art' (p. 175) - read that poem and see what you think. The phrase 'grain of sand'
by alcohol abuse, getting expelled from Oxford's New College as well. His radical clearly borrows from William Blake's poem 'Auguries of Innocence', which opens with the
reimagining of African literature in postmodernist" terms has made him an important line 'To see a world in a grain of sand'. (See p. 80 for more on Blake, also a radical visionary
figure in African literature. He returned to Zimbabwe in 1982, during the filming of who was considered a rebel, if not downright insane, in his times.) There is also a hint at the
his award-winning novel, The House of Hunger, and lived there until his death five years end of Ted Hughes's poem 'The Thought-Fox' (p. 205) - do you agree?
later of an AIDS-related illness. His work continues to influence other southern African
poets, including Lesego Rampolokeng (p. 280).

A Shred of Identity

Will this moon scrap itself off my poems!

This twilight zone stretching between English school
And my cockroach voice?

To the ant perched on a grain of sand

My giant Artistic dilemma is scarcely visible
Only clearly seen when I raise my foot.

The bee on his sweet sticky errand, seeing me,

Shoots off at a tangent" humming his scorn. angle

The early swallow from his searing flight

10 Scarcely casts instantaneous glance at my pains.

The dustman shrugs, hurls his concrete burden

Into factory hand adjusts the zip on his overalls
And without a care awaits his Call- factory's siren.

The milkman cycles his round; the soldier

15 Kisses his girl hurries to carry out orders.

They all seem to know their own selves

While I like a madman continue to decipher
The print on a shred of blank paper
The print that is to become the poem behind this poem.

.-, :,:.

:kl"-···
258 259

Rushdy Siers (1952-) Supporting notes V

This poem combines conventional use of the English language with use of one of the dialects
Siers was born in District Six in Cape Town, an area from which his family was .found within the Cape Muslim community. This particular dialect combines Afrikaans and
under apartheid legislation. He has a history of activism in political and cultural :English, and flavours both with distinctive borrowings from the local community. Notice
and has worked at the Centre for Development Studies at the University of the how flat and tame the English translation on the right-hand side of the page seems when
Cape. His writing includes poetry, short stories, and plays. compared with the original. What does this suggest about the value of dialect? For more
examples of poems written in dialect, or which mix English with other languages, see John
Agard's 'Poetry Jump-Up' on p. 251 and Isabella Motadinyane's 'Touting Taxi' on p. 278.
Sets of Two and their Silence

Today children our lesson will be about sets ...

Kanalla1 cbeacber nie vandagie Please teacher not

Does every body know what a set is?

Yaa, a snytjie brood en a snyijie brood maak a sanwich. Yes, a slice if bread and a slice
bread make a sanastnrt

5 Good, please pay attention and don't look so sleepy!

Ek slaap tot ek dai klokkie hoar - kostyd! I'm sleeping until I hear the

Many things and any number of things can make a set. , ,

Ek wonne wat gan op 'ie brood uiies? I wonder what will be on the

For example, a tea set and a cutlery set .. ,

10 Nou moet jy nogal van kosgoed praat. Now must you talk about food utensils.

Can anyone give me an example of a set? quickly ...

Set and ready to go, as ek dai klokkie boor: Set and ready to go, when I hear that bell.

Class what is wrong?

Nih verkeet 'ie net honger. Nothing's wrong, just hungry

IS Can nobody give me an example of a set?

Cheacher lat ek net slaap tot netnou. Teacher let me sleepfor a while.

Children you must pay attention!

Ya a snyijie brood en a snytjie brood maak a sanwich. Yes a slice if bread and a slice if
bread make a sandwich.
And why this silence?
20 Jy'sfokken doef asjy nie my maag kan hoar nie! You'refucking deaf if you can't
hear my stomach!

1 'Please', a colloquial greeting in the Cape Muslim community, which translates literally as 'please in the name of
God'.
260 261

Stephen Watson (1954-2011) In Exile

for Douglas Reid Skinner
Watson spent most of his life, apart from brief periods in Britain and Australia, in
Cape Town. Until his death from cancer, he lectured in the English Department at To be rooted isperhaps the most important and least recognized need if the human soul
the University of Cape Town, where he ran the respected Creative Writing Masters
- Simone Weil
programme. He authored several volumes of poetry (including a translation of IXam
legends), as well as two noteworthy collections of critical essays. His work is recognised Waiting for a tram, his gaze incurious, vague, as jaded
for its sensitivity and accuracy in conveying a sense of place. as the fog long rising off the Main, as the cold gone brown,
polluted in whatever sky there is, in what's left of day,
even now, years later, years after he had to leave, to flee,
The Rain That is Male dusk comes like a coma, his stare still hangs, abandoned,
as useless as his hands. The cobbled streets stretch away,
The rain that is male is an angry rain. numb and bloodless as shin-bones. The stunted light lies
It brings with it lightning loud like our fear. still and dead, diluted, never mellowing. In the early dark,
It brings water storming, making smoke out of dust. cold with lights, under the factory sky of Frankfurt am Main,'
10 the waters of the river, muffled, frigid in this German wind,
And we, we beat our navels with our rigid fists. the misted hulks of barges, hold no echo, are faceless still,
We, we press a hand, flat to the navel. the flagstones, leaden, fouled, are nothing but tombstones.
We snap our fingers at the angry, male rain.
Again, the ash-trees turn to charcoal before his eyes.
And we stand outside in the force of the water, He hears the echoes that damp footsteps hollow out on stone,
we stand out in the open, close to its thunder,
15 he looks upon the dead wood, the wooden faces, at buildings
we snap our fingers and chant while it falls:
that have blurred, are vague, indefinite as some threat,
and still can't hear, can't see - he can't feel a thing.
10 'Rain, be gone quickly! Fall but be gone!
Nine years later, nothing, hardly anything has changed:
Rain, turn away! Turn back from this place!
even now, as that torpor in the evening cold takes hold,
Rain, take your anger, be gone from our place!'
20 as something wads his hands, and fogs his eyes, both ears,
For we want the other, the rain that is female, he's still standing there - the tram has left without him -
the one that falls softly, soaking into the ground, he's straining, is like a man possessed, going blind
15 the one we can welcome, feeding the plains - for what he still sees, for what he can remember seeing.

So bushes sprout green, springbok" come galloping. indigenous buck And it's always one place only, always that same place
25 where a road swings high, climbing around a mountain-side.
It's the highway of his childhood, of many years before
Supporting notes ~. that he's travelling now in memory, once more looking out
This poem is drawn from the records of a nineteenth-century linguist from the Cape and his at hills, far-off, linear, naked, miles north across a bay.
sister-in-law, who together transcribed legends passed on to them by members of an almost Again, there's sunlight in blonde grass, there's that scent
extinct tribe of indigenous people, the /Xam. They have since been completely eradicated 30 of pine in dust, a heat that carries him still further back
or assimilated, and their language has died out. Watson's poem is thus a translation of a to those folded slopes, unfolding, peppery with rough scrub,
translation, and is an example of the attempts some modern writers and anthropologists to that very bend where the road swings left to right
have made to recover the cultures of indigenous peoples who have been exterminated. (See and through the slanted pine-trunks, from its final crest,
also 'Kilaben Bay Song' on p. 114.) backed by a mountain-wall, opening out along an oval bay,
35 an entire city lies revealed, frozen in silence, far below -
Cape Town stands there, suddenly, revealed for what it is:
a city of the southern hemisphere, more full of sky than streets.

1 Major manufacturing city in Germany; Main is the name of the river on which it is built.
 ']

263
262

z He's still lost in it, in his estranging gape, one of many,

0
Even now, years later, when at night the longing comes
a man without a wife, a child, arms wrapped round himself,
<J>
!-<
nothing matters any more - not his memory of the people,
..: 80 a man who has been left behind. And now he's growing smaller
40 the vile, pretentious rich, corrupted poor, those politics
~ is no larger than his pipe's glow as the river fog moves in,
that beggar all description, that all but beggared him -
Z flows over the embankment, blanking out what he once saw,
~ nothing matters now but his desire, but this mad longing
:r: blotting out a figure, thin and frosted, dwindling quickly,
p., to know that there is still a place, that it still exists,
~ an exile, solo, incognito, in transit through another night.
!-< that you can come on that same road round Devil's Peak"
Cf)
45 and there will be, as there was before, almost any evening,
Questions to consider

I
that softness in the summer dark, the same warmth rising,
You might want to turn back to Arthur Nortje's poem, also titled 'In Exile' (p, 231) and
breathing from an earth long out of reach of its sunset.
All the rest's irrelevant; nothing matters now, or ever, compare it with Watson's piece.

but to know that he can come, return to that road's crest

50 when the harbour's lighting up, the lights are shining
thinly through the pine-tops, in wind that's amber-toned,
and there will be the same view, clear across the city:
from the trees thinned out against the mass of Signal Hill,"
against that day's after-glow, down to a mountainy skyline
5S going far down the south peninsula, where the early stars -
the first he ever saw - will be out along the mountains.

He has to know there is a place - if only just one place -

where the water is not flat with cold, the silted colour
of cement; where the stones are not just made of stone
60 but are full of stories, memories. There has to be
that place where with a hand upon a stone you can touch
the time that went before, the years that will outlast you.
There has to be a place. He's tired of watching, waiting,
while years pass quickly, blankly, become ever more unreal.
65 Tonight he's tired of talking, smiling, and knowing he's not
really talking, not smiling - it's just his lips, his teeth.
These rush-hour people passing by, all with somewhere to go
the buses that come shuddering past, these trams squealing
to a halt, that always jolt him back to this same street -
70 here, he can't find peace - the calm - to rest his nerves.

And shivers ... That tram of his left almost an hour ago.
It's left him in a nearly ended year, with one more view
ofleaves, long dead already, drowning in a wayside gutter.
He's still standing there, still transfixed as night falls,
75 as that other, loved city fades away,floats ten years off,
and he comes back to these dead things, to the dead years,
to a smell of air pollution freezing, falling below zero.

2 Distinctive peak in the Table Mountain range that encircles central Cape Town.
./~ 3 See the notes on p. 208 .
264 265

Karen Press (1956-)

25 you can go back
you can go back
layout the skeletons in their beds
Bo~n in Cape Town, Karen Pre~s has worked on alternative education and pUblishing.
hang out the years to air
projects for much of her adult life. A freelance writer and editor, she has written non-
plant seeds, keep watch at the well
fiction, poetry, a film script, and numerous school textbooks. She is particularly admired
30 tear up your nightmares, your footprints
for her si~ple yet subtle poems, which have been published locally and abroad, and
lock the door
translated into French, Italian, Turkish, and Tamil.
work hard
give thanks to god

Supporting notes JI.

In the wake of the 1994 elections, the new democracy of South Africa became attractive to
many living in less economically and politically stable countries. This was a period in which
civil wars and genocides convulsed the African continent and elsewhere; also, international
drug, poaching, and trafficking cartels targeted South Africa as a new market to be exploited.
For all these reasons, South Africa experienced an influx of both refugees and undocumented
Hope for Refugees migrants (the term used to describe those here without official permission).
This in turn led to a growing xenophobia" and hardening of attitudes towards foreigners
you can go back
on the part of many citizens, who saw the newcomers as a threat to jobs and security. These
you can go back
attitudes turned deadly during the shameful outbreaks of xenophobic violence that raged
run backwards
through the country during May 2008, and which still flare up from time to time. Foreigners,
call back the cattle
even those here legally, are sometimes discriminated against and persecuted, sometimes by
unstitch the hems
those supposed to uphold the law.
pull the photos out of the fire
Well before the 2008 xenophobic attacks, the Department of Home Affairs sometimes
you can go back resorted to 'apartheid-style' dirty tricks in their efforts to deport asylum-seekers, even though
South Africa had signed the Geneva Convention endorsing the rights of refugees. Their
you can go back
stance reflects a growing international tendency to make it much harder for refugees to seek
pull down your dress
asylum. This poem refers critically to a policy that is gaining ground in the developed world
10 button your shirt
- that refugees should be repatriated (returned home) whenever possible.
wipe off the blood
scrub off the blood

you can go back

you can go back
15 wash the walls
fix the door
remember the step down in the dark
avoid the dark

you can go back

20 you can go back
dig up the box in the front garden
dig up the box in the yard
dig up the box in your heart
dig up the box in the child's heart
266 267

2
Sujata Bhatt (1956-) Which language
20 has not been the oppressor's tongue?
Bhatt was born in India, and spent much of her childhood there before her family Which language
.. : ...:.. :.:. ~:.::
moved to the United States. She is an internationally respected and award-winning poet. truly meant to murder someone?
Although she writes in English, Gujarati is her mother tongue, and her poetry reflects And how does it happen
the images and forms of this language as well. She has also translated Gujarati poetry that after the torture,
into English. Her work explores issues of racism and interactions between the three 25 after the soul has been cropped
major cultures (Indian, European, and North American) in which she has lived. She now with a long scythe swooping out
lives in Germany with her husband and daughter. of the conqueror's face -
the unborn grandchildren
grow to love that strange language.

A Different History

1
Great Pan! is not dead;
he simply emigrated
to India.
Here the gods roam freely,
disguised as snakes and monkeys;

every tree is sacred

and it is a sin
to be rude to a book.
It is a sin to shove a book aside
IO with your foot,
a sin to slam books down
hard on a table,
a sin to toss one carelessly
across a room
15 You must learn how to.turn the pages gently
without disturbing Sarasvati,"
without offending the tree
from whose wood the paper was made.

1 Greek God of flocks and shepherds; musical and mischievous.

2 Hindu goddess of wisdom; watches over libraries. \
 26

Makhosazana Xaba (1957-) Chris van Wyk (1957-)

Xaba is a poet, activist, and academic. She was born in Natal, and trained as a nurse. She Van Wyk was born in Johannesburg, where he currently lives. He has worked for various
went into exile in 1986 and served as a member ofUmkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of South African publishers and is now a freelance writer, editor, and consultant. His work
the African National Congress, then fighting apartheid. On her return to South Mrica in includes children's literature, poems, short stories, a novel, and two acclaimed and popular
1990, she worked as a women's health advocate. She has an MA in Creative Writing from memoirs, and is often extremely humorous. His poetry combines elements of the personal
the University of the Witwatersrand, where she is currently a Fellow, and has published and the political in fresh and often moving ways.
two collections of poetry and one of short stories, Running. Her writing demonstrates
her passionate commitment to African feminism, and is fearless in exploring issues of
sexuality and identity.

These Hands

These hands know putrid" pus from oozing wounds. rotten Memory
They know the musty feel of varying forms of faecal formations.
Derek is dangling on the kitchen chair
They know the warmth of blood gushing from gaping bodily spaces. while I'm shuffling about in a flutter of flour.
They know of mucous, sliding out of orifices. Mummy is making vetkoek' on the primus.'
Derek is too small to peer over the table,
These hands remember the metallic feel of numerous guns, when the telling click that's why Mummy has perched him on the chair.
was heard. His dummy twitters so he's a bird.
They recall the rumbling palm embrace over grenades, ready for the release of
mortal destruction. I'm not that small; I was four in July. I'm
These hands will never forget the prickling touch of barbed wire on border fences. tall enough to see what's going on; I'm a
These hands can still feel the roughness of unknown tree leaves that served as toilet giraffe and the blotches of shadow
paper 10 on the ceiling and the walls
in bushes far away. from the flames of the primus and candle
are the patches on my back.
10 These hands have felt pulsating hearts over extended abdomens,
they know the depth of vaginas, the opening mouths of wombs, Daddy's coming home soon
they know the grasp of minute, minute-old clenched fists. from the factory where they're turning him into
These hands have squeezed life's juice from painful pounding breasts. 15 a cupboard that creaks,
These hands have made love, producing vibrations from receiving lovers. but the vetkoek are sizzling and growing
like bloated gold coins,
15 These hands have pressed buttons, knobs and switches, we're rich!
they have turned screws and wound clocks, steered wheels and dug holes,
held instruments, implements and ligaments, This is the first vivid memory of childhood.
moulded monuments, created crafts, healed hearts. 20 Why have I never written it all down before?
Maybe because the pan falls with a clatter
These hands now caress the keyboard, fondle pens that massage papers, and the oil swims towards the twittering bird.
20 weaning fear, weaving words, Mummy flattens her forearm on the table
wishing with every fingerprint, that this relationship will last forever. stopping the seething flood.

1 Cakes made of dough and fried in oil.

2 Portable gas stove.
270
271

25 As she does so she pleads with the bird to flyaway,

but quietly so as not to ruffle his feathers. Gcina Mhlophe (1958-)
But my brother clambers off the chair
as ifhe has all the time in the world. One of South Africa's most innovative and talented actresses 'and directors, Mhlophe also
Sensing danger, the twittering gives way to a wail writes plays and poetry. Born in Natal, she was first a domestic worker before turning
30 and the giraffe's patches flare on the restive walls. to journalism and writing. However, it was as a storyteller (an art she learned from her
grandmother) that she began to make her mark, both at home and abroad. She has
Ma gives a savage scream that echoes across the decades worked to advance the art of storytelling, especially by women, and tours to bring her
and cauterises my childhood like a long scar.
0 burns performances to as many levels of society as possible. She is dedicated to various literacy
efforts, and supports libraries and theatre initiatives for young people.

Say No

Say No, Black Woman

Say No
When they call your jobless son
a Tsotsi'
Say No

Say No, Black Woman

Say No
When they call
Your husband at the age of 60
10 a boy
Say No

Say No, Black Woman

Say No
When they rape your daughter
IS in detention and call her
a whore
Say No

Say No, Black Woman

Say No
20 When they call your white sister
a madam
Say No

1 Township slang for thug or criminal.

272

Say No, Black Woman Beverly Rycroft (1959'-)

Say No
25 When they call your white brother Rycroft was born in the Eastern Cape and studied at the University of Cape .LV'WHO.anu,
a Baas the University of the Witwatersrand. She worked as a teacher before turning to writing'
Say No and journalism full-time. In 1997 she was diagnosed with stage-three breast cancer. The
poems in her debut collection, Missing, for which she won the Ingrid Jonker Prize, chart
Say No, Black Woman her experiences of illness, facing death, and the hope of recovery. She lives in Cape Town
Say No
with her family.
30 When they call a trade unionist
a terrorist
Say No
Room Thirteen
Say No, Black Woman
Say No i married a gambling man.

~hen ~heygive you a back seat Lucky for some

35 111 the liberation wagon he says as i
Say No
thread my body through
Yes Black Woman
the green gown
aBigNO
in room thirteen.

No jewellery the nurses ordered so

Supporting notes ~'

I
i hand him
This poem was written during the 19805 wh th d partheid was particularly my wedding ring. eleven years married
bitter It ' en e struggle to en a
b . b~ concerns nevertheless remain extremely topical. Do you feel that black women have 10 i'm wheeled away to
een a e to share In the gains of democracy?
wake up again in room thirteen
broad bandage across my chest.

He's still there. slides the ring back

on. tells me

15 it's not the hand you get dealt

it's the way you play it.
274 275

Epiphanie Mukasano (1961-) Rethabile Masilo (1961-)

Mukasano is a Rwandan teacher and writer. She fled her country in 1994, and Masilo was born in Lesotho, and went into exile with his family in 1980, living in several
lives in Cape Town with her family. She has published a collection of poems, ...•. countries before settling in France in 1987. He is a self-employed language teacher, who
on my lap, which reflects on her experiences as a refugee. She has also contributed to co-edits a literary journal, Canopic Jar. He has been published in a wide range of poetry
collections of poetry and non-fiction, and has published a story for children. journals, and remains deeply engaged with his native land and issues that affect southern
Africa, He lives in Paris with his wife and two sons, and enjoys cooking and soccer.

Pigeons and Their Songs The Brown-veined Whitel

Many butterflies in Ladybrand today,
sagateke gugu as many as snowflakes in a blizzard,
sagateke gugu ... they bend the grass under them
with gasps from their wings: nature
pigeons ring the bells of nostalgia
5 just showing us how a storm might start.
with their ubiquitous tunes
They dance upon red colonial roofs
you have not moved an inch
along the way. Trees, born in the years
yet you have travelled miles
of blood-letting, have their arms bent up
on their backs you land in a country in defeat. We slip onto a black road
where mountains kiss the sky 10 toward Bloemfontein, grocery on the back-seat -
where bamboo leaves echo the songs this road, this thin strip of road, is the tape
)(1 of rumbling brooks in the moonlight that measures distress. I push the car harder
up the hillside into our mountains and head
there under the roof of a banana leaf toward Maseru, the other side of the river, where surely
while your flawless eyes watch over bean flowers 15 the same butterflies had earlier begun their flight
you listen to the green pitter-patter that morning: and a few filter still among willows
wrapped in a perfume of wet dust that border the river, like the last falling fluffs
of a pillow fight, the smell of summer in the air.
15 there the air smells of fresh brotherhood Cicadas come out from their trenches: December!
a net oflaughter covers your bed 20 We watch those last white butterflies disappear
mosquitoes sing the night through north-east toward Ladybrand, fluttering,
loneliness is long forgotten and then continue home to be with our own family.

20
sagateke gugu
sagateke gugu ... Supporting notes V
The speaker in the poem is referring to a very specific stretch of road, which climbs steeply
Supporting notes vf;.. up from the small Free State town of Ladybrand to the turn-off to nearby Maseru, the capital
of the small land-locked and mountainous country of Lesotho a few miles away, before
This poem provides another perspective on the experience of living in exile or as a refugee,
continuing on towards Bloemfontein. This landscape has had a turbulent history, with the
although it is one of straightforward longing, rather than the more complex emotions we
indigenous Basotho people driven back by settlers beyond the Caledon River, which became
see in Nortje and Watson's poems, both titled 'In Exile' (pp. 231 and 261). See also Press's
the border referred to in line 17. Locations nearby saw some fierce battles in the Anglo-Boer
'Hope for Refugees' on p. 264-265 for an interesting reflection on the status of refugees in
or South African War (see pp. 120 and 123).
South Africa. It's interesting that this almost cinematic poem, which vividly describes the scenery of a
particular location, was written by a poet who has spent much of his adult life in exile.

1 Species of butterfly.
276 277

Finuala Dowling (1962-) Supporting notes f)#'

South Africa has the worst known figures for rape for a country not at war. In addition, it
Dowling, an award-winning poet and novelist, was born in Cape Town. She is a has appallingly high rates of child and even baby rape. This poem was written in response to
of the University of Cape Town, and lectured at the University of South Africa nfo~'-,r~u," the savage rape of a little girl known as Baby Tshepang, whose plight attracted the attention
years. She has published three collections of poetry and three novels, as well as comic of the nation. The reasons for the tendency of South African men to rape not only women
and plays. !ler debut poetry collection won the Ingrid Jonker Prize, and her second and children, but very small babies, are complex. In a country with a history of intimate and
Sanlam Pnze for Poetry. She is the seventh of eight children born to radio systematic violence, and in which gender 'equality' is legally guaranteed, but with little or no
she claims that her writing comes from her childhood sense of having some'-'t'''h''in"ug''-dto:;u::r critique of patriarchy," women are subject to exceptionally high levels of Violence, most often
but no chance to get a word in! She lives in Kalk Bay with her daughter. at the hands of men they know. It is not unusual for angry ex-partners to target women's
children for violence and even rape as a form of punishment, or 'teaching women their
place'. In this case, the rapist was an ex-boyfriend of the baby's mother, herself legally a child
To the doctor who treated the raped baby and who felt such despair at the time. Both mother and baby were found by the courts to be children in need of care.
Although the standard response to these crimes is outrage and anger, Dowling takes a
I just wanted to say on behalf of us all different and unusual approach in this poem, which manages to be both horrific and gentle:
that on the night in question how does she offer the doctor (and also the reader) comfort?
there was a light on in the hall
for a nervous little sleeper
and when the bleeding baby was admitted to your care
Faraway a Karoo- shepherd crooned a ramkietjie+Iullaby
in the veld" grasslands
and while you staunched!
there was space on a mother-warmed sheet
10 for a night walker
and when you administered an infant-sized opiate" painkilling drug
there were luxuriant dark nipples
for fist-clenching babes
and when you called for more blood
15 a bleary-eyed uncle got up to make a feed
and while you cleaned
a grandpa's thin legs walked up and down for a colicky crier
and when finally you stood exhausted at the end of her cot
and asked, 'Where is God?',
20 a father sat watch.
And for the rest of us, we all slept in trust
that you would do what you did,
that you could do what you did.
We slept in trust that you lived.

1 Dry interior plateau of South Africa.

2 Afrikaans word for a homemade guitar, used in some I<aroo folk music.
3 To stem the flow of a liquid, usually blood,
Isabella Motadinyane (1963-2003)
30 ba harela jwala
eke ba kgaohile maoto as
They drink booze
if they didn'thave lels
shut your mouth lovey
N\~~
·:z
kwala molomo lovey .....
This poet and actress was born in Soweto, and was a dynamic performance poet. She was ke mametse I'm listening Q
«
a founding member of the Botsotso Jesters (the name comes from a poem she wrote), touting taxi topsy turvey s-
o
a poetry performance group and publishing collective that positioned itself in an urban, 3S pep talk ::'8
post-1994 South Africa. Motadinyane (she took the name of the grandmother who
raised her) was known for her musical voice (she both sang and spoke her poems) and
her knack for mixing languages. She died on her fortieth birthday. Supporting notes efJ··
This 'spoken word' poem imitates the sounds and speech one might hear on a typical taxi
ride from Soweto into the city of Johannesburg, with its mix of English, local slang, and urban
Touting Taxi Sotho. You might enjoy comparing this poem to Rushdy Siers's 'Sets of Two and Their Silence'
(p. 258), which also mixes languages to create a rich and lively dialect, as does the poem by
Touting taxi John Agard on p. 251. The repetition and rhythms of this poem (it must be read out loud to
topsy turvey be appreciated) also show the influence of rap or hip-hop poetry," of which some examples
pep talk in this anthology are the poems by Lesego Rampolokeng (p. 280) and Lebo Mashile (p. 289).
from Zola1
to Jozi
music background
loud and loud
pep talk
trace toilet tissue
10 tracks van bo
ke bona dibono I see buttocks
ka se bone I do not see
beng ba tsona their owners
taxi
15 topsy turvey
pep talk
constant thuggery
criss cross
cross pollination
20 christianity charged
shot cit corner
magomosha style flashy tycoon
corner
Market and Nugget2
25 taxi topsy turvey
pep talk
drinking Beefeaters3
eyes of melting bazookas
meaty juice

1 A section of the huge township of Soweto, outside Johannesburg (Jozi).

2 Streets in central Johannesburg.
3 Brand of gin.
 in the tradition of predation
Lesego Rampolokeng (1965-) 30 between the breed of need
& the creed of greed
Rampolokeng was born in 1965 in Soweto. He studied law at the University of the who mythify the truth
North. He came to prominence as a poet in the politically turbulent 1980s, and his poetry
to mystify the path
is often savagely critical of establishment rules and norms. He has been compared to -
we have to tread for bread to feed our seed
the late Dambudzo Marechera (see P: 256) because of his often confrontational writing. ~
Considered South Africa's leading rap poet; he has produced several poetry collections 35 it goes on forever 0
and recordings. it's sung by lips and tongues untied
'
for being strong not wrong ~
its rung is not cowdung
History from civilisation to annexation
40 with the intonation of damnation from
revolution or evolution pit to hill from hell to heaven perverted
the game is still the same minds inverting triple seven" ah yell to
reconciliation negotiation tell how the L for LOVE fell
it won't take the bait
5 it's too late for hate the bible on your table
when fate is your only mate 45 & the manure in your stable
wipe the slate all misery no nursery rhymes
you can't dictate history's date all files and all piles
BLACK on the attack of money to spend
10 won't turn back with no fun in the sun but the gloat
or slack 50 of a trench coat
it's GREEN balance me without respite
going on mean & i'll give you insight
marching on the obscene into both left and right
15 as in ho chi minh 1 so you can fly your kite
if you know what I mean 55 in history's daylight
marching on bold
it's GOLD unsold
Supporting notes ~i'
the story untold
20 whose history turns time cold This 'spoken word' poem (it must be read or performed aloud) is a good example of many
when the murder mystery begins to unfold of the technical features of rap poetry: internal and end rhymes, a regular, insistent rhythm
it won't lace up the truth with arsenic' that isn't interrupted by punctuation (the performer decides if and when to pause), the
& claim to be platonic use of modern slang and strong language, the location of the poem in the present tense.
& defecate when it denigrates The sound of the words used is as important as their meaning. Other local poems in this
25 or swiss bank emigrate tradition are Isabella Motadinyane's 'Touting Taxi' (p. 278) and Lebo Mashile's 'Walk sister
accounting for the cost walk' (p. 289) - John Agard's 'Poetry Jump-Up' (p. 251) is another example, drawn from the
cost of lives to buy glasnostl poet's Caribbean heritage,
for the taxation of a nation The footnotes refer to events of twentieth-century history, and the poet also refers to the
colours of the African National Congress ('BLACI(', 'GREEN' and 'GOLD') in the body of
1 Vietnamese revolutionary and leader 'who symbolised the struggle for a united, Communist country even after poem. These words carry other meanings as well- why do you think they are used?
his death in 1969, The city of Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City in his honour,
2 Wordplay on the title of a classic black comedy and murder mystery Old Lace and Arsenic, which became a
popular film in the 19405.
3 Concept of greater political openness, introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev, the last leader of the former USSRin 4 Possible reference to the symbol of the extreme right-wing South African fringe group, the Afrikaner " -.
the 19805, Weerstandsbeweging (AWB), The symbol resembles the swastika of the Nazi party.
 283

Phillippa Yaa de Villiers (1966-) Rustum Kozaln (1966-)

De Villiers is an award-winning writer, performer, and editor. She wrote for television for Kozain, a writer, editor, and award-winning poet, was born and raised in Paarl, Western
ten years before publishing her first collection of poetry. In 2010, she published her second Cape. He studied English Literature at the University of Cape Town. He spent ten
collection, Ihe Everyday Wife. Her poetry is widely published in journals and anthologies, months on a Fulbright Scholarship in the USA, then returned to UCT, where he lectured
and has been described as having a clear-eyed honesty, perceptiveness, and playfulness. in the Department of English until 2004. He won both the prestigious Ingrid Jonker
Although not strictly a rap poet, she is influenced by the 'spoken word' movement and is Prize and the Olive Schreiner Prize for his debut collection, 'Ibis Carting Life· He
a lively performer of her own work. She lives in Johannesburg with her son. published his second collection, Groundwork, in 2012. He lives in Cape Town.

Stolen Rivers The Adoration of Cats

For Chiwoniso Maraire' Here I am running from it all again
all trouble heaping up in my house
We Africans came to Berlin to sing
in my head the debts incurred,
and recite poetry. We had an agenda:
the regrets that nag and bicker
remembering our anthems of loss,
like a country's citizens
galloping, consuming,
not the one, nor the other, that one neither ...
the pillage; the cries destruction, looting
like forest fires, like haunted children, and come to sit Karla's cats,
how can we, how can we even in a house clean and quiet
begin to redress? like a small, dark chapel.
Enraged, we wanted revenge 10 Feed the fish, the cats,
10 And then, Chiwoniso, you stepped on the stage and clean out their litter,
you opened your mouth and then collapse on my back
every stolen river of platinum and gold
poured out of your mouth in song; half on the bed, feet on the Boor.
your voice etched us out of the night And in a minute the two young cats,
IS and doubled the light in each of us. 15 Isaac and Leo, join me.
You restored all the treasure-houses Black Leo in the crook of my arm,
from Benin to Zimbabwe, Mapungubwe to Cairo;' Isaac, white with black spots,
Africa moved its golden bones, sniffing at me, at my face,
shook off its heavy chains
20 and danced again. purring voluntarily in my ear.
That night I thought 20 Then he licks at my hair,
if only at my free hand held above my head,
love could purchase bread, falls down next to my face,
Africans would not be hungry. starts to groom himself,
then again me

Supporting notes U.. ~.

25 and I have to give myself over
Here de Villiers adds to the debate on post-colonial" issues we also see raised by Neto's 'The
to the adoration of cats,
these once abandoned cats who know
Grieved Lands' (p, 193), Livingstone's 'The Sleep of Lions' (p, 211) and Gilkes's 'Miranda'
(p. 214). What fresh perspectives does she bring to the history of Africa's colonisation?
something about the care of the self
while outside the sprinklers
30 drizzle softly in the garden.
1 Chiwoniso Maraire is a Zimbabwean singer. songwriter. and exponent of the mbira, a traditional instrument.
2 These are all African countries or cities fabled for their great wealth in the past.
284

Mxolisi Nyezwa (1967-) Gabeba Baderoon (1969-)'

This poet was born in New Brighton, Port Elizabeth, where he still lives. He is one of the Born in Port Elizabeth, Baderoon is a poet and academic. She g;aduat~d '
most brilliant and startling poets on the South African scene, and has won the Thomas from the University of Cape Town, and currently teaches Womens Studies h .':
Pringle Award for his work. His intensely lyrical poetry is complex, yet rewarding. n
and African-American Studies at Pennsylvania State University. Her ,poet?, ~s Iwol
h h held writing residenCles III ta y
numerous international and local awar d s, and seas f, d
and Norway. Known for her moving readings of her work, she has per orme at many
quiet place prestigious international literary festivals.

and it seems that i live in a quiet place

at the end of time
with a blowing universe behind me.

i remain aware of the long-suffering of things

i remain aware with a simple truth
of how the planet eventually crumbles.

to me there is always the spaza shop! at the end of the street,

the vague colour of the moon
and of the southern sky.

sea WarTriptych: Silence, Glory, Love

the sea is so heavy inside us I. Accounting

and i won't sleep tonight. The mother asked to stay.
i have buckets of memory in a jar She looked at her silent child.
that i keep for days and nights like these.
I was waiting for you.

The quiet of the girl's face was a different quiet

Her hands lay untouched by death.

The washer of bodies cut

away her long black dress.

Blue prayer beads fell

to the floor in a slow accounting.

10 The washer of bodies began to sing

a prayer to mothers and daughters.

The mother said,

who will wait for me.

'Spaza' shops are informal stores, often found in townships, offering basic foodstuffs and supplies to local
rwritten after a newspaper article on the aftermath of the bombings on a holy day in
communities, Najaf, Iraq}
286

II. Father Receives News His Son Died in the Intifada'

Michelle McGrane (1974-)
When he heard the news, Mr Karim became silent.
15 He did not look at the cameras, McGrane was born in Zimbabwe and spent her childhood in
nor at the people who brought their grief South Africa when she was fourteen, and lives in Johannesburg, Her poetry h',~".' ;:",,,,';'~,"'"''-l in
He felt a hand slip from his hand, local and international literary journals. She has published three collections of ...·~.'..'".'.c.... and
a small unclasping, runs a respected poetry blog, Peony Moon. She is the poetry editor of the online South
African literary site, LitNet (www.litnet.co.za). .
and for that he refused the solace of glory.

III. Always Forlhe FirstTime

The Suitable Girl
20 We tell our stories of war like stories
oflove, innocent as eggs. The suitable girl is not temperamental,
does not throw tantrums, have rages
But we will meet memory again in public places,

at the wall around our city, or swear.

always for the first time. She does not take drugs or
stay out late, she is the daughter
Supporting notes ~ •. of family friends.

This poem, illustrated by artwork by the gifted Cape Town photographer Berni Searle, is She does not phone you drunk
included in the Women for Children portfolio, a collection of works in support of children's in the middle of the night or ignore
rights produced by the Art for Humanity project, which works with the visual arts to promote 10 your calls, she does not
human rights. Why do you think the poem was chosen for inclusion in a project like this?
make you happy.

1 Arabic word meaning 'shaking' or 'rebellion'. Refers to many uprisings in the Middle East, but usually the
Palestinian uprisings against Israeli occupation.
 289

Lebo Mashile (1979-)

288
II Hong (1976-) 'V rk City. Her parents were Poet, performer, and actress, Mashile was horn to her exiled '.
Cathy Par" .
lives in ~eWm~<ingup langua?es as a c~ld.
poet whO andbegan have won major Amencan
United States. The family returned to their home country when'
she was studying law and international relations at the University
. "Korean-Amencan I.:ngKorean, the first twO acted attention for breaking she began to write. She first achieved recognition for her hip-hop inspired
Hong 1S <L P speal.'l try - h attf
, ' nts SO she greWu 1 ""eSof poe 11 ge She as '''ards in time, and sometimes Urban Voices Spoken Word and Music Festival in 2002, and has since two
lmmlgra, h '10 u,,· Co e' d fof" .
h publi.shed tree h L\l.wrence kWardasn d as 'fantasy or SCIencefiction collections, A Ribbon of Rhythm (2005), and Flying Above the Sky (2008). In 2006, she
She as ches at Sara ovesbac . es define won the Pan Mrican Book Prize and was awarded the prestigious Noma Award. Her
tea d her poetrYrn , '"* someUm
Prizes - and. un as . ficno", work tackles gender issues and sexuality, among other issues. She lives in Johannesburg
new poetiC gro , f peculatlVe
. h genre 0 s , with her partner and son.
falls into t e 'bl happen.
that could pOSS1y
filth, sordidness Walk sister walk
BalladiUO 0

f sorGo!: Walk sister walk

, ot lots 0
Boomtowns g d wn Until the emblem" of purpose is sewn badge
O
horrors fthrow °S,
To a beauty that shines just for you
o dd
0
1 khorns,
bold cowboys o~ t to rob
forlorn hobos P 0 Teach daughter teach
When you are tired,
1 co mobs
pots of gold , 0 1ofhoot When you are hungry,
S drool for blood, how s throng When you are scared,
od bloom, d posts. When you are not seen,
for cottonWO strongwoo
to hood crooks to When the truth slips through your fingers,
promiscuous women, prostitutes
h tbloods, Like the skin of a snake
So dont confront t~ bloWoSr fO~' alcohol, often home-brewed
d ' how off, go trolloPS, 0
Play mother play
10 on t s c. old lostto ofgrog.
dont sob lor g WS 0[1 shotS To forget the weight of the waters that carried us
don't drown sorro
Listen lover listen
to moon. pools,
Work morn b bottOfll fold. To mountains that speak without moving
to corn 015 0 g
KnoW h ow ld tospoonP Green as the life inside you
is spot dots of go Sun soaked as the one who lies beside you

P· uage,
this poem comes from a series in A feast of miracles awaits those who know

you by name
. . every word.
Vow to do good. this case}In

. noteS . g with lang I Iter '0' in

supporting 's delight at p\aYI~mevowel (the e western genre,at the time of the Woman
. h \-long . g the s~ wboy
In keeping WIt . ents with us!n eS the popular CO 5 her setting. This was an era in which
which she e)(pen~1 nge, she chOOS t ry in Amencaa, tors and other migrants.
dd to the eha e . teentll-cen u ds01 prospec
TOo\~ rush in the late nlOpetoserVice tile nee
g , sprang U
'boomtowns
 Irony It is difficult to provide a concrete stressed (or emphasised) syllables, sitnilar
Glossary definition of irony, as it relies on tone to to the beat found in music.
succeed. It is primarily a form of criticism
or mockery in which the very opposite Mock-heroic Often used for satiric or
meaning or message to what is written or humorous purposes, this involves describing
Aesthetic Describes philosophies Devotional Describes poems or other
spoken is communicated. It is sometimes a trivial or ordinary subject or event in an
or opinions concerned with beauty, literary works that praise God or other
misunderstood when readers take the inappropriately grand and lofty style.
particularly those qualities of beauty that religious figures.
words at face value. It is often used to
give pleasure and inspiration, or which are
create a 'double' sense of communication, Modernism Movement in literature and
associated with 'good taste'. Dramatic monologue Poem or speech .
in which a distance is deliberately created art which sprang up at the beginning
where only one voice (and viewpoint)
between a character's perspective and that of the twentieth century. It swept away
Allegory Symbolic tale, often with a is heard, but in which the author's own
of the author. See, for example, Chaucer's many of the 'rules' of art and culture,
moral message, in which figures and (often very different) opinion is implied.
'The Pardoner's Prologue' (pp. 34-36), or and set out to create inner realities
objects described in the story represent
Browning's 'My Last Duchess' (pp. 107- and visions, experimenting with new
qualities such as evil, truth, and so on. In Elegy Commemoration of someone who
108). An example of a poem that uses forms of representation in the process.
some spiritual allegories, the characters has died; poem or other form of writing
irony as a form of social criticism is Karen Modernist poetry relied increasingly on
symbolise religious figures or doctrines. that expresses grief and mourning and
Press's 'Hope for Refugees' (p. 264). association rather than explanation, with
Other allegories create fantasy characters finally moves towards some kind of
words being used for their evocative and
that represent actual historical figures resolution or comfort.
Lyric Expressive and gentle poem or emotional qualities, rather than as means
and events.
song praising a specific object or scene, of communication and explanation. See
Epic Narrative or story that tells of
or describing a mood or emotion; often p. 9 for more.
Ballad Narrative poem (i.e., it tells a unusual adventures, travel, or feats of
concerned with beauty or love.
story) that deals with folk-lore or legend, bravery and war experienced or performed
Narrative Form of writing that tells a
often containing supernatural elements by a hero or group of adventurers.
Metaphor An image in which an object story with a distinct plot; the focus is on
and featuring dialogue. Originally meant
or figure is described as or likened to events, not description or reflection.
to be sung, ballads have a regular rhythm, Gender The socially constructed notions
something else as an implicit form of
usually with repeating lines or a chorus. of masculinity and femininity. While
comparison, which is not meant to be Paraphrase To sum up or rephrase
sex is biologically determined, gender is
understood literally; for example, 'the someone else's idea or story in your own
Classical In literary studies, this usually learned through social conditioning. This
sun was a gold coin on the horizon' . The words. If you are paraphrasing poetry,
describes the philosophy, art and literature term has entered modern understanding
usual purpose of a metaphor is descriptive this involves retelling the story, message
of the ancient Greeks and Romans, which through feminist theory. 'Gendered'
or persuasive - the author is trying to or image of the poem in prose. See
were considered foundational for much refers to the way we project masculine or
describe something in vivid and striking pp. 15-16 for more.
Western art and literature. They were feminine traits onto to entities that have
terms, or to create a visual image. See
rediscovered during the Renaissance (see no biological sex, such as nature. See also
pp. 20-21 for more. Pastoral Literature or poetry that provides
p. 4) in Europe, where they inspired both patriarchy.
an often artificial and utopian view of rural
imitations and new art forms.
Metaphysical School of poetry associated or outdoors life. It involves a very stylised
Genre Identifiable type or form of
with the seventeenth-century writers representation of nature, and draws on
Comedy (as in drama) Not necessarily literature: for example, novel, drama,
Donne, Herbert, Marvell, and others. imagery of spring or summer. The object is
humorous; however, there is poetry. Within poetry itself, different
Particularly known for its clever wit and to create an atmosphere of idyllic beauty
always a happy resolution in which genres can be found, such as epic, lyric,
inventive and unusual ideas and images, it rather than realism.
misunderstandings and conflicts are and so forth.
features comparisons known as 'conceits',
cleared up, and the potential for evil
which are striking or original rather Patriarchy Any social, political, cultural,
and harm is avoided. This happy ending Intertextuality The use of deliberate
than accurate. religious or economic system that insists
usually involves the uniting of one or references to, or borrowings from, other
that men and women have different roles
more pairs oflovers and their marriage. works of literature in a piece of writing.
Metre The rhythmic shape of a line to play in society, and that women should
of poetry, identified by the number of be subordinate to men. See also gender.
Polemic Piece written with an explicit cases the word can sound very similar to Renaissance poetry) to describe works by an audience.
(and often strongly worded) political or another word, as in this joke: 'A vulture that are not religious in tone or topic, and and repetition
ideological message. tries to board a plane, carrying two dead deal with non-spiritual matters. dialects to create unusual
meerkats. The steward says, "Sorry, sir, sound effects. Isabella Motadinyane's
Post-colonialism Theories and only one carrion allowed.'" Simile Imagery (similar to metaphor) 'Touting Taxi' on p. 278 is an example.
philosophies, shaped by the history of that takes the form of an explicit See also rap or hip-hop poetry.
colonial settlement and imperialism, that Rap or hip-hop poetry A form of spoken comparison by using the words 'as' or
look at the cultural impact and legacy of word poetry (see below) that follows a 'like'; for example, 'She runs like the Syntax This refers to the grammatical
colonialism, and analyse the complex power regular, insistent rhythm, that features wind, but he is as slow as a tortoise'. See construction of sentences into an order
relations that persist. See p. 10 for more. rhyme, including internal and end rhymes, pp. 20-21 for more. and shape that is readable and obeys the
is not punctuated (the performer controls 'rules' of correct usage.
Postmodernism This late-twentieth the pace and decides when to pause), Sonnet Carefully crafted 14-line poem,
century school of thought came after and is usually in the present tense. The with a strict rhyme scheme and metre. Tragedy (as in drama) Tragic events and
Modernism, and was shaped by post- language is forceful, and often includes The lines are either divided into three sets actions befall characters either through
structuralism. It acknowledges that no local slang, dialects and swearing. The of four lines each, plus a rhyming couplet, their own weakness or sin (their 'fatal
effort to engage with or critique culture sound of the words is an important as or into an eight-line section (the octave, flaw') or through the twists of 'fate'. The
or art can ever be truly 'objective', as their meaning. See, for example, Lesego which usually describes the topic or sets narrative moves inevitably towards the
everyone is continually constructing Rampolokeng's 'History' on p. 280. out the argument) followed by six lines death of the hero andlor heroine (as well
their own reality, which is in turn shaped (the sestet), which reflects or comments as many of the other characters), after
by their cultural, political, racial, and Romance (as in drama) Possesses on the subject of the octave. The last two which a new sense of resolution is found.
national location. This means that there characteristics of both tragedy and lines usually sum up the argument of the The Greek philosopher Aristotle argued
is no universal model or theory that can be comedy; suffering and loss force deluded poem or state the speaker's final message. that the purpose of tragedy was to arouse
used to analyse or explain all cultural, or weak characters to recognise their emotions of pity and fear in the audience,
artistic, and literary efforts. Postmodern art, faults. At this point, magical elements Spiritual or sacred (see secular) In the and then to provide a catharsis (outlet) for
literature and criticism draws from a variety transform or reverse tragic events (those broad sense, that which is religious or these feelings.
of contradictory sources and ideas, and believed to be dead are restored, spells are sacred. Used in literature (especially with
embraces uncertainty. See p. 12 for more. broken, lost children are found, and so reference to medieval and Renaissance Vernacular Local or indigenous language.
on). The ending usually involves marriage, poetry) to distinguish works written Throughout the centuries, the revival or
Praise poetry In Southern Africa, this symbolising the restoration of family and for religious purposes (also often called flowering of vernacular languages has
refers to the indigenous oral forms of society. devotional) from secular works, which been associated with national and cultural
poetry that praised kings and chiefs, deal with non-religious topics (such as pride.
often performed by someone with special Satire Writing that mocks or criticises human love).
oratory or verbal power and skill. In something by means of exaggeration or Xenophobia Irrational fear and hatred of
its modern form, praise poetry is any exposure. The difference between satire Spoken word poetry Poetry that is strangers.
long poem that describes and honours and irony (see above) is that irony says intended to be performed live, and heard
an important person. See, for example, the opposite of what is intended to be
Tatamkulu Afrika's 'The Handshake (for understood, whereas satire describes its
Nelson Mandela)', p.189. object accurately, but unflatteringly, by
highlighting its flaws. The effect is often
Puns Play on word that has two or more humorous. (See also mock-heroic above.)
meanings - often used for humorous
effect. Sometimes the same word has a Secular (see spiritual) Broadly, this
double meaning (the word 'tear' can refer means anything that is not religious
to moisture from the eye, but also the act or sacred. As a literary term, it is used
of violently dividing something). In other (especially with reference to medieval and
Acknowledgements

ProfEs'kia Mphahlele (1919-2008) was the co-compiler of the first two editions of Seasons Come To Pass. I remain indebted to him for his
wisdom and guidance, his expertise on Mrican-American poetry, his passion for the Romantic poets, and most especially for alerting me, back
when we first started this project, to the breadth of poetry published elsewhere in Africa- no easy feat in a pre-Internet age. 1 hope this edition
does his memory justice.
We both believed that our students were our most importan t teachers, and I would like to acknowledge and thank everyone we taught
here. This book exists because of you.
The editor and publishers gratefully acknowledge permission to reproduce copyright poems in this book. Every effort has been made to
trace copyright holders, but where this has proved impossible, the publishers would appreciate any information that would enable them to
amend omissions.

'Kilaben Bay Song' (translated by Perce Haslan) from The Oxford Book of Australian Verse, Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press
Australia.
Abrahams, Lionel: 'Note in Prosy Verse'. Printed by permission (given in 1994 for all future editions) of the author. Afrika, Tatamkulu: 'The
Handshake'. Printed by permission (given in 1994 for all future editions) of the author. Agard.john: 'Poetry Jump-Up' © 1990 by John Agard.
Reproduced by kind permission of John Agard c/o Caroline
Sheldon Literary Agency Limited.
Angelou, Maya: 'Still I Rise' from And Still I Rise by Maya Angelou, London, Virago, an imprint of Little, Brown
Book Group, 1986. Reprinted by permission of Little, Brown Book Group.
Atwood, Margaret: 'Nothing'. Reproduced with permission of Curtis Brown Group Ltd, London on behalf of
Margaret Atwood © Margaret Atwood 1981.
Auden, W. H.: 'Roman Wall Blues' and 'Stop All the Clock,' from Collected Poems by W. H Auden. Reprinted by permission of Faber &
Faber Ltd.
Awoonor, Kofi: 'The Weaver Bird' from The Penguin Book of Modern African Poetry edited by Gerald Moore and Uli
Beier. Reprinted by permission of the author.
Baderoon, Gabeba: 'War Triptych: Silence, Glory, Love' from The Dream in the Next Body by Gabeba Badcroon, Kwela/Snailpress, Cape
Town, 2005. Reprinted by permission of the author and NB Publishers on behalf of Kwela Books.
Banoobhai, Shabbir: 'when the first slave was brought to the cape' from inward moon outward sun,
Pictermaritzburg, University of Natal Press, 2002 © Shabbir Banoobhai. Reprinted by permission of the author. Bezwoda, Eva: 'A Woman's
Hands'. Reprinted by permission of Renoster Books.
Bhatt, Sujata: 'A Different History' from Brunizem, 2nd edition, Manchester, Carcanet Press, 2008. Reprinted by permission of Carcanet
Press.
Bishop, Elizabeth: 'One Art' from Poems by Elizabeth Bishop © 2011 by The Alice H. Methfessel Trust. Reprinted
by permission of Farrar, Straus & Giroux, LLC.
Brecht, Bertoli: 'Questions From a Worker Who Rcads'© translation by Michael Hamburger, from Poems
1913-1956 by Bertolr Brecht (translated by John Willett and Ralph Mannheim) published 1961, Methuen
Publishing Ltd.
Brooks, Gwendolyn: 'We Real Coo!'. Reprinted by permission (given in 1994 for all future editions) of the author. Brown, Sterling: 'Children's
Children' from The Collected Poems of Sterling A. Brown, selected by Michael S. Harper
© 1980 by Sterling A. Brown. Reprinted by permission of the Estate of Sterling A. Brown.
Bryer, Sally: 'Ingrid Jonker' from Breaking the Silence: A Century of South African U0men's Poetry edited by Cecily
Lockett and published by Ad. Danker (Pty) Ltd.
Butler, Guy: 'Near Hout Bay'. Reprinted by permission (given in 1994 for ail fumre editions) of the author. Campbell, Roy: 'The Zulu
Girl' from Selected Poems by Roy Campbell. Reprinted by permission of Francisco
Campbell Custadio and Ad. Donker (Pry) Ltd.
Cope.jack: 'The Flying Fish'. Reprinted by permission of Mike Cope.
Couzyn,jeni: 'The Red Hen's Last Will and Testament to the Last Cock on Earth' from Life by Drowning, Selected
Poems, Bloodaxe Books, 1983. Reprinted by permission of the author.
Cronin, Jeremy: 'Faraway city, there' from Inside by Jeremy Cronin published by Ravan Press, 1983. Reprinted by permission of the author.
Cummings, E. E.: 'anyone lived in a pretty how town' © 1940, © 1968,1991 by the Trustees for the E. E.
Cummings Trust, 'next to of course god america I' © 1926, 1954, © 1991 by the Trustees for the E. E.
 Cummings Trust © 1985 b"'.Gp:i'ii"~
edited by George J Davids,} ennifer: 'For Albert
permission of Jennifer Davids and
de Kok, Ingrid: 'Small passing' from .
Kok, Reprinted by permission of the author,' ..
de Villiers, Phillippa Yaa: 'Stolen rivers' from 1m·· r.<ver·vtta'lI'
Reprinted by permission ofModjaji Books on
Delius, Anthony: 'Deaf-and -Dumb School'. Reprinted by permissionc
Dikobe, Modikwe: 'Khoikhoi-Son-of- Man' from Dispossessed by ModikweDl] Johannesburg, 1983. Reprinted
by permission of Ravan Press.
Dowling, Finuala: 'to the doctor who treated the raped baby and who felt such the author.
Eliot, T. S. 'Preludes' and 'Journey ofthe Magi' From Collected Poems 1909-1962, Faber & Faber Ltd. Reprinted by
permission of Faber & Faber Ltd.
Ferlinghetti, Lawrence: 'Constantly Risking Absurdity' from A Coney Island of7he Mind © 1958 by Lawrence
Ferlinghetti. Reprinted by permission of New Directions Publishing Corp.
Frost, Robert: 'Mending Wall' from the Poetry of Robert Frost edited by Edward Connery Lathen, © 1944, 1958 by Robert Frost © 1967 by Lesley
Frost Ballantine © 1916,1930,1939,1969 by Henry Holt and Company, LLC. Reprinted by permission of Henry Holt & Company, LLC.
Gilkes, Michael: 'Prospero's Island' from [oanstoum And Other Poems, Peepal Tree Press Ltd. 2002. Reprinted by permission of Pee pal Tree Press
Ltd.
H. D. (Hilda Doolittle): 'Helen' from the Collected Poems of H. D. Reprinted by permission of Carcanet Press, Ltd.
Haresnape, Geoffrey: 'In and around the Yacht Basin Simon's Town'from Where the Wind Wills, Fish
Hoek, Echoing Green Press, 2011. Reprinted by permission of the author.
Heaney, Seamus: 'Follower' from Opened Ground, Faber & Faber Ltd. Reprinted by permission of Faber & Faber Ltd. Hong, Cathy Park: 'Ballad in 0',
from Engine Empire: Poems by Cathy Park Hong © 2012 by Cathy Park Hong.
Used by permission ofW. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Hughes, Langston: 'Mother to Son' from Collected Poems if Langston Hugbes published by Alfred Knopf Inc.
Reprinted by permission of David Higham Associates. .. . Hughes, Ted: 'Tractor' and 'The
Thought-Fox' from Collected Poems, Faber & Faber Ltd. Reprinted by pcrmlsslOo of
Faber & Faber Ltd. Jensma, Wopko: 'Not Him'.
jonker, Ingrid: 'The Child Who Was Shot Dead at Nyanga.'
Kgositsile, Keorapetse William: 'Montage: Bouctou Lives' from If I Could Sing: Selected Poems. Reprinted by
permission ofNB Publishers on behalf of Kwela Books.
Kozain, Rustum: 'The adoration of cats' from Groundwork. Reprinted by permission of NB Publishers on behalf of
Kwela Books.
Kumbirai, Joseph: 'Dawn', translated by Douglas Livingstone. Reprinted by permission of the National English
Literary Museum on behalf of the literary executors of Douglas Livingstone.
Larkin, Philip: 'Talking in Bed' from Collected Poems. Reprinted by permission of Faber & Faber Ltd. Levertov, Denise: 'What were they
like?' from What ~re They Like? Reproduced by permission of Pollinger
Limited and New Directions.
Li Ho: 'On the Frontier' from Poems of the Late T'ang (translated by A. C. Graham). Penguin Books, 1965.
Livingstone, Douglas: 'The Sleep of Lions'. Reprinted by permission of the National English Literary Museum on behalf of the literary executors of
the Douglas Livingstone estate.
Lorde, Audre: 'Coal' © 1976 by Audre Lorde. Reprinted by permission of the Charlotte Sheedy Literary Agency.
Macleish, Archibald: 'A.rs Poetica' from Collected Poems, 1917-1982 by Archibald MacLeish © 1985 by the Estate of Archibald MacLeish. Reprinted
by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
Magona, Sindiwe: 'Poem to a Brother'.
Mahola, Mzi: 'I'm a Man' from Strange Things. Reprinted by permission of the author and Snailpress. Mukasano, Epiphanie: 'Pigeons
and Their Songs'. Reprinted by permission of the author.
Mao Tse-tung: 'Lou Mountain Pass' from Poems of Mao Tee-tung (translated by Hua-ling Nich Engle and Paul
Engle).
Marechera, Darnbudzo: 'A Shred ofIdentity'
Mashile, Lebo: 'Walk sister walk'. Reprinted by permission of the author.
Masilo, Rcthabile: 'The Brown-veined White' © Rethabile Masilo (a poem which is part of a manuscript for his second book). Reprinted by
permission of the author.
295

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