Motion

MOTION MODULE
Updated and revised in 2017 for the Michigan

Department of Transportation (MDOT)
This manual was originally composed as part of the Transportation and Civil Engineering (TRAC) Program created
by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). For more information on
the original manual, see the complete final report, NCHRP 20‐52.
The manual was updated and revised in 2017 by the Center for Technology & Training (CTT) at Michigan
Technological University for the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT).
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 2

Instructor’s Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 5
National Education Standards ...................................................................................................................... 6
Activity 1: Bump‐N‐Run................................................................................................................................. 7
Activity 2: Calculated Collisions .................................................................................................................. 23
Activity 3: Collision Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 41
Activity 4: Impulse....................................................................................................................................... 60
Activity 5: Egg Drop ..................................................................................................................................... 72
Activity 6: Major Impacts ............................................................................................................................ 80
Appendix A: Document Links ...................................................................................................................... 91

Appendix B: Setting Up the LabQuest 2 & Vernier Dual‐Range Force Sensor ............................................ 92
Appendix C: Glossary of Terms ................................................................................................................... 93
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Executive Summary
This module contains six activities and covers the educational topics of momentum and impulse that are
normally taught in a high school physics course or an intermediate school physical science course.
Transportation topics include automobile collision analysis and roadside crash barrier design. Specific
relationships to the National Science Education Standards (NSES) pertaining to momentum, impulse,
energy, Newton’s laws of motion, and scientific inquiry skills are outlined in the individual activities.
Each activity contains the following sections:
1. Instructor’s Reference. This section is intended for both instructor and volunteer use and
contains an activity summary and preparation information for the activity.
2. Instructor’s Answer Key & Discussion Ideas. This section serves as an instructor companion to
the Research Manual and Research Notes and contains all answers to the questions given to
students. It also contains suggested points of discussion that relate to the activity.
3. Research Manual. This section is intended for student use and contains all background, setup,
and procedure information and instructions for completing the activity.
4. Research Notes. This section is intended for student use while working on the activity and lists
the same questions found in the Instructor’s Answer Key & Discussion Ideas section.
This manual also contains complete activity overview tables, instructor introduction to the module, and
a copy of the National Education Standards. Below are summaries and potential volunteer topics for
each activity.
Activity 1: Bump N Run

Activity 1 demonstrates the Law of Conservation of Momentum for middle school students using a
series of collisions between maglev cars of different mass. Students will be introduced to the concept of
momentum and will learn to represent velocity and momentum by drawing vectors. They will then be
asked to apply the concepts they use in the activity to real‐world scenarios.
Volunteer Topics
Automotive engineers, insurance investigators, or police officers could provide insight into how
momentum is used in their fields to evaluate vehicular accidents and how they use these tools to help
lessen the likelihood and severity of future incidents.
Activity 2: Calculated Collisions

Activity 2 demonstrates the Law of Conservation of Momentum for high school students using a series
of collisions between maglev cars of different mass. Students will be introduced to the concept of
momentum and will calculate the velocity and momentum of the maglev cars before and after the
collisions. They will then use their calculations to determine the average momentum.
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Volunteer Topics
Activity 3: Collision Analysis

Activity 3 consists of three story problems which require students to use the Law of Conservation of
Momentum to solve for specific variables. They will then use their findings to answer questions about
the collisions.
Volunteer Topics
Activity 4: Impulse
Activity 4 introduces the concept of impulse and involves two demonstrations. In the first
demonstration, students will toss water balloons back and forth to visualize the concept of impulse, and
to see how differences in mass affect impulse. In the second demonstration, students will try to break
an egg by tossing it at a sheet.
Volunteer Topics
Transportation or safety engineers could discuss how impulse plays into the work they do. They could
discuss the benefits of traffic safety devices and how they decide what is best to use for various site
conditions.
Activity 5: Egg Drop

Activity 5 is a hands‐on activity in which students are given a limited number of materials to build a
structure that will protect an egg during falls from increasing heights. The students will apply their
knowledge of momentum and impulse to their designs and will also consider how the same concepts
are applied in real‐world automobile designs.
Volunteer Topics
Transportation engineers, safety engineers, automotive engineers, or industrial (packaging) engineers
could relate the theory, design, and experimentation processes of the egg drop activity to the work they
do on a regular basis.
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Activity 6: Major Impacts
Activity 6 is a hands‐on activity in which students design and build a crash barrier. The barriers are then
tested on an inclined track by a vehicle impacting the barrier. Students will learn about guardrails and
other traffic attenuation devices in this activity and will apply the knowledge they’ve learned about
momentum to their designs.
Volunteer Topics
Transportation or safety engineers could discuss the benefits of many available traffic safety devices and
how they decide what is best to use for various site conditions.
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Instructor’s Introduction
Engineering is not simply about solving problems. It is about solving problems in the most efficient and
elegant manner possible, while not creating new problems along the way. In order to come up with the
most efficient solution, some amount of prior knowledge is usually needed. Frequently, this knowledge
is mathematical or experiential.
For centuries, scientists, mathematicians, and engineers have studied the physical world and recorded
their observations. They have derived mathematical formulas that describe the way materials and
systems behave. They have also conducted experiments and drawn conclusions from their results. This
body of knowledge that has accumulated over time is what engineers study and apply to solve problems
every day. This process is what differentiates engineering from tinkering.
Tinkering is what we do when we try to solve problems by relying on trial‐and‐error. Tinkering can be
fun, but it is usually not the most efficient way of solving a problem. Although solutions to engineering
problems can sometimes be found by tinkering, these solutions tend to be neither efficient nor optimal.
Engineering can be fun too. There is a great deal of satisfaction to be gained from approaching a
problem theoretically. Typically, an engineer will try to find a set of equations that describe the problem
mathematically. These equations will give the engineer clues about how to solve the problem at hand.
Using these clues, engineers can arrive at the optimal solution much more quickly than they could have
if they had relied on tinkering alone.
As part of the TRAC & RIDES Program it is key to understand where funding comes from and how
decisions are made in the world transportation planning/engineering. Transportation plays a huge role
in our everyday lives, and Metropolitan Planning Organizations/Transportation Planning Organizations
(or MPOs/TPOs) are a critical component of a city’s transportation system. MPOs help plan the future of
transportation in a region, and chances are, there is a MPO in your city making decisions that affect all of
us and how we get around. MPOs are made up of local elected officials, elected by the people of a city
or region, who decide how to spend taxpayer money on transportation projects. MPOs plan all types of
transportation, from roads and highways to public transit and bike lanes. Public involvement is very
important to decision makers, and your voice matters! Learn more about your local MPO, and find out
how you can get involved in planning the transportation system of the future. As you implement any of
the TRAC & RIDES modules we suggest you investigate the MPO/TPO in your area and encourage your
students to do the same. It will open up a whole new area where students can explore career
opportunities in transportation planning and engineering.
Two websites to begin your student’s research:
 Association of Metropolitan Planning Organizations www.ampo.org

 National Association of Regional Councils www.narc.org
In this module, students will use the concepts of momentum and impulse to solve problems. They will
perform several demonstrations using maglev cars, water balloons, and eggs to visualize those concepts.
In Activities 5 and 6, they will have the opportunity to apply what they have learned by designing and
building safety structures to lessen impact.
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National Education Standards
National Science Education Standards: Physical Science
Grades 5‐8
Science as Inquiry
 Use appropriate tools and techniques to gather, analyze, and interpret data.
 Use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communications.
 Think critically and logically to make the relationships between evidence and explanations.
 Formulate and revise scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence.
Science Content
Motion and Forces
 The motion of an object can be described by its position, direction of motion and speed. That
motion can be measured.
 If more than one force acts on an object along a straight line, then the forces will reinforce or
cancel one another, depending on their direction and magnitude. Unbalanced forces will cause
changes in the speed or direction of an object’s motion.
Grades 9‐12
Science as Inquiry
 Design and conduct scientific investigations.
 Use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communications.
 Formulate and revise scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence.
 Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models.
Science Content
Motion and Forces
 Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied. Laws of motion are used to
calculate precisely the effects of forces on the motion of objects.
Conservation of Energy and Increase in Disorder

 Everything tends to become less organized and less orderly over time. Therefore, in all energy
transfers, the overall effect is that the energy is spread out uniformly.
For the full documentation of TRAC and the National Education Standards, see the TRAC/Michigan
Education Standards page on the MDOT website: http://www.michigan.gov/mdot/0,4616,7‐151‐
9623_38029_38059_41397‐184233‐‐,00.html.
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Instructor’s Reference Activity 1: Bump‐N‐Run
Activity 1: Bump‐N‐Run
Activity Summary
Instructor Prep Time 20 minutes
Class Time 45 minutes
Grade/Class 6 ‐ 8 Physical Science / 9 ‐ 12 Physics

Suggested Activity
Groups of three or four OR classroom demonstration
Grouping
Technology Low Tech
Appropriate tools
Technology and mathematics
National Science
Think critically
Education Standards
Motion and forces
Conservation of Energy
Introduction
This lab provides a conceptual understanding of The Law of Conservation of Momentum. It is suitable
for use in a middle school physical science course. Questions are included at the end of the activity for
additional practice and application. Due to the length of this activity, the pre‐lab is recommended to be
setup and completed as a class demonstration.
Note: Activities 1 and 2 are very similar, although Activity 2: Calculated Collisions involves more
advanced concepts than Activity 1: Bump‐N‐Run. Both activities introduce the Law of Conservation of
Momentum using maglev car collisions, but Activity 2 asks students to perform more in‐depth
calculations. Activity 1 can either be used as an introduction to Activity 2, or Activity 1 can be skipped in
favor of Activity 2 for a more advanced class.
Objective
Students will be able to:
 Visualize the Law of Conservation of Momentum using a series of collisions between maglev cars
of similar and different mass.
 Explain what they observed in terms of mass and velocity.
 Apply their knowledge of mass and velocity to predict the results of real‐world collisions.
Activity Expansion Ideas

The collisions that occur on the maglev track are elastic collisions, meaning both momentum and kinetic
energy are conserved during the collision. When the maglev cars collide, they will bounce off each other.
A real‐world car collision tends to be somewhat inelastic, meaning some energy is converted to sound,
heat, and the deformation of the cars; therefore, the total momentum before and after the collision is
not the same. In a real car collision, the cars will deform under impact, meaning the collision will tend to
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Instructor’s Reference Activity 1: Bump‐N‐Run
be more inelastic in nature. A brief prelab illustrates the difference between elastic and inelastic
collisions. This can be expanded upon through the following interactive web‐based activities.
From PBS Learning Media (Collisions on an Air Track):

https://wnmu.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.maf.airtrack/collisions‐on‐an‐air‐
track/#.WUQIyGjyuUk
From PHET Interactive Simulations at the University of Colorado Boulder (Collision of Particles):
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/collision‐lab
From Physics Classroom (Collision of Carts): http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics‐

Interactives/Momentum‐and‐Collisions/Collision‐Carts
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Instructor’s Answer Key & Discussion Ideas Activity 1: Bump‐N‐Run
Part 1 & Part 2 Sample Answer:
For purposes of being concise, here is a sample for the answers in Part 1 and Part 2 rather than
providing all of the diagrams. Students should draw the arrows in the direction the mass is moving
before and after collision with the length of the arrows representing the general speed (short arrow for
slow, long arrow for fast).
Questions
1) When both cars were in motion, what happened to the relative velocity of the car on the right as
the car’s mass was increased?
The velocity should have decreased as the mass increased. Considering that force is equal to mass
times a change in velocity (acceleration), mass and acceleration have an inverse relationship when
force is held constant. Because the elastic band is stretched the same amount each time, the force is
held constant. As the mass is increased then, the change in velocity should decrease.
2) Knowing how the relative velocity changed, how do you think the momentum changed as the car’s
mass was increased?
The momentum would have remained constant. The elastic band applies the same force each time.
Because momentum is the product of mass and velocity, as mass increases, velocity has to decrease
if momentum is held constant.
3) In a real‐world scenario, when a small sedan collides with a large truck traveling the same speed
but in the opposite direction, which direction will the sedan likely travel after the collision? Describe
your answer in terms of the same or opposite direction the sedan was traveling before the collision.
The sedan will likely travel in the opposite direction.
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Instructor’s Answer Key & Discussion Ideas Activity 1: Bump‐N‐Run
4) In a real‐world scenario, when a semi‐truck collides with a small SUV traveling the same speed but
in the opposite direction, in which direction will the semi‐truck likely travel after the collision?
Describe your answer in terms of the same or opposite direction the semi‐truck was traveling before
the collision.
The semi‐truck will likely travel in the same direction after the crash.
Discussion
To understand momentum in this activity, we don’t consider every variable present. In reality, there are
many factors that affect the outcome of a collision, such as friction, wind resistance, and the type and
severity of the collision. Most collisions are neither truly elastic nor inelastic, but instead have elements
of both. Even if we don’t notice these factors, they can have a great impact on the final results. Consider
a scenario with high winds, icy roads, or other factors not represented in this activity and discuss how
the results would differ.
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Research Manual Activity 1: Bump‐N‐Run
Introduction
In this activity, you will use maglev cars to demonstrate the Law of Conservation of Momentum. You
will record the results of a series of collisions between maglev cars of different mass to visualize real‐
world collisions between vehicles of different sizes.
Objective
In these experiments, you will observe the following:
 How momentum is transferred between two vehicles in a collision.

 How vehicles with similar and dissimilar mass react in a collision.
Background
Momentum is defined as mass multiplied by velocity, and it is one of the core concepts to
understanding basic physics. The Law of Conservation of Momentum can be stated many ways. One of
those ways is as follows: during a collision, the sum of the momentum of all the vehicles before a
collision equals the sum of the momentum of all vehicles after a collision. Mathematically this can be
stated as:
Total momentum before collision (ρi) = Total momentum after collision (ρf)
m v m v m v m v
In this equation, the first vehicle is represented by the letter a, and its mass and velocity
before the collision are represented as mavai, while its mass and velocity after the collision
are represented as mavaf. The second vehicle is represented by the letter b.
If m m , then the equation simplifies to:
m v v m v v
Where:
m = mass
v = velocity
i = initial value before collision
f = final value after collision
Momentum is a vector. A vector is defined as a quantity with a magnitude and a direction and is
represented by an arrow. Magnitude is shown by the length of the arrow, while direction is indicated by
where the arrow points. When entering data into this equation, consider the vehicles moving from left
to right as moving in a positive direction. Vehicles traveling from left to right have a positive velocity in
the formula, while vehicles traveling from right to left have a negative velocity. This concept is
demonstrated in Figure 1‐1.
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Figure 1‐1: Magnitude and Direction of Vectors
Note: When drawing a vector, the arrow gives the direction of the vector. When using magnitudes
mathematically, it is important to use the sign convention stated previously to establish direction.
Therefore, for the velocities shown in Figure 1‐1 we would say that they are 2 m/s and ‐4 m/s when
describing them or using them mathematically.
Example 1
Two cars of equal mass (1000 kg) collide as shown in Figure 1‐2. Car A is moving at 2 m/s (with a positive
velocity because it is traveling left to right) and Car B is moving at ‐4 m/s (with a negative velocity
because it is traveling right to left). After the collision, Car A is moving at a velocity of ‐1 m/s. What is Car
B’s velocity after the collision?
Figure 1‐2: Vehicle Vectors before Collision
Solution
Using the equation for the Law of Conservation of Momentum, we can find the velocity of Car B after
the collision:
m v m v m v m v
m m m
1000 kg ∗ 2 1000 kg ∗ 4 1000 kg ∗ 1 1000 kg ∗ v
s s s
kg ∗ m kg ∗ m kg ∗ m
2000 4000 1000 1000 kg ∗ v
s s s
kg ∗ m kg ∗ m
2000 1000 1000 kg ∗ v
s s
v 1
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From our solution, we can determine that Car B was moving at

a velocity of ‐1 m/s after the collision, as shown in Figure 1‐3.
Does contact area affect
friction?
Leonardo da Vinci was one of the first

scholars to study friction systematically. In
1699, nearly 180 years after da Vinci’s death,
the French architect and engineer Guillaume
Amontons built upon da Vinci’s findings and
discovered that frictional force is
independent of the area of contact. This is
why if you have two objects with the same
Figure 1‐3: Vehicle Vectors after Collision mass, but one is half as long and twice as tall
as the other, they will still experience the
When two vehicles of the same mass collide, the transfer of same amount of friction when dragged
momentum can be observed by looking at the velocity and along a surface.
direction of the cars. It is not so obvious when two vehicles of
different mass collide. The momentum of each vehicle may Coulomb’s Law of Friction is used to
change, but the total momentum must remain the same determine the frictional force of sliding
(ignoring losses from external forces). objects.
There are two types of collisions, elastic and inelastic. Before a

collision occurs, one or both of the objects is in motion and, Ff = µk N
therefore, has kinetic energy. When a vehicle collision occurs,
some of that kinetic energy is converted to other forms of Where:
energy, such as sound, heat, and deformation of the vehicles. Ff = frictional force
This is why the Law of Conservation of Energy is not fully μk = coefficient of kinetic friction between
observable in a real‐world collision. If the transformation of two surfaces
kinetic energy to other forms of energy is significant, the N = normal force
vehicles will not bounce off each other and will instead stick
together. This type of collision is called inelastic. In a collision
with little or no loss in kinetic energy, the vehicles will bounce
off each other, which is an elastic collision.
In the real world, there are many additional factors, such as
friction and air resistance, that we will not consider in this N
activity. The maglev track reduces friction enough to assume it
is non‐existent, which allows us to examine the relationship
N
between mass and velocity directly. Assuming friction is
negligible, use the formula for average velocity to calculate
the velocities of the cars. Ff Ff
m Total distance traveled m Two Blocks of Equal Mass Experience the Same
Average velocity
s Total travel time s Frictional Force
It is also important to note that we will be holding force constant in this activity by using an elastic band
to launch the cars. It is assumed that during the first phase of the collision, when the cars collide, they
13
are traveling with equal momentum. This activity focuses on what happens in the instant after the cars
collide, before the second phase of the collision when the cars come to rest.
Materials
Item Quantity
Maglev track 1
Maglev car mass M 2
Maglev car mass 2M 1
Launcher block 2
Button‐hole elastic 2
Velcro 1 piece
Pencil 1 per student
Setup
For this activity, you will work in teams of three or four to create and observe the collisions and record
the results.
Pre‐Lab
This pre‐lab demonstrates inelastic and elastic collisions, as shown in Figure 1‐4. Place the track on a
level surface. Now, select two maglev vehicles with Velcro on one end of each. The Velcro should be
paired so that one car has the hook side and the other has the loop side. Place one of the maglev cars
approximately halfway along the track.
Now place the other vehicle in the launcher with the Velcro end against the launcher (in our first test we
want the cars to collide without the Velcro ends making contact). Launch the car and discuss what
happened following the collision.
Now rotate the vehicles so that the Velcro sides are facing each other. (The Velcro should stick
together). Place one vehicle halfway along the track, and the other in the launcher. Launch the car and
discuss what happened following the collision.
Figure 1‐4A: After an inelastic collision Figure 1‐4B: After an elastic collision
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Procedure
In this activity, you will launch maglev cars toward each other and observe the resulting collisions.
Before beginning, attach an elastic band to the screws on the ends of the track, as shown in Figure 1‐5.
For this portion of the activity, you will create a launcher to apply a consistent force to the maglev cars.
For each collision, pull back the elastic band so that it pushes the launcher block, which will push the
maglev car toward the center of the track.
Launching the cars with consistency takes practice; significant force is needed for the car to reach the
end of the track, yet the car must travel slow enough to make accurate measurements. Experiment with
launching a car by pulling back the launcher several distances. When you’ve found a distance that
provides adequate velocity, mark the launcher car, as shown in Figure 1‐5. (The launcher blocks at both
ends of the track should have lines marked at the same location.) When running tests, pull the launcher
back until the line is at the end of the track. This will create a consistent force applied to the car, which
will result in consistent velocity.
Line indicating how far
to pull back
Figure 1‐5: Launcher Setup on Maglev Track
When you launch the cars, pull each launcher away from the center of the track. Pull both launchers
back equal amounts so the force applied by the elastic bands is equal. The goal is NOT to see how much
impact the vehicles can withstand. Be reasonable about the length that the elastic band is stretched.
You should pull both cars back the same amount in all the scenarios so you can compare the results. The
more consistent you can be with the elastic band, the easier it will be to compare the effects of different
mass.
This activity will require teamwork. Two students should launch the cars and one or two should record
the results. After Part 1, switch roles so the recorder(s) from Part 1 do the launching in Part 2.
Your observations will be recorded using the figures in the Research Notes section. Figure 1‐6 illustrates
how the data should be recorded. Both the direction and the relative velocity of the car should be
recorded using vectors. The length of each vector should represent the relative velocity of each car. For
example, if one car appears to move twice as fast as the other, then its vector representation should be
twice as long. Although it is difficult, try and make the arrows consistent throughout all the scenarios.
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When the lab is finished, you should be able to look at all of the vectors and distinguish the fastest car
from the slowest.
Tip: It may help to first try launching a car of each mass to get a general idea of how fast each car moves
down the track.
Figure 1‐6: Showing Conditions Before and After Impact
Part 1: Two cars moving toward each other

1. Collision 1: M vs M, moving toward each other
a. Place two cars of mass M on the maglev track.
b. Pull each car back, away from the center, to launch them toward each other.
c. Record the results of the collision in the Research Notes.
2. Collision 2: M vs 2M, moving toward each other
a. Place one car of mass M and one car of mass 2M on the maglev track.
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Part 2: One stationary and one moving car

1. Collision 6: Stationary M vs moving 3M
a. Place one car of mass M in the center of the maglev track.
b. Pull back and then release the launcher to send the 3M car toward the center of the track.
2. Collision 7: Stationary 2M vs moving 3M
a. Place one car of mass 2M in the center of the maglev track.
a. Pull back and then release the launcher to send the 3M car toward the center of the track.
b. Record the results of the collision in the Research Notes.
Proceed to the collision figures and questions in the Research Notes section.
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Research Notes Activity 1: Bump‐N‐Run
Collision Figures
Example
Part 1: Two cars moving toward each other

For each collision, draw your vectors in the appropriate collision figure to show each car’s relative
velocity before and after the collision.
Before the Collision
After the Collision
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After the Collision
After the Collision
After the Collision
19
After the Collision
Part 2: One stationary and one moving car

Because only the 3M car will have a velocity before the collision, the vector before the collision only
needs to be drawn once. Draw the “before” figure below, and then use the other figures to draw the
cars’ velocities after each collision.
After the Collision
After the Collision
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After the Collision
After the Collision
After the Collision
Questions
1) When both cars were in motion, what happened to the relative velocity of the car on the right as the
car’s mass was increased?
2) Knowing how the relative velocity changed, how do you think the momentum changed as the car’s
mass was increased?
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3) In a real‐world scenario, when a small sedan collides with a large truck traveling the same speed but
in the opposite direction, which direction will the sedan likely travel after the collision? Describe your
answer in terms of the same or opposite direction the sedan was traveling before the collision.
4) In a real‐world scenario, when a semi‐truck collides with a small SUV traveling the same speed but in
the opposite direction, in which direction will the semi‐truck likely travel after the collision? Describe
your answer in terms of the same or opposite direction the semi‐truck was traveling before the collision.
Discussion Notes
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Instructor’s Reference Activity 2: Calculated Collisions

Activity Summary
Grade/Class 9 ‐ 12 Physics
Suggested Activity
Groups of four or more
Grouping
Technology Low Tech
Appropriate tools
Technology and mathematics
National Science
Think critically
Education Standards
Motion and forces
Conservation of energy
Introduction
This lab provides a conceptual and mathematical understanding of The Law of Conservation of
Momentum. It demonstrates how a traffic engineer would conduct an analysis of a vehicle collision. The
analysis involves a minimal amount of algebra and some basic high school lab equipment.
Note: Activities 1 and 2 are very similar, although Activity 2: Calculated Collisions involves more
advanced concepts than Activity 1: Bump‐N‐Run. Both activities introduce the Law of Conservation of
Momentum using maglev car collisions, but Activity 2 asks students to perform more in‐depth
calculations. Activity 1 can either be used as an introduction to Activity 2, or Activity 1 can be skipped in
favor of Activity 2 for a more advanced class.
Objective
 Visualize and verify mathematically the Law of Conservation of Momentum.

 Calculate the momentum before and after each collision.
 Consider how outside forces affected their results.
Time‐lapse Photography
This activity may be expanded with a discussion on measurement errors and ways to mitigate this type
of error when designing an experiment. Following this discussion, different means of measuring the
velocities can be employed to remove any error associated with students’ differing reaction times and
perceptions of the position of the moving cars. For example, time‐lapse photography could be used to
record the position of the cars at a known time interval and the average velocity could be calculated
using the recorded change in position over the known time interval. These photos could be overlaid in
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Instructor’s Reference Activity 2: Calculated Collisions
order to visually see the distance traveled. Similarly, students could discuss errors associated with the
launchers, air resistance, friction, or other sources and propose alternatives in the experimental design
to mitigate these.
∆L
Velocity
∆T
Where:
∆ =change
L = length
T = time
Using Time‐lapse Photography to Accurately Measure Velocity
Innovative Launcher
Another expansion activity is to design a better, more accurate launcher. Students could be encouraged
to come up with a better way to provide a consistent force to propel the cars or an accurate way to
measure the applied force. These improvements could be tested by the students to determine how well
they perform. For example, test the launchers by launching a maglev car with mass M in a series of
trials—with three runs for each launcher—and measure the velocity over a set distance. The trial with
the three closest velocity measurements has the most precise launcher.
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Instructor’s Answer Key & Discussion Ideas Activity 2: Calculated Collisions

Calculation Tables
Part 1: Initial Momentum

Calculate the average total momentum BEFORE the collision using the data collected in Part 1 by
completing the table.
Note: The M represents the mass of the 1M car. Therefore, the relative mass of the 3M car is three
times the mass of the 1M car and should be accounted for when calculating the momentum.
For example:
Car Velocity = 1.2 m/s; Car Mass = 3M kg;
Car Momentum = [(3M kg)*(1.2 m/s)] = 3.6M kg*m/s
The following calculations are sample data for your reference.
Values Calculated From

Data Collected During Experiment
Experimental Data
Car Car Car Momentum
Experiment Trial Car Travel Car Travel
Car Mass Velocity (mass*velocity)
Number Number Distance (m) Time (s)
(kg) (m/s) (kg*m/s)
1 3M 3M 0.455 0.64 0.71 2.13M
1 2 3M 3M 0.455 0.48 0.95 2.85M
3 3M 3M 0.455 0.63 0.72 2.16M
Average Momentum for 3 Trials in Part 1 2.38M
* The mass of the cars may be measured and used in this experiment or the mass may be left as a
variable to see the relative difference between cars of varying masses.
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Part 2: After the Collision

Moving Car (3M) Stationary Car (varies)
Car Distance Car Car Distance Car
Experiment Trial
Car Mass Traveled Travel Car Mass Traveled Travel
Number Number
(kg) (m) Time (s) (kg) (m) Time (s)
1 3M 3M 0.455 0.37 M 1M 0.455 0.33

2 3M 3M 0.455 0.40 M 1M 0.455 0.44
1
3 3M 3M 0.455 0.34 M 1M 0.455 0.30
Average 0.455 0.37 Average 0.455 0.36
1 3M 3M 0.455 0.38 2M 2M 0.455 0.40

2 3M 3M 0.455 0.34 2M 2M 0.455 0.46
2
3 3M 3M 0.455 0.41 2M 2M 0.455 0.48
Average 0.455 0.38 Average 0.455 0.45
1 3M 3M 0.455 0.41 3M 3M 0.455 0.96

2 3M 3M 0.455 0.31 3M 3M 0.455 0.27
3
3 3M 3M 0.455 0.38 3M 3M 0.455 0.43
Average 0.455 0.37 Average 0.455 0.55
1 3M 3M 0.455 0.40 4M 4M 0.315 0.47

2 3M 3M 0.455 0.31 4M 4M 0.315 0.34
4
3 3M 3M 0.455 0.35 4M 4M 0.315 0.49
Average 0.455 0.35 Average 0.315 0.43
1 3M 3M 0.455 0.31 5M 5M 0.215 0.48

2 3M 3M 0.455 0.28 5M 5M 0.215 0.39
5
3 3M 3M 0.455 0.30 5M 5M 0.215 0.36
Average 0.455 0.30 Average 0.215 0.41
26
Total Momentum after the Collision

Calculate the total momentum AFTER each collision using the data collected in Part 2 by completing the
calculation table.
Values Calculated from Experimental Data
Moving Car (3M) Stationary Car (varies) Both Cars

Car Velocity Car Momentum Car Velocity Car Momentum Total
Experiment
(distance/time) (mass*velocity) (distance/time) (mass*velocity) Momentum
Number
(m/s) (kg*m/s) (m/s) (kg*m/s) (kg*m/s)
1 1.2 3.6M 1.3 1.3M 4.9M
2 1.2 3.6M 1.0 2.0M 5.6M
3 1.2 3.6M 0.82 2.5M 6.1M
4 1.3 3.9M 0.73 2.9M 6.8M
5 1.5 4.5M 0.52 2.6M 7.1M
Average Momentum for all 5 collisions in Part 2 6.1M
Students should use the p = mv formula to calculate the initial momentum of the two cars and then
add them to get the total initial momentum (the momentum of one of the cars will be zero because
it is stationary). Be sure to have the students define a reference for the direction of travel (motion in
one direction should be assumed positive and the other negative).
Calculate the total momentum AFTER each collision using the data collected in Part 2 by completing
the calculation table.
Students will have to calculate the movement of two vehicles. It is critical that students use the
reference system established to differentiate directions of travel and indicate velocity as positive or
negative. After they have calculated the momentum for each car, they should add the numbers to
get the total momentum after the collision.
Questions
1) Part 1 established the momentum of the two cars before the collision (moving 3M car and
stationary car). What is the percent difference between the average momentum calculated in Part 1
and the average momentum after the collision determined in Part 2?
Remind students to compare the shaded boxes in Part 1 and Part 2 because they are, in effect,
comparing average momentums, which masks the variation between individual trials. The difference
SHOULD be small; however, there will be a difference due to variables that are unaccounted for,
such as errors in measurement, air resistance, friction, variation in applied force, etc.
27
2) What caused the differences between the momentum before and after the collision?
Friction, air resistance, measurement errors, and variations in the applied force all cause differences
between initial and final momentum, as well as the fact that the collision is somewhat inelastic.
3) What conclusions can you draw about The Law of Conservation of Momentum based on the
calculated before and after collision momentum?
Students should note that, in practice, the final momentum tends to be lower than the initial
momentum. In most scientific equations, many factors contribute to the outcome of a closed system
and are believed to have a minimal effect are often neglected to help simplify the calculations. In
this experiment, we assumed frictionless surfaces when, in fact, there is some degree of friction
along the sides of the track, which leads to a lower final momentum than initially present in the
system. Air resistance on the moving cars has a similar effect.
4) What would you do to improve this experiment to better observe conservation of momentum?
Possibilities include: (1) improving the launcher so there is less variation in applied force between
trials, (2) developing a more precise method to measure the velocity, and (3) eliminating variations
in the mass of the maglev cars (material imperfections may cause a 5M car’s mass to be more or less
than five times that of an M car).
Discussion
The equations that we used in this activity are simplified and do not consider every variable present. In
reality there are a large amount of factors that affect the outcome of the experiment, such as friction,
wind resistance, and the type of collision (elastic or inelastic). Most collisions are somewhere between
being full elastic or inelastic. During a car crash, all of these factors come into play, even if we do not
notice them. In general, however, we can simplify a scenario and use both the data we are given and our
own deductive reasoning and experience to determine what happened in a collision.
28
Research Manual Activity 2: Calculated Collisions

Introduction
In this activity, you will analyze collisions between maglev cars to demonstrate the Law of Conservation
of Momentum. This activity demonstrates how a traffic engineer might analyze a real‐world vehicle
collision using both conceptual knowledge and mathematical calculations.
Objective
 How to calculate momentum before and after a collision.

 How momentum is transferred between two vehicles in a collision.
Background
Momentum is defined as mass multiplied by velocity, and it is one of the core concepts to
understanding basic physics.
Momentum
ρ mv
Where:
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
An adult weighing 90 kg walking at 1.5 m/s has a momentum of 90 kg * 1.5 m/s = 135 kg*m/s. A child
walking beside the adult, weighing 45 kg, would have a momentum of 67.5 kg*m/s. For the child and the
adult to have the same momentum, the child would have to jog at 3 m/s (45 kg * 3 m/s = 135 kg*m/s).
See Figure 2‐1 for a visual representation of this.
Figure 2‐1: Understanding Momentum
29
The Law of Conservation of Momentum can be stated many ways. One of those ways is to say that the
sum of the momentum of all the vehicles before a collision equals the sum of the momentum of all
vehicles after a collision. Mathematically this can be stated as:
m v m v m v m v
m v v m v v
Where:
m = mass
v = velocity
Momentum is a vector. A vector is defined as a quantity with a magnitude and a direction, and is
represented by an arrow. Magnitude is shown by the length of the arrow, while direction is indicated by
where the arrow points. When entering data into this equation, consider the vehicles moving from left
to right as moving in a positive direction. Anything traveling from left to right has a positive velocity in
the formula, while anything traveling from right to left has a negative velocity. This concept is
demonstrated in Figure 2‐2.
Figure 2‐2: Magnitude and Direction in Vectors
Note: When drawing a vector, the arrow gives the direction of the vector. When using magnitudes
mathematically, it is important to use the sign convention stated previously to establish direction.
Therefore, for the velocities shown in Figure 2‐2, we would say that they are 2 m/s and ‐4 m/s when
describing them or using them mathematically.
30
Example 1
Two cars of equal mass (1000 kg) collide as shown in Figure 2‐3. Car A is moving at 2 m/s (with a positive
velocity because it is traveling left to right) and Car B is moving at ‐4 m/s (with a negative velocity
because it is traveling right to left). After the collision, Car A is moving at a velocity of ‐1 m/s. What is car
B’s velocity after the collision?
Figure 2‐3: Vehicle Vectors before Collision
Solution
Using the equation for the Law of Conservation of Momentum, we can find the velocity of Car B after
the collision:
m v m v m v m v
m m m
1000 kg ∗ 2 1000 kg ∗ 4 1000 kg ∗ 1 1000 kg ∗ v
s s s
m kg ∗ m kg ∗ m
2000 kg ∗ 4000 1000 1000 kg ∗ v
s s s
m kg ∗ m
2000 kg ∗ 1000 1000 kg ∗ v
s s
v 1
From our solution, we can determine that Car B was moving at a velocity of ‐1 m/s after the collision, as
shown in Figure 2‐4.
Figure 2‐4: Vehicle Vectors after Collision
31
When two vehicles of the same mass collide, the transfer of

momentum can be observed by looking at the velocity and
direction of the cars. It is not so obvious when two vehicles of
Does contact area affect
different mass collide. The momentum of each vehicle may friction?
change, but the total momentum of the system must remain
the same (ignoring losses from external forces). Leonardo da Vinci was one of the first
scholars to study friction systematically. In
There are two types of collisions: elastic and inelastic. Before a 1699, nearly 180 years after da Vinci’s
collision occurs, one or both of the objects is in motion and, death, the French architect and engineer
therefore, has kinetic energy. When a vehicle collision occurs, Guillaume Amontons built upon da Vinci’s
some of that kinetic energy is converted to other forms of findings and discovered that frictional force
energy, such as sound, heat, and deformation of the vehicles. is independent of the area of contact. This
This is why the Law of Conservation of Energy is not fully is why if you have two objects with the
observable in a real‐world collision. If the transformation of same mass, but one is half as long and twice
kinetic energy to other forms of energy is significant, the as tall as the other, they will still experience
vehicles will not bounce off each other and will instead stick the same amount of friction when dragged
together. This type of collision is called inelastic. In a collision along a surface.
with little or no loss in kinetic energy, the vehicles will bounce
off each other, which is an elastic collision. Coulomb’s Law of Friction is used to
determine the frictional force of sliding
In the real world, there are many additional factors (such as objects.
friction and air resistance) that we will not consider in this
activity. The maglev track reduces friction enough to assume it
is non‐existent, which allows us to examine the relationship
between mass and velocity directly. Assuming friction is
F f = µk N
negligible, use the formula for average velocity to calculate
the velocities of the cars. Where:
Ff = frictional force
μk = coefficient of kinetic friction
m Total distance traveled between two surfaces
Average Velocity N = normal force
s Total travel time
It is also important to note that we will be holding force

constant in this activity by using an elastic band to launch the
cars. It is assumed that during the first phase of the collision,
when the cars collide, they are traveling with equal N
momentum. This activity focuses on what happens in the
instant after the cars collide, before the second phase of the N
collision when the cars come to rest.
Ff Ff
Two Blocks of Equal Mass Experience the Same

Frictional Force
32
Materials
Item Quantity
Maglev track 1
Maglev car mass M 2
Stopwatch 2
Meter stick 2
Launcher block 2

Setup
In this activity, you will launch maglev cars toward each other and observe the resulting collisions.
Before beginning, attach an elastic band to the hooks on the ends of the track, as shown in Figure 2‐5.
For this portion of the activity, you will create a launcher to apply a consistent force to the maglev cars,
see instructions on the following page. For each collision, pull back the elastic band so that it pushes the
launcher block, which will push the maglev car toward the center of the track.
Launching the cars with consistency takes practice; significant force is needed for the car to reach the
end of the track, yet the car must travel slow enough to make accurate measurements. Experiment with
launching a car by pulling back the launcher to several different distances. When you’ve found a
distance that provides adequate velocity, draw a line on the launcher car as shown in Figure 2‐5. When
running tests, pull the launcher back until the line is at the end of the track. This will create a consistent
force applied to the car, which will result in consistent velocity.
Line indicating how far

to pull back
Figure 2‐5: Launcher Setup
33
Procedure
Setting Measuring Distance
Record the distance over which the car will be timed, as shown in Figure 2‐6. This distance should begin
after the car is launched and continue approximately to the center of the track to provide a good
representation of the velocity just before impact. It may be useful to mark this distance with a piece of
tape on the side of the track. You should consider the length of the car when determining your distance
to be sure that you will be able to measure the time it takes for one location on the car to pass over
both points. It might be helpful to place a dot on the car and record the time it takes for the dot to pass
over your start and stop points.
Figure 2‐6: Part 1, Measuring Distance
Experiment
1. Mark the distance over which the car will be timed. It may be useful to mark this distance with a
piece of tape.
2. Record the distance in centimeters in the Initial Momentum calculation table. Then convert the
distance to meters.
3. Place a car with mass 3M on the maglev track in front of the launcher.
4. Pull the launcher back from the center to launch the 3M car forward.
5. Measure the time over which the car travels between the points you chose in Step 1.
6. Record the mass, distance, and time in the table in your Research Notes section.
7. Calculate the velocity and momentum for each trial in the table in your Research Notes section.
8. Repeat Steps 2 through 6 until you have data for three trials. These will be used to determine an
average momentum for the 3M car.

We will continue to use the setup from Part 1; however, we will now adjust the experiment to see the
effect of the momentum from the 3M car after it collides with stationary cars of varying mass. When
performing the activity, one student should launch the car, two students should time the cars after the
collision, and the fourth student should take notes. Students should rotate so that all team members get
an opportunity to try each role.
Setting Measuring Distance

Record the distance over which each car will be timed, as shown in Figure 2‐7. This distance should
begin near the center of the track and continue away from the center, as the distance and time after the
34
collision will be recorded. It may be useful to mark this distance with a piece of tape. You should
consider the length of the car when determining your distances to be sure that you will be able to
measure the time it takes for one location on the car to pass over both points. It might be helpful to
place a dot on each car and record the time it takes for the dot to pass over your start and stop points.
You may need to determine different distances for each experiment to accommodate the different
lengths of each car.
Figure 2‐7: Part 2, Measuring Distance
Experiment 1: 3M vs M
1. Place one car of mass M in the center of the maglev track.
2. Pull back and release the launcher to send the 3M car toward the center of the track.
3. Record the time it takes each car to move across the predetermined distance after the collision.
4. Record the mass, distance traveled, and time for both cars in your Research Notes.
5. Repeat this procedure three times to collect data from three trials.
Experiment 2: 3M vs 2M
1. Place one car of mass 2M in the center of the maglev track.
2. Pull back and release the launcher car to send the 3M car toward the center of the track.
35
Proceed to the calculations and questions in the Research Notes section.
36
Research Notes Activity 2: Calculated Collisions

Equations
Velocity Momentum
d
v ρ mv
t
Where: Where:
d = distance (m) m = mass (kg)
t = time (s) v = velocity (m/s)
Calculation Tables

Values Calculated From

Experimental Data
Car Travel
Car Car Car Momentum
Experiment Trial Distance Car Travel
Car Mass Velocity (mass*velocity)
Number Number Time (s)
(kg) (m/s) (kg*m/s)
(cm) (m)
1 3M
1 2 3M
3 3M
Average Momentum for 3 Trials in Part 1
37

Moving Car (3M) Stationary Car (mass varies)
Car
Car Distance Travel Car Distance
Experiment Trial Travel
Car Mass Traveled Time Car Mass Traveled
Number Number Time
(kg) (m) (s) (kg) (m)
(s)
1 3M M
2 3M M
1
3 3M M
Average Average
1 3M 2M
2 3M 2M
2
3 3M 2M
Average Average
1 3M 3M
2 3M 3M
3
3 3M 3M
Average Average
1 3M 4M
2 3M 4M
4
3 3M 4M
Average Average
5 1 3M 5M
2 3M 5M
3 3M 5M
Average Average
38
Total Momentum after the Collision

Calculate the total momentum AFTER each collision using the data collected in Part 2 by completing the
calculation table.
Moving Car (3M) Stationary Car (mass varies) Both Cars

Car
Car Car Car Momentum Total
Experiment Car Velocity Momentum
Velocity Mass (mass*velocity) Momentum
Number (m/s) (mass*velocity)
(m/s) (kg) (kg*m/s) (kg*m/s)
(kg*m/s)
1
Average Momentum for all 5 collisions in Part 2
Questions
1) Part 1 established the momentum of the two cars before the collision (moving 3M car and stationary
car). What is the percent difference between the average momentum calculated in Part 1 and the
average momentum after the collision determined in Part 2?
2) What caused the differences between the momentum before and after the collision?
39
3) What conclusions can you draw about The Law of Conservation of Momentum based on the
calculated momentum before and after the collision?
4) What would you do to improve this experiment to better observe conservation of momentum?
Discussion Notes
40
Instructor’s Reference Activity 3: Collision Analysis

Activity Summary
Grade/Class 3A: 9 ‐ 12 Beginner; 3B: 6 ‐ 8; 3C: 9 ‐ 12 Advanced

Suggested Activity
Individual or teams of two
Grouping
Technology Low Tech
Science as inquiry
Identify problems for technological design
National Science
Design a product
Education Standards
Implement proposed design
Evaluate product
Introduction
Students will learn to calculate the initial or final velocity of a vehicle in a collision using the Law of
Conservation of Momentum. Students will be presented three scenarios in which vehicles have collided,
where they must determine either the initial or final velocities of the vehicles. Activity 3A presents this
concept in one‐dimensional motion, whereas activities 3B and 3C present this concept in two‐
dimensional motion.
Note: Activities 3B and 3C are both examples of two‐dimensional collision analysis, with 3C being the
more difficult of the two. As a result of 3B utilizing a right triangle and the Pythagorean Theorem, this
problem is better suited for middle school students. On the other hand, Activity 3C uses trigonometry.
Objective
The objective of this activity is to use real‐world applications of the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
Students will learn to do the following:
 Activity 3A: Compare two differing scenarios using the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
 Activity 3B: Perform two‐dimensional collision analysis using the Pythagorean Theorem.
 Activity 3C: Perform two‐dimensional collision analysis using trigonometry.

One important take away from this activity is vectors and vector addition. This application will be used in
physics, statics, and other engineering courses. In order to better understand the process, students
could explore the interactive vector game from Physics Classroom.
41
Instructor’s Reference Activity 3: Collision Analysis
In this interactive vector game, students will be presented with two vectors that are summed to produce
a resultant force, which the students construct in the large grid area. These vectors are summed
together using one of two methods: the head‐to‐tail addition method or the parallelogram method.
Interactive Vector Game: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics‐Interactives/Vectors‐and‐

Projectiles/Vector‐Guessing‐Game/Vector‐Guessing‐Game‐Interactive
42
Instructor’s Answer Key & Discussion Ideas Activity 3: Collision Analysis
General Activity Discussion

In practice, the Law of Conservation of Momentum and its associated calculations can assist law
enforcement officers, transportation professionals, automobile designers, and medical professionals in
gaining a better understanding of the events that transpired during the course of a crash, enabling them
to learn how to prevent or reduce the severity of crashes in the future. Consider the design of airbags or
bumpers for vehicles corresponding to a collision. If you note that particular angles of impact at high
speeds do not result in injuries, then you can look closely at the design of the vehicle to understand why
injuries did not occur (and how to replicate that design for other vehicles). Alternatively, if you find that
certain angles of impact frequently occur (e.g. cars striking each other on the side at a 90‐degree angle
rather than straight on). From this you can consider other kinds of countermeasures, such as having
side‐impact airbags or improving sight distance at a particular intersection.
Activity 3A: Accident Analysis

Activity Solutions
Solution A: Mathematical Solution According to Driver of Sedan (Left Car, Figure 3‐1)
Total momentum before collision ρ Total momentum after collision ρ
m v m v m v m v
m m
ρ 1500 kg ∗ 4 1000 kg ∗ 8
s s
m
ρ 2000 kg ∗
s
m m
ρ 1500 kg ∗ 2 1000 kg ∗ 2
s s
m
ρ 5000 kg ∗
s
ρ ρ
Solution B: Mathematical Solution According to Driver of Convertible (Right Car,

Figure 3‐1)
m v m v m v m v
m m
ρ 1500 kg ∗ 4 1000 kg ∗ 2
s s
m
ρ 4000 kg ∗
s
43
m m
ρ 1500 kg ∗ 2 1000 kg ∗ 2
s s
m
ρ 5000 kg ∗
s
ρ ρ
The initial momentum based on the convertible driver’s story is much closer to the momentum after the
collision. Although neither driver was completely correct, it’s clear that the estimate of 2 m/s is more
plausible than the sedan driver’s estimate of 8 m/s.
Questions
1) Which driver’s account appears to be the most accurate? Why?
Most likely each driver believes their account to be accurate; however, the truth is more likely
somewhere between their two accounts. The momentum equation for the information provided by
the driver of the sedan shows a momentum before collision of ‐200 kg * m/s and a momentum after
the collision of 5000 kg * m/s. We know these two values should be equal, and we are more certain
of the accuracy of the final momentum because both drivers agree on that point. The information
provided by the driver of the convertible results in a momentum of 4000 kg * m/s before the crash
which is much closer to the final momentum. Therefore, the information provided by the driver of
the convertible is most likely closer to the actual conditions present immediately prior to the
accident.
2) How might the results of the problem change if the convertible were replaced with a semi‐truck
(larger mass)?
The sedan would likely have been pushed in the opposite direction due to the large difference in
mass.
3) Would this collision be considered elastic or inelastic? Why?
While there may be some elastic properties, this collision would be considered inelastic because the
cars moved together after the impact rather than moving apart.
44
Activity 3B: Two‐dimensional Collision Analysis (Intermediate)

Activity Solution
1) Using vector notation (v = xi + yj m/s), describe the velocity of Car A immediately before the crash.
The equation for conservation of momentum should be used twice: once for components of velocity
in the x‐direction, and then for the components in the y‐direction. Alternatively, the equation can be
used once if the components in the x and y‐direction are kept separate as shown below. The only
unknown in the equation will be for the components of the initial velocity of Car A. Stated in vector
notation:
m m m m
v 1000 kg 0 1500 kg 0 1000 kg 2.4i 3.2j 1500 kg
s s s s
v 3.6i 4.8j m/s
2) What was the magnitude of the velocity of Car A immediately before the crash?
Using the Pythagorean Theorem:

m
| | 3.6 4.8 6
s
45
Activity 3C: Two‐dimensional Collision Analysis (Advanced)

Activity Solution
First, realize that the sum of momentums in the x‐direction (e.g., horizontally) will be equal. Before the
crash, the angle of Car A from the horizontal line was 63 degrees and the angle of Car B was 90 degrees.
Trigonometry can be used to determine the velocity of each car in vector notation.
To find the magnitude of the velocity, recall that velocity is a vector. Therefore, the magnitude can be
found using Pythagorean’s Theorem.
VAsin Ө
VA
VAy
θ
VAx VAcos Ө
1) Use trigonometry to determine the initial velocity of the cars in vector notation.
m
V 4 cos 63 i 4 sin 63 j
s
m
V 1.816i 3.564j
s
m
V 0i 3.0j
s
2) After the collision, what was the velocity, magnitude, and direction of Car B?
m m m m
1500 kg 1.816i 3.564j 0i 3.0j 1500 kg 0.75i 2.0j V
s s s s
m
V 1.066i 4.564j
s
m
|V | 4.687
s
3) Clear communication is essential to engineers for relaying their findings to people who have an
interest in the results. How would you communicate the direction of travel of Car B to a person who
may not have a picture of the crash site?
Communicating in vector notation such as 1.066 m/s north and 4.564 m/s east or 4.687 m/s at a
bearing of 13.1 degrees (measured clockwise of north on a compass) would clearly establish the
direction of travel for the car.
46
Research Manual Activity 3: Collision Analysis

Introduction
In this activity, you will learn to calculate the velocity of a vehicle in a collision using the Law of
Conservation of Momentum. You will be given a variety of situations involving the mass, velocity, and
direction of cars, and then you will determine information about the collisions between the two
vehicles.
Objective
In these experiments, you will learn to do the following:
 Activity 3A: Compare two differing scenarios using the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
 Activity 3B: Perform two‐dimensional collision analysis using the Pythagorean Theorem.
 Activity 3C: Perform two‐dimensional collision analysis using trigonometry.
Background
Engineers study collisions to assess the integrity of a vehicle’s structure and to understand what events
occurred before and during an accident. When two or more vehicles collide, some or all of the
momentum of one vehicle is transferred to the other vehicle. This process yields information about the
instant of the collision. It does not tell anything about what happens beyond this moment in time. To
investigate the characteristics of an accident beyond this instant involves applying kinematics and Sir
Isaac Newton’s laws of motion. Motion analysis after a collision is beyond the scope of this module.
In studying the various types of collisions, there are two extremes: elastic and inelastic. Before a collision
occurs, one or both of the objects is in motion and, therefore, has kinetic energy. In a perfectly elastic
collision, no kinetic energy is transformed into other forms (such as sound and heat), and the objects
will bounce off each other. In reality, a perfectly elastic collision does not occur, because there will
always be some transformed energy. Energy is required to make sound and bend metal. Even the
compression of a spring generates heat energy. When the transformation of kinetic energy is significant,
the objects will not fully rebound and may even stick together. We call this an inelastic collision.
Momentum is conserved in both elastic and inelastic collisions, as the Law of Conservation of
Momentum is independent of the energy relationships.
The Law of Conservation of Momentum applies to both elastic and inelastic collisions and can be stated
many ways. One of those ways is to say the following: the sum of the momentum of all the vehicles
before a collision equals the sum of the momentum of all vehicles after a collision. Mathematically, this
can be stated as:
m v m v m v m v
47
m v v m v v
Where:
m = mass
v = velocity
The simplest collision occurs between two vehicles that impact bumper to bumper in an inelastic
collision along a straight line.
We will apply this concept to the example problem as shown in Figure 3‐1 below.
Figure 3‐1: Collision Analysis Example
In this example, the following data is known before the collision occurs:
Car A has a mass of 2100 kg and is moving to the right at a velocity of 3 m/s.
Car B has a mass of 1400 kg and is moving to the left at a velocity of ‐1 m/s. (The velocity is negative
because Car B is moving in the opposite direction as Car A.)
To find the total momentum of the cars before the collision, use the following equation:
ρi mavai mbvbi
2100 kg 3 m/s 1400 kg ‐1 m/s
4900 kg * m/s
Similarly, to find the total momentum of the cars after the collision, use the following equation:
ρf mavaf mbvbf
2100 kg 1.4 m/s 1400 kg 1.4 m/s
4900 kg * m/s
The Law of Conservation of Momentum is clearly demonstrated here, as the momentum is the same
before and after the collision. As previously discussed, kinetic energy may have been converted to
48
produce sound and heat and to bend the bumpers of the cars, but the momentum is still conserved
independently of that energy transformation.
The previous example shows the Law of Conservation of Momentum for objects traveling in one‐
dimension, i.e. along a line. When objects are traveling along paths represented by two different lines,
we need to consider a two‐dimensional problem (i.e. objects on a flat surface). Here is where vectors
become useful in the calculations.
A vector is defined as a quantity with a magnitude (represented by the length of a line) and a direction
(represented by an arrow), like a car traveling down a road. The car is moving with a certain speed (as
seen on the speedometer) in a direction defined by the road. Consider a vehicle (Car A) traveling
northeast at 5 m/s with a component in the eastern direction of 3 m/s and a component to the north of
4 m/s, as shown in Figure 3‐2. The magnitude of the car along its line of travel can be found from its
components in the east/west and north/south directions by using the Pythagorean Theorem. Engineers
often break measurements down into coordinates or components along reference lines. The most
common way to do this is using directions, N/S, E/W or by using a graph with an x‐y coordinate system.
Figure 3‐2: Viewing Velocity in Vector Quantities
If a second vehicle (Car B) is traveling southwest with a western component of 5 m/s and a southern
component of 3 m/s and collides with Car A, we can use the Law of Conservation of Momentum for the
east/west components of travel and the north/south components to determine the outcome of the
collision. If we graph the motion of these two vehicles on an x‐y coordinate system, as shown in Figure
3‐3, we will show Car A moving 3 m/s in the x‐direction and 4 m/s in the y‐direction. Car B will be shown
moving ‐5 m/s in the x‐direction and ‐3 m/s in the y‐direction.
Generally, we will use an x‐y coordinate system to represent problems like these, where the x‐axis
represents the east/west direction and the y‐axis represents the north/south axis (see Figure 3‐3).
49
3 m/s
y
5 m/s
5 m/s
4 m/s
3 m/s
Figure 3‐3: Understanding Vectors
Note: Engineers often use “vector notation” where “i” represents one “unit” in the x‐direction and “j”
represents one “unit” in the y‐direction. This makes it easier to communicate with other engineers when
working on a problem and simplifies the calculations. An engineer would describe the velocity of Car A
and Car B as:
m
v 3i 4j
s
m
v 5i 3j
s
This simplifies calculations by allowing engineers to focus on motion along one line in either the x‐
direction or the y‐direction, just as you saw in the previous example.
The calculations involved in applying the Law of Conservation of Momentum to two dimensions are the
same as with one dimension, only we must consider both the x‐ and y‐directions of travel individually.
We can use the Pythagorean Theorem to determine the magnitude of the result; however, in order to
understand the direction of the motion, we must keep the x‐ and y‐ components separate.
Materials
Item Quantity
Paper As needed
Calculator 1 per student
50
Activity 3A: One Dimensional Accident Analysis

Set Up
You will work individually or in teams of two to find the solution to a story problem involving eyewitness
observations of an automobile accident.
Procedure
Read the following story problem and solve for the convertible’s velocity in each scenario in the area
provided in the Research Notes section.
You are a police officer who has been called to the scene of a collision. When you arrive and speak to
the drivers, they each tell a different version of the story. Neither driver knows exactly how fast they
were driving. As shown in the figures below, the collision happened as the driver in the sedan was
moving forward and the driver in the convertible was backing up.
The driver of the sedan tells you they were moving forward at 4 m/s, while the driver of the convertible
backed up twice as fast (Figure 3‐4). The driver of the convertible tells you the sedan driver was moving
at 4 m/s, but the convertible was only going half that speed at 2 m/s (Figure 3‐4). After the collision,
several bystanders observed the two vehicles moving at 2 m/s.
To find which driver’s version of the incident is more accurate, use the mathematical equation for the
Law of Conservation of Momentum. Calculate the momentum before the collision based on each
driver’s story, and then calculate the momentum after the collision based on bystander accounts. Use
your Research Notes handout to conduct your calculations and determine the most likely scenario prior
to the collision.
Before Collision
After Collision
Before Collision
Figure 3‐4: Varying Accounts of Instance Prior to Collision
51
Activity 3B: Two‐dimensional Collision Analysis (Intermediate)

Set Up
You will work individually or in teams of two to find the solution to a story problem involving a collision
between two vehicles while one was traveling at an angle to the other on a flat surface.
Procedure
Use the information from the following story problem and Figure 3‐5 to solve for the initial velocity of
Car A in the area provided in the Research Notes section.
Car B, which has a mass of 1500 kg, was sitting at rest when it was struck from behind by Car A, which
has a mass of 1000 kg. After the collision, Car A was at rest, while Car B was sent down the road at 2.4
m/s and to the right 3.2 m/s. Using the equation for the Law of Conservation of Momentum, solve for
the velocity of Car A BEFORE the collision.
Before After
1000 kg 1000 kg
Car A
Vi = ? Vf = 0
1500 kg
1500 kg
Car B Vf = 2.4i +
Vi = 0 m/s
3.2j (m/s)
Figure 3‐5: Solve for the Velocity of Car A before the

Collision
52
Activity 3C: Two‐dimensional Collision Analysis (Advanced)

Set Up
You will work individually or in teams of two to find the solution to a story problem involving a collision
between two moving vehicles traveling along different paths on a flat surface.
Procedure
Use the information from the following story problem and Figure 3‐6 and to solve for the velocity,
magnitude, and direction of Car B in the area provided in the Research Notes section.
In a stock car race, two cars bump during the lap prior to the beginning of the race. Below there is a
depiction of the collision. Onboard computers provide the velocities of the car before and after the
collision, however, the onboard computer in Car B was broken during the collision and did not record
the velocity after the collision. What is the velocity (magnitude and direction) of Car B after the
collision?
Figure 3‐6: Determine the Final Velocity of Car B
Before After
1500 kg
1500 kg
Car A vf = 0.75i + 2j
vi = *
m/s
1500 kg 1500 kg
Car B
vi = * vf = ?
* Use Figure 3‐6 to determine the vector notation for the velocities before the collision.
53
Research Notes Activity 3: Collision Analysis
Activity 3A: Accident Analysis

Equations
Law of Conservation of Momentum
m v m v m v m v
Where:
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
Before Collision
After Collision
Before Collision
Activity Solution
54
Questions
1) Which driver’s account appears to be the most accurate? Why?
2) How might the results of the problem change if the convertible were replaced with a semi‐truck
(larger mass)?
3) Would this collision be considered elastic or inelastic? Why?
Discussion Notes
55
Activity 3B: Two‐dimensional Collision Analysis

Equations
m v m v m v m v
Where:
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
Activity Solution
56
Questions
1) Using vector notation (v = ? i + ? j m/s), describe the velocity of Car A immediately before the crash.
2) What was the magnitude of the velocity of Car A immediately before the crash?
Discussion Notes
57
Activity 3C: Two‐dimensional Collision Analysis

Equations
m v m v m v m v
Where:
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
Activity Solution
58
Questions
1) Use trigonometry to determine the initial velocity of the cars in vector notation.
2) After the collision, what was the velocity, magnitude, and direction of Car B?
3) Clear communication is essential to engineers for relaying their findings to people who have an
interest in the results. How would you communicate the direction of travel of Car B to a person who
may not have a picture of the crash site?
Discussion Notes
59
Instructor’s Reference Activity 4: Impulse
Activity 4: Impulse
Activity Summary
Grade/Class 6 ‐ 8 Physical Science/ 9 ‐ 12 Physics

Suggested Activity
Teams of two
Grouping
Technology Low Tech
Science as inquiry
National Science
Design a product
Education Standards
Evaluate product
Introduction
In this activity, students will observe how various factors affect the impulse an object experiences in a
collision. In the first activity, students will toss water balloons of two different masses (fully filled and
partially filled) back and forth until each pops. Students will see firsthand how changing either the
distance or the mass of the balloon affects the care with which the balloon must be caught to avoid
breaking. In the second activity, students will toss an egg at a bed sheet to demonstrate how the sheet
imparts an impulse that changes the momentum of the egg until it comes to a stop without breaking.
Objective
In these experiments, students will observe the following:
 Activity 4A: Relationship between mass and impulse in a collision.

 Activity 4B: Relationship between change in velocity and impulse in a collision.
Throwing Balls
The water balloons and eggs were selected to demonstrate impulse because of their fragile nature. Both
of these activities require plenty of space; therefore, going outside is recommended. These activities
could be demonstrated inside with a variety of balls. Activity 4A could be reproduced with two balls, a
light ball and a heavier ball. The students will find that the lighter ball thrown at the same speed as the
heavier ball will not require as much cradling to stop as the heavy ball. The effect of velocity on impulse
could be explained by talking about how the balls are cradled during a catch so that impact against the
hands and arms is lessened. Your hands don’t sting if a ball is properly cradled during a catch. This allows
the ball to slow to a stop over a greater period of time.
60
Instructor’s Reference Activity 4: Impulse
Trajectory Motion
During the water balloon toss, some teams may toss the balloons high in the air. In addition to velocity
and distance, Trajectory motion could be discussed. Students could estimate the distance the balloon
traveled along a parabola and include the acceleration of gravity if the height of the balloon is known or
can be approximated.
61
Instructor’s Answer Key & Discussion Ideas Activity 4: Impulse
Activity 4: Impulse
General Activity Discussion
Impulse is a concept that most of us understand, although many of us have probably not thought of the
contributing forces. Have you ever caught a ball only to have your hand sting? If you compensated on
the next catch by cradling the ball, you have an understanding of the concept of impulse. Impulse shows
how the effect of a force on an object is dependent on the amount of time the force is applied.
Impulse is why traffic safety devices are used on highway systems in areas where obstructions are near
the roadway. Have you ever noticed what looks like a series of barrels in front of a concrete pier or an
overpass? These are generally filled with water and are designed to slow a vehicle down over a greater
period of time than if the vehicle crashed into the concrete pier directly. Damage is greatly reduced by
slowing down over a period of time.
Activity 4A: Water Balloon Toss

Record your data from the water balloon toss in the table below. Place a  where you completed a toss.
Place an  where the balloon popped. **Example data inserted below.**
Mass of Distance of Toss (m)

water
balloon (kg) 2m 4m 6m 8m 10 m
Average‐
sized water 1 kg   
balloon
Small water
balloon
0.5 kg     
Questions
1) Which balloon popped more quickly? Explain why the mass of the balloon affected how you caught
the balloon.
The average‐filled balloon should have popped more quickly than the small balloon. The greater
mass will require more time to slow down without causing adverse effects (popping).
62
2) Explain how other factors (aside from mass) impacted the number of tosses (and, therefore, the
distance between tosses) it took to pop each balloon.
Surface tension of the balloon also comes into play, as well as any variations in the thickness or
strength of the material used to make the balloon. In civil engineering, variations in material
properties or dimensions are called construction tolerances. Some variation is expected and
allowable, but too much variation, and the work may be rejected or replaced.
3) Think about which students were able to toss their balloons from the greatest distance. How did
their technique change their results? Think in terms of impulse.
Students successful in tossing and catching their balloons a great distance were careful to bring the
balloons up to speed over a period of time and likewise slow them to a stop over a period of time.
4) What would happen if you caught the balloon without cradling it?
The balloon would be more likely to break.
Discussion
Most students, when presented with this activity, realize that they needed to cradle the balloon in order
to successfully catch it. These students were applying the concept of impulse by increasing the time in
order to decrease the impulse force. Students could discuss ways in which the concept of impulse is
used to increase the safety of both vehicles and highway structures.
63
Activity 4B: Egg Catch

Questions
1) If not for the sheet, the egg would have hit the wall. We know the egg would have broken from the
impact with the wall. How was the collision different between the egg and the sheet?
The egg doesn’t break because the sheet increases the distance in which the egg has to come to a
stop and, therefore, increases the time to stop the egg. As shown below, the collision between the
egg and the wall happens instantaneously and breaks the egg, while the collision between the egg
and the sheet occurs over a greater distance and takes more time. This means the impulse between
the egg and the wall was greater than between the egg and the sheet.
Time to stop
in the sheet
Wall
CRACK
Egg
A greater distance to stop means a greater time

to come to a rest. This results in a smaller force
acting on the egg.
2) Did an increase in velocity break the egg? Why or why not?
Even if they manage to throw the egg with greater velocity, the students should not be able to break
the egg. The sheet will provide enough distance for the egg to stop over time and will result in the
egg surviving the toss.
3) What would happen if the sheet were pulled very tight by the students holding it? Do you think the
egg would break?
A tighter sheet will lead to a higher impulse, however as tight as the students are able to stretch the
sheet, it will still not be enough to increase the impulse to a point where the egg will break.
Discussion
While some eggs may be broken due to poor aim by the students, eggs that hit the sheet will not break.
Discuss how this activity relates to traffic attenuation devices, such as water‐filled barrels placed in front
of bridge piers.
64
Research Manual Activity 4: Impulse
Activity 4: Impulse
Introduction
In this activity, you will observe how various factors affect the impulse an object experiences in a
collision. Activity 4A will demonstrate how the mass of an object affects impulse through different sized
water balloons. Activity 4B will demonstrate how the velocity of an object affects the impulse of a
collision by tossing an egg into a sheet at various speeds.
Objective
 Activity 4A: Relationship between mass and impulse in a collision

 Activity 4B: Relationship between velocity and impulse in a collision
Background
The Law of Conservation of Momentum states that the total momentum of two objects before a
collision is equal to the total momentum of the two objects after a collision. As the previous activities in
this module have demonstrated, the momentum of each object usually changes after the collision. That
change in momentum is known as impulse.
Momentum and impulse are related by Newton’s First and Second Laws of Motion.
Momentum is calculated by multiplying the object’s mass by its velocity, which can be written
mathematically as:
ρ mv
From Newton’s First Law, we know that an object will remain in motion unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force. Therefore, an object’s momentum will remain constant if not influenced by outside
factors. Assuming an object’s mass doesn’t change, then any change to an object’s momentum must
come from a change in its velocity (an acceleration).
Acceleration is equal to a change in velocity over time, which can be written mathematically as:
∆v
a
t
Newton’s Second Law states that the force applied by an object is equal to its mass multiplied by its
acceleration. Mathematically, this is written as:
F ma
If the equation for acceleration is substituted in for “a,” the equation can be written as:
∆v
F m ∗
t
65
If we look at Newton’s Second Law, F = m * v / t, and multiply both sides of the equation by “t,” we have
the relationship for impulse.
Impulse Relationship
F∗t m ∗ ∆v
Where:
F = force
t = time
F * t = impulse
m = mass
∆v =change in velocity
Because we already know that impulse is equal to force multiplied by time, we can also say that impulse
is equal to mass multiplied by the change in velocity.
Have you ever heard the phrase “roll with the punches”? It usually means that you’re prepared to deal
with issues as they arise. Although the phrase is applicable to a variety of situations, its origin has some
scientific reasoning behind it, and that reasoning helps us to visualize impulse. When a boxer is about to
be hit in the head, they relax their neck and move their head back with the hit, or they roll with the
punch. One might think that the boxer is trying to move out of the way, but the velocity at which they
move their head is insignificant compared to the incoming punch. Instead, the boxer is increasing the
amount of time over which the punch is distributed and, therefore, decreasing the impulse and
minimizing its effect. The relationship between time and force in a collision is a concept we will explore
in the following activities.
Why is it necessary to know these equations? They help us to understand how the individual
components can affect the resulting collision. In a car collision, we know that the mass of the car is a
constant, meaning the value will not change. The change in velocity is also constant, which means that
increasing the time will distribute the force applied during the collision. Like the boxer, an engineer
wants to extend the amount of time over which a collision occurs to offer the least possible amount of
injury to the occupants of the car. Knowing which variables won’t change allows us to see which variable
to solve for and, therefore, how to manipulate the equation.
If mass and the change in velocity are constant, then any change in time will affect the impulse force.
This is the backbone to understanding collisions and how to create safety barriers.
66

Materials
Item Quantity
Average‐sized water balloon 1 per student
Small water balloon 1 per student
Setup
You will work in teams of two for this activity. Students will toss the balloon back and forth between
each other.
Procedure
1. Fill two water balloons, one to an average size and one smaller than average.
2. Before beginning the balloon toss, measure the mass of each balloon. Record it in the Research
Notes section.
3. Begin with the average‐sized water balloon. Stand about 2 meters from your partner and toss
the balloon to him or her, trying not to break it, as shown in Figure 4‐1.
Figure 4‐1: Water Balloon Toss
4. If your partner catches the balloon successfully, you should each step backward until you are
about 4 meters apart. Toss the balloon again. Record the distance of the toss in the Research
Notes section.
5. Step backward until an additional 2 meters separates you and your partner. Record the distance
of the toss in the Research Notes section.
6. Repeat step 5 until the balloon pops.
7. Complete the table in the Research Notes section.
8. Repeat steps 2 through 7 using the small water balloon.
9. Proceed to the questions in the Research Notes section.
67

Materials
Item Quantity
Large egg 1
Bed sheet 1
Meter stick 1
Setup
You will work in teams of three or as a class for this activity. Two students will hold the bed sheet about
one meter in front of a wall, then one student will toss the egg into the sheet.
Procedure
1. With two students holding the bed sheet as shown in Figure 4‐2, one student should toss the
egg at the sheet. The student tossing the egg may choose how near or far away to stand, but the
recommended distance is about 3‐5 meters (10‐15 feet) away from the sheet.
Figure 4‐2: Egg Toss
2. Rotate positions so that each student has a chance to toss the egg.
3. Repeat step 3 until all students in the group have tossed the egg at least once.
4. Proceed to the questions in the Research Notes section.
68
Research Notes Activity 4: Impulse

Record your data from the water balloon toss in the table below. Place a  where you completed a toss.
Place an  where the balloon popped.
Mass of Distance of Toss (m)

water
balloon
Average‐
sized water
balloon
Small water
balloon
Questions
1) Which balloon popped more quickly? Explain why the mass of the balloon affected how you caught
the balloon.
2) Explain how other factors (aside from mass) impacted the number of times it took to pop each
balloon.
3) Think about which students were able to toss their balloons from the greatest distance. How did their
technique change their results? Think in terms of impulse.
69
4) What would happen if you caught the balloon without cradling it?
Discussion Notes
70

Questions
1) If not for the sheet, the egg would have hit the wall. We know that the egg would have broken from
the impact with the wall. How was the collision different between the egg and the sheet?
2) Did either increased force or velocity break the egg? Why or why not?
3) What would happen if the sheet were pulled very tight by the students holding it? Do you think the
egg would break?
Discussion Notes
71
Instructor’s Reference Activity 5: Egg Drop

Activity Summary
Instructor Prep Time 10 minutes reading; 20 minutes lab prep
Grade/Class 9 ‐ 12 Beginner
Suggested Activity
Individual or small group teams
Grouping
Technology Low Tech
Science as inquiry
National Science
Design a product
Education Standards
Evaluate product
Introduction
In this activity, students will design a structure that will protect an egg through a series of drops from
increasing heights. Students will consider what they’ve learned about impulse and will visualize the
collision before designing their structures. They will also apply their knowledge in a discussion on real‐
world safety devices implemented in automobiles.
Objective
 Demonstrate their understanding of impulse while building a protective structure for a series of
collisions.
 Apply their knowledge of the factors of the collision when designing the structure.
 Perform the calculations for momentum and impulse during the collisions.

If class time is not sufficient for completing construction and testing of an egg drop structure, a virtual
egg drop simulation could be used to model this activity. The questions and discussion activities would
remain the same.
Egg Drop Interactive: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics‐Interactives/Momentum‐and‐

Collisions/Egg‐Drop/Egg‐Drop‐Interactive
72
Instructor’s Answer Key & Discussion Ideas Activity 5: Egg Drop

Questions
1) What considerations did you take into account to ensure the safety of your egg?
If the egg drops directly onto the floor, it will break. The structure built around the egg must be such
that the impact on the egg is minimized; therefore, students should think about ways to either fail
sections of their structure or cushion the egg. Both of these approaches will increase the time in
which the egg comes to a stop and, therefore, decreases the impulse applied to the egg.
2) In comparing your design to others, what did you notice about the most effective designs? How
about the least effective? Explain.
Answers will vary, but the most effective designs should cushion the eggs, or portions of the
structure should have been designed to fail so that the egg came to a stop more slowly than if the
structure were not there. Therefore, the impulse force on the egg was lessened.
3) Based on the impulse equation (Impulse = F * t), in order for an egg to survive an impact, should
the egg take a longer or shorter time to come to a complete stop? Compare this with the impact force
estimated for direct contact with a hard surface.
Based on the impulse equation, a longer time of impact will result in a lesser impulse force. This can
be seen from the equation for impact force, As time increases, force must be reduced to achieve the
same impulse. A protective structure is designed to extend the time required to make a complete
stop, as compared to the short time that would be experienced by dropping the egg onto a hard
surface alone.
4) Compare the average velocity to the impact velocity, based on the acceleration of gravity. Why
might these two values differ?
It is important to first realize that the average velocity is the average between no velocity at the
beginning of the fall and the impact velocity at the end, so the average should be approximately half
of the impact velocity. Human error in measuring the velocity will be a large contributor to the
difference in values, especially over shorter free‐fall distances. Air resistance is another large
contributor.
Discussion
This activity explores the concepts of inertia and impulse and how these concepts are used in order to
protect against excessive forces. These concepts are the basis for airbags and crumple zones in cars. One
topic of discussion could be the proper inflation of an airbag. If it is overinflated the airbag will not
distribute the impact force slowly enough; however, if it is underinflated it may not be able to
adequately resist the force.
73
Research Manual Activity 5: Egg Drop

Introduction
In this activity, you will design a structure that will protect an egg through a series of drops from
increasing heights.
Objective
You will be able to:
 Demonstrate your understanding of impulse while building a protective structure for a series of
collisions.
 Apply your knowledge of the factors in collisions when designing the structure.
 Perform the calculations for momentum and impulse during the collisions.
Background
When a car crashes, even though the car may stop, the driver continues to move forward due to inertia.
Inertia is the resistance of an object to change its state of motion. Newton’s First Law of Motion states
that an object in motion (in this case the driver) will continue to move in a straight line unless acted
upon by an outside force. Airbags are an outside force, they react to the collision by inflating and
distributing the force over time. For our purpose, the egg in this activity will represent the driver and the
support you build will behave similarly to an airbag.
Newton explained the relationship between force and inertia in his Second Law of Motion. Your egg will
accelerate toward the ground due to gravity. Newton’s Second Law of Motion states that the force
applied to an object is equal to its mass multiplied by its acceleration. Mathematically, this is written as:
F ma
Because acceleration is a change in velocity over a period of time, Newton’s Second Law can also be
written as:
∆v
F m∗
t
If both sides of the equation are multiplied by time, the resulting equation is:
Impulse Relationship
F∗t m ∗ ∆v
Where:
F = force
t = time
F * t = impulse
m = mass
∆v =change in velocity
74
Impulse is represented by the left side of this equation, or the force applied to an object multiplied by
the duration of time the force is applied, which can be presented mathematically as:
Impulse F∗ t
These equations represent one of the two primary principles to be used in the analysis of collisions. The
physics of collisions are governed by the laws of momentum. In a collision, objects experience an
impulse, which is a change in momentum.
Consider the following example: rock climbers attach themselves to steep cliffs using nylon ropes.
Should they lose their grip on the rock and fall, the rope will ultimately halt their momentum and
prevent them from falling to the ground. Nylon rope is chosen because of its ability to stretch—a rope
that is unable to stretch would jolt the climber’s body and potentially hurt them in the case of a fall. The
nylon rope stretches and increases the stopping time, which reduces the impulse force exerted on the
falling climber. In this activity, you will learn how the design choices you make to protect your egg relate
to the nylon ropes used by rock climbers.
Materials
Per student or small group
Item Quantity
Large egg 1
Popsicle sticks 20
Straws 10
Rubber bands 6
Sheets of paper 2
Paper Dixie cups 4
String 100 cm
Masking tape 100 cm
Glue 1
Stopwatch 1
Paper As needed
Setup
For this activity, you will design and build a structure that will protect an egg from breaking when
dropped from various heights, starting at one meter. You may use only the materials given to you by
your instructor; however, you do not have to use all the materials in your design. When designing your
structure, consider how it will change the impulse of the collision between the egg and the ground. Your
goal is to decrease the amount of force that will be applied to the egg in order to minimize the damage.
Procedure
1. Create a detailed drawing of what you plan to build using the materials provided by your
instructor.
2. Gather your materials from your instructor.
3. Build a structure that will protect the egg when it is dropped.
75
4. Measure the mass of the egg and the structure separately. Record both masses in the Research
Notes section.
5. Start by dropping your structure with an egg from a height of one meter. Time the drop using a
stopwatch, and record the time in the Research Notes section.
6. For structures where the egg survived the fall, move to the next drop point to test the structures
again.
7. Continue increasing the drop height until all eggs have broken or there are no higher points
from which to drop the eggs.
8. Calculate the average velocity, acceleration, force, and momentum of the final fall (which will
have broken the egg or ended the contest), and record them in the Research Notes section.
76
Research Notes Activity 5: Egg Drop
Activity 5: Egg Drop What’s gravity got to do with it?
Equations
Momentum
ρ mv
t 0s, v 0m/s
t 1s,
Where:
v 9.8m/s
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
t 2s,
v 19.6m/s
Average Velocity Time
d (given impact velocity)
v
t v
t t 3s,
Where: g v 29.4m/s
d = distance (m)
t = time (s) Where:
t = time of fall (s)
g = acceleration of
Impact Velocity gravity (9.81 m/s2)
t 4s,
v 2hg Or
v 39.2m/s
Where: Time (given height)

h = height of drop (m)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2) 2h
t
g
Where:
Impact Force t = time of fall (s)
∆v g = acceleration of
f m gravity (9.81 m/s2) t 5s,
t v 49.0m/s
h = height (m)
Where:
m = mass (kg)
When you drop an object, the rate in which it falls
∆v = change in velocity (velocity at
(velocity) increases over time due to the
impact/motionless)
acceleration of gravity. This can be seen in the figure
t = stopping time (s)
above (right), which shows a ball being dropped
along with the location and corresponding velocity
of the ball in one second increments. Knowing the
acceleration of gravity and the height of the drop,
we can use physics, instead of a stop watch, to
calculate the time of the fall and the impact velocity
using the above equations.
77
*NOTE: The force at impact can be estimated for an egg striking a hard surface by using an estimated
stopping time of 0.003 seconds, during which the egg transitions from its impact velocity to zero. The
impact force felt by your egg will be less than this force due to your structure increasing the stopping
time over which the egg slows down.
Data Table
Data
Mass of Egg (kg)
Mass of Structure (kg)
Height of Final Drop (m)
Drop Time (s)
Average Velocity (m/s)
Impact Velocity (m/s)
Impact Momentum
(kg*m/s)
Impact Force (N)
*Assume contact with

hard surface (t = 0.003s)
78
Questions
1) What considerations did you take into account to ensure the safety of your egg?
2) In comparing your design to others, what did you notice about the most effective designs? How
about the least effective? Explain.
3) Based on the impulse equation (Impulse = F * t), in order for an egg to survive an impact, should the
egg take a longer or shorter time to come to a complete stop? Compare this with the impact force
estimated for direct contact with a hard surface.
4) Compare the average velocity to the impact velocity, based on the acceleration of gravity. Why might
these two values differ?
Discussion Notes
79
Instructor’s Reference Activity 6: Major Impacts

Activity Summary
Class Time 50 minute class period
Grade/Class 9 ‐ 12 Physics
Suggested Activity
Individual or groups of two
Grouping
Technology Low Tech
Science as inquiry
National Science
Design a product
Education Standards
Evaluate product
Introduction
This activity will combine the concepts learned throughout this module into a class competition.
Students will design crash barriers to withstand the impact of a vehicle running down a track, while
having a limited budget for materials. The vehicle will crash into a force sensor positioned at the end of
the track that is connected to the LabQuest 2 which will display the impact force of the crash barrier
collision. The most effective crash barriers will increase the amount of time it takes for a vehicle to come
to a stop due to the impulse relationship, where increasing impact time will decrease impact force.
Objective
In this experiment, students will:
 Use their understanding of momentum and impulse to create an effective crash barrier.
 Learn about different crash barriers implemented on roadways.
 Allocate funds to make a cost effective design.
Round of Applause
Have students clap their hands as hard as they can. Can they feel the impact? Ask students what they
could do to soften the impact felt as a result of this clap. They could wear mittens or gloves, but what
should the mittens/gloves be made of (plastic, leather, knitted to different thicknesses, etc.)? Relating
this to crash barriers, certain materials are selected to build crash barriers based on their ability to
reduce impact force.
80
Instructor’s Reference Activity 6: Major Impacts
Video – Understanding Car Crashes: It’s Basic Physics

The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) has several excellent videos to teach middle and high
school students about safety. “Understanding Car Crashes: It’s Basic Physics” is a 22 minute video
showing the physics involved in car crashes and ways in which car manufacturers try to mitigate the
harmful effects of automobile accidents. A DVD of this video is available to purchase from the IIHS
website and is available to watch on their YouTube channel:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yUpiV2I_IRI
The host of the video has also developed a Teacher’s Guide to accompany the video:
https://education.ufl.edu/gjones/files/2013/04/teachers_guidePhysics.pdf
Trial and Error

In this activity students build and test a crash barrier. You could have students perform this activity, then
repeat it to improve their design and make a more effective crash barrier. Therefore, students learn not
only about applying impulse and momentum, but also the scientific process.
Look Around You

There are likely many types of crash barriers used on roadways in your area that students encounter on
a regular basis. Have students identify different crash barriers that are introduced in the Background
section of the Research Manual. Ask them to look and see how many they can find on their way home at
the end of the day. Discuss the barriers they saw, and where they saw them. Were there any patterns to
where these barriers were placed?
81
Instructor’s Answer Key & Discussion Ideas Activity 6: Major Impacts

Questions
1) Why would it cause issues for the crash barrier if you added more mass to the vehicle?
If the mass of a vehicle increases, the momentum of the vehicle also increases if the velocity
remains constant. This means that the impulse force experienced during a collision is increased, and
the crash barrier that was able to handle the lighter vehicle may not be able to handle the more
massive vehicle. If the crash barrier does handle the crash, the impact force will be increased
(assuming that the barrier still brings the vehicle to a stop in the same amount of time).
2) How would a crash barrier built for high speed collisions differ from one built for low speed
collisions? Try to think of specific design choices you have seen in the real world.
A barrier built for higher speed collisions will need to absorb more impulse than a barrier for low
speed collisions. To do this safely, high speed crash barriers must substantially increase the impact
time in order to reduce impact force. This is often done by the use of moving components (read
about sequential kinking terminals in the Background section) or by using highly compressible
materials (read about crash cushion barriers in the Background section). A barrier for lower speed
collisions does not need as much time to safely stop the car due to the lower overall impulse.
Therefore, barrier designs for these scenarios are less complex.
3) What would happen if we reduced the angle of the track?
The vehicle would have less velocity; therefore, the momentum of the vehicle would decrease and
the impulse would be lower. This means that lower impact forces would be felt by the vehicle
crashing into the same barrier.
4) What did the successful groups do to create an effective barrier?
Answers will vary depending on the designs the class comes up with. Generally, successful groups
will show an understanding of impact by increasing the time needed to bring the vehicle to a stop,
either by cushioning the blow or by strategic failure of the crash barrier components.
5) How could you improve your design?
Again, answers will vary. Adding more cushioning or implementing a strategic failure mechanism will
allow increased performance.
Discussion
Students will need to combine their understanding of momentum and impulse in order to create an
efficient barrier. As with many things, the quality of construction is critical. Some students may design
parts of their attenuation device to fail, which is a good idea. Discuss how this type of system must be
weak enough to fail yet strong enough to withstand most of the force. What happens if unforeseen
conditions occur (i.e. an impact force lesser than or greater than what it was designed for)?
82
Research Manual Activity 6: Major Impacts

Introduction
Imagine you are biking, lose control, and have to choose between crashing into a stone wall or a bale of
hay. Hopefully, you would crash into the bale of hay because there would be less of an impact force
acting upon you than there would be resulting from the stone wall. This is the case because the hay
would slow you down over a greater amount of time, causing less damage than a sudden impact with
the stone wall.
In this activity, you will apply your understanding of momentum and impulse, learned in previous
activities, in attempt to safely stop a vehicle as it accelerates down an inclined track. To accomplish this,
you will design a crash barrier. Crash barriers are devices implemented on roadways to protect vehicles
from severe damage by reducing the impact force experienced by the vehicle. Your crash barrier will be
tested in a class competition, where the barrier that results in the lowest impact force will be declared
the most effective.
Objective
In this experiment, you will:
 Use your understanding of momentum and impulse to create an effective crash barrier.
 Learn about different crash barriers implemented on roadways.
 Allocate funds to make a cost effective design.
Background
There are many hazards that surround highways, some of which can cause serious injury to the
occupants of the vehicle in the case of a collision. For example, if a car traveling on the highway was to
lose control and crash into a bridge abutment, serious injuries could be expected. Not only would this
collision be dangerous for the occupants of the crashed vehicle, but also for other motorists who may be
affected by the resultant damage to the bridge. This is why we use impact attenuators, also known as
crash barriers, to minimize impact forces and limit injury resulting from crashes. These barriers are
placed in front of roadway hazards in order to distribute impact forces over a greater time period than if
a direct collision was to occur. Let us look at a few crash barriers implemented on roadways.
Guardrails, as shown in Figure 6‐1, are placed parallel to roadways and are designed to protect vehicles
in the event of a side impact with the rail. The guardrail on the left side of Figure 6‐1 is attached directly
to the steel posts in the ground, and will not give or flex much in the event of a side impact. The
guardrail on the right will flex upon impact, because of the wooden blocks between the rail and the
posts. These wooden blocks will compact upon impact, and allow more room for the rail to flex. This
extra room to flex means more time for the vehicle to stop, which, in turn, means a lower impact force
is applied to the vehicle. Traffic engineers will preferably implement guardrails with these wooden
blocks, especially when designing a guardrail around a curve. This is because more force is exerted on a
guardrail during an angled crash by a vehicle failing to navigate a curve then a sideswipe hit by a vehicle
driving while parallel to the roadway.
83
Figure 6‐1: Guardrails Protect Against Side Impact with Rail

Figure 6‐2 shows a blunt terminal attached to the end of a steel gaurdrail. A blunt terminal is a type of
crash barrier that is implemented in slow‐traffic areas, and can distribute small impact forces over a
longer period of time than the end of the gaurdrail alone. However, if a fast‐moving vehicle were to
impact with this terminal, the rail could penetrate the vehicle or cause it to flip, because the impulse
experienced is higher than the terminal is able to handle. For this reason, this type of crash barrier is
only found in low‐speed areas.
Guardrail
Terminal
Figure 6‐2: Blunt Guardrail Terminal

Figure 6‐3 shows a sequential kinking terminal (SKT). An SKT works similar to a blunt terminal in that it is
placed on the end of a guardrail to absorb the impulse resulting from a car collision. The SKT has a large
square piece at its end, designed to be pushed and slid along the rail during a head‐on impact. As the
end piece slides, the wooden guardrail supports will break, resulting in the bending to absorb the
impact, out of the way of the vehicle. Because the rail bends gradually upon impact, the time to slow
down a vehicle is increased and, therefore, the force of impact is reduced. The wooden supports each
have a hole drilled in them near the bottom ensuring the post will break on impact, but break off close
enough to the ground as to not cause more damage to a vehicle. SKTs are found on roadways with
moderate speed limits, and can thus handle moderate impacts.
84
Figure 6‐3: Sequential Kinking Terminal and Energy Absorption Barrier

Guardrails are permanent structures; they are anchored to the ground and are meant to move only in
the event of an impact. To reduce injury from impact with a temporary hazard, such as construction
equipment, a different solution is needed, one that is both effective and easily transportable. One
solution is the use of crash cushion barrels, as shown in Figure 6‐4. These cushions are placed directly in
front of hazards, and work by compressing and deforming upon impact. This compression takes time,
and, therefore, the impact force is reduced. You will often see these on construction sites, or near
highway bridge abutments.
Figure 6‐4: Crash Cushion Barriers Figure 6‐5: Energy Absorption Barrier
Figure 6‐5 shows an energy absorption barrier. Usually implemented on trucks used on construction
sites, this barrier is attached to a hinge at the rear of a semi‐truck. In this picture, the stopped truck has
the barrier in its lowered (functioning) position while work is being done on a nearby road. The
absorption barrier acts as a super big bumper because if it is hit hard enough, the barrier will crumple
and deform. This will give the impacting vehicle more time to slow down. More impact time means a
lower impact force is exerted, not only on the impacting vehicle, but on the truck as well. In order for
appropriate use, rules are made to govern the use of these barriers. If this truck is parked in a 45 mph
speed zone or higher, the truck barrier is to be lowered into its functioning position. (The barrier shown
in Figure 6‐5 has sustained three impacts in less than one year’s time, and is still functioning!)
85
Materials
Item Quantity
Vernier LabQuest 2 1
Vernier Dual‐Range Force Sensor 1
Maglev Track 1
Pinewood Derby Car 1
Scissors 1 or more
Rulers 1 per group
Safety Glasses 1 per student
Barrier Materials (see below) Enough for class
Barrier Materials
Material Cost
Straws $6.00 each
Cardboard $0.50 per in2
Popsicle Stick $3.00 each
Toothpick $1.00 each
Masking Tape $0.50 per inch
Duct Tape $1.00 per inch
Setup
Your instructor will set up the track at an angle to create an inclined surface. The difference between the
two ends of the track should not exceed a height of 0.75 meters (2.5 feet) so that the impact of the
vehicle will not surpass the sensor’s threshold (±50 N). The sensor should be secured to the wooden
dowel and have the wood box placed around it (refer to Figure 6‐7). You will then place your
constructed crash barrier in front of the sensor. Set up of the LabQuest 2 system can be done by
following along in Appendix B: Setting Up the LabQuest 2 & Vernier Dual‐Range Force Sensor.
Your instructor will set up a store, containing the resources listed in the Barrier Materials table above.
The goal is to use the building materials to create a crash barrier that will minimize the force of impact
on the vehicle shown in Figure 6‐6. The vehicle runs down the track and makes contact with the sensor,
which will record the impact forces felt by the vehicle upon impact with the crash barrier. Keep in mind
that a lower impact force is desired.
The force felt by the occupants of the car as it crashes into the barrier is the same as the force observed
behind the barrier. For every force applied, there must be an equal and opposite reaction. Therefore
the force could be measured with a sensor placed on the car or by a sensor placed behind the crash
barrier. Mounting the sensor to the track behind the barrier helps protect it from potential damage,
such as being dropped, which could occur if mounted to the car.
86
Figure 6‐6: Vehicle
You have a budget of $30 to purchase supplies from the Barrier Materials table. You will work
individually or in teams of two, depending on the size of the class, to build a crash barrier, as determined
by your instructor. The barrier must fit entirely within the track. In order to do so, the barrier cannot
exceed a length of 4 inches, a height of 3 ½ inches, or a width of 2 ¾ inches.
Procedure
1. Review the available materials, and make a list of what you plan to purchase with your allotted
budget.
2. Create a detailed drawing of the barrier you plan to build.
3. Purchase your materials from your instructor.
4. Build your crash barrier.
5. Once the class is finished creating their barriers, it is time for the competition. First, send the
vehicle down from the top of the ramp to impact against the wall without a crash barrier in
place (see Figure 6‐7). Record the impact force (see Figure 6‐8 & Appendix B). You may want to
repeat this three times to achieve an average impact force. This will be used as a baseline value
to determine how effective your barrier is at reducing the impact force.
Figure 6‐7: Track Loaded with a Force Sensor
87
Figure 6‐8: Vehicle with LabQuest 2 Results Window
6. Repeat step five, only this time place your crash barrier in front of the wall at the end of the
track. Perform only one trial rather than three, as your barrier will likely become less effective
the more impacts it experiences. Record your resulting impact force in the Research Notes
section (see Figure 6‐7).
7. Repeat step 6 for every barrier in the class. The winning crash barrier has the lowest force at
impact.
8. Continue on to the calculations and questions in the Research Notes section.
88
Research Notes Activity 6: Major Impacts

Calculating Crash Barrier Score
Record the force given by the LabQuest 2 for each student/team, and determine which barrier reduced
the max force by the largest amount.
Max Force without Barrier = ________________
Team Force with Barrier Reduction of Max Force
Questions
1) Why would it cause issues for the crash barrier if you added more mass to the vehicle?
2) How would a crash barrier built for high‐speed collisions differ from one built for low‐speed
collisions? Try to think of specific design choices you have seen in the real world.
89
Research Notes Activity 6: Major Impacts
3) What would happen if we reduced the angle of the track?
4) What did the successful students/groups do to create an effective barrier?
5) How could you improve your design?
Discussion Notes
90
Appendix A: Document Links
Appendix A: Document Links

NCHRP 20‐52
Link: http://apps.trb.org/cmsfeed/TRBNetProjectDisplay.asp?ProjectID=609
The NCHRP 20‐52 final report details the completion of the original TRAC PAC 2 program, including the
original manual.
TRAC/Michigan Education Standards

Link: http://www.michigan.gov/mdot/0,4616,7‐151‐9623_38029_38059_41397‐184233‐‐,00.html
The Michigan Education Standards are outlined in terms of how TRAC meets the benchmark goals. This
page includes the standards for 6th, 7th, and 8th grades as well as high school standards. Both the TRAC
modules and bridge building competition are listed.
Manuals
Vernier LabQuest 2 User Manual: http://www2.vernier.com/manuals/labquest2_user_manual.pdf
Vernier Dual‐Range Force Sensor User Manual: https://www.vernier.com/files/manuals/dfs‐bta/dfs‐

bta.pdf
91
Appendix B: Setting Up the LabQuest 2 & Vernier Dual‐Range Force Sensor
Appendix B: Setting Up the LabQuest 2 & Vernier

Dual‐Range Force Sensor
1. Turn on the LabQuest 2.
2. On the Dual‐Range Force Sensor, set the force reading to ±50 N.
3. The LabQuest 2 should be connected to the Sensor by a cord plugged into the CH1 port on the
LabQuest 2.
4. In the top right corner are options allowing you to change the mode, sample rate, and duration.
These may need to be changed depending on the setup in order to show all of the collected
data.
5. Be sure to set the sample rate to 200 samples per second in order to get accurate and consistent
data collection. This can be done by clicking on the sample box and entering 200 into the rate
text box. (Note: The sample rate will reset to 50 samples per second each time it is turned off.)
6. When you are ready to run the experiment press play in the bottom left corner.
7. After a moment a graph will display showing the force data collected by the sensor. Keep an eye
on the screen, when an impact force is collected you will see a downward spike in the data.
After impact has occurred press the stop button in the lower left corner of the screen to stop
collecting data.
8. The impact force is recorded as a negative number because the force is in compression. Go to
the Analyze menu and select Statistics and then check the button by Force to view the maximum
and minimum values in the collected data.
9. The minimum value is the greatest compressive force measured during the test and corresponds
to the force at impact.
10. Repeat procedure starting at step 6 for additional trials.
Note: If further instruction is needed, turn to the Appendix A: Document Links. Here you will find links
that will take you to the user manual for the LabQuest 2 and/or the Dual‐Range Force Sensor.
92
Appendix C: Glossary of Terms

Acceleration (a): Physical vector quantity that is defined as the rate at which an object changes its
velocity. (velocity / time)
Acceleration of Gravity: Acceleration of an object due to the effects of gravity.
Air Resistance: A force resisting motion that acts on an object as it moves through air. This is a unique
type of friction force. Also known as drag or wind resistance.
Average Velocity: The distance from a start to an end location over a period of time. This is not
necessarily equal to the distance travelled over a period of time.
Component: A part or element of a larger whole. (For example: A vector can be separated into a vertical
component and a horizontal component that represent the force’s effect in those two directions)
Coulomb’s Law: The force of attraction or repulsion on two particles due to their electrical charges
(acting along a straight line) is directly proportional to the product of the particles’ charges and inversely
related to the square of the distance between them.
Deformation: The process of an object changing in shape or distorting, especially through the
application of forces.
Elastic Collision: A collision in which there is no loss of kinetic energy or momentum.
Force: A push or pull acting upon an object as a result of the object’s interaction with another object.
Friction Forces: Forces that resist motion, generated when two surfaces are in contact and slide against
each other.
Gravity (FG): Universal force of attraction acting between all matter. Gravity is a force pulling objects
towards the center of a mass.
Impact Velocity: Velocity of an object in motion just before its motion is stopped by another object.
Impact: The action of one object coming forcibly into contact with another. Generates a large force over
a short period of time.
Impulse: Quantity representing the overall effect of a force acting over time. (force * time)
Inelastic Collision: A collision in which a portion of the kinetic energy is lost from the object in motion
and converted into some other form of energy.
Inertia: An object’s tendency to resist changes in the state of motion.
Kinetic Energy (KE): Energy of motion. (Forms of KE include: vibrational, rotational, and translational
motion)
Law of Conservation of Momentum: Total linear momentum of an object within closed system remains
constant through time, regardless of other possible changes within the system. A closed system is a
system that isn’t subject to external forces.
93
Maglev: A vehicle that travels along a magnetic guideway which lifts the vehicle off of the ground during
motion, reducing friction to a negligible level and allowing higher travel velocities. (i.e. maglev trains)
Magnitude: Absolute size or extent of a quantity; how large or small a quantity is.
Mass: Quantity of matter in a body regardless of its volume or of a forces acting on it.
Momentum (p): Measurement of mass in motion; how much mass is in how much motion. (mass *
velocity)
Negligible: so small or unimportant that its effects may safely be ignored. In this module, to simplify a
problem a force may have been chosen to be neglected.
Newton’s First Law (Law of Inertia): An object at rest stays at rest, while an object in motion stays in
motion with a constant velocity unless acted upon by a force.
Newton’s Second Law (Law of Motion): The magnitude of a resultant force acting on an object is equal
to the mass of the object multiplied by the acceleration of the object. This resultant force is the sum of
all forces acting on the object.
Pythagorean Theorem: Fundamental relation in trigonometry between the three sides of a right triangle.
It states that the square of the hypotenuse (the longest side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum
of the squares of the other two sides. (c2 = a2 + b2)
Relative Velocity: Vector difference between the velocities of two bodies – the velocity of a body with
respect to another regarded as being at rest – compare relative motion.
Trigonometry: Branch of mathematics dealing with the relationship between the size of a triangle’s sides
and angles.
Vector: A physical quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction. Typically represented as an arrow
pointing in the vector direction with a length based upon the vector quantity.
Velocity (v): Physical vector quantity that is defined as the speed and direction of an object in motion.
(distance / time)
94
This manual was updated and revised in 2016 by of the Center for Technology and Training (CTT) at
Michigan Technological University for the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT).

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MOTION MODULE

Updated and revised in 2017 for the Michigan

Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 2

Appendix A: Document Links ...................................................................................................................... 91

Activity 1: Bump N Run

Activity 2: Calculated Collisions

Activity 3: Collision Analysis

Activity 5: Egg Drop

Two websites to begin your student’s research:

 Association of Metropolitan Planning Organizations www.ampo.org

Conservation of Energy and Increase in Disorder

Class Time 45 minutes

Grade/Class 6 ‐ 8 Physical Science / 9 ‐ 12 Physics

Activity Expansion Ideas

From PBS Learning Media (Collisions on an Air Track):

From Physics Classroom (Collision of Carts): http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics‐

The sedan will likely travel in the opposite direction.

 How momentum is transferred between two vehicles in a collision.

If m m , then the equation simplifies to:

Figure 1‐1: Magnitude and Direction of Vectors

Figure 1‐2: Vehicle Vectors before Collision

From our solution, we can determine that Car B was moving at

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the first

There are two types of collisions, elastic and inelastic. Before a

Figure 1‐5: Launcher Setup on Maglev Track

Figure 1‐6: Showing Conditions Before and After Impact

Part 1: Two cars moving toward each other

Part 2: One stationary and one moving car

Part 1: Two cars moving toward each other

Before the Collision

After the Collision

Before the Collision

After the Collision

Before the Collision

After the Collision

Before the Collision

After the Collision

Before the Collision

After the Collision

Part 2: One stationary and one moving car

Before the Collision

After the Collision

After the Collision

After the Collision

After the Collision

After the Collision

Activity 2: Calculated Collisions

Class Time 40 minutes

 Visualize and verify mathematically the Law of Conservation of Momentum.

Activity Expansion Ideas

Using Time‐lapse Photography to Accurately Measure Velocity

Activity 2: Calculated Collisions

Part 1: Initial Momentum

Values Calculated From

Average Momentum for 3 Trials in Part 1 2.38M

Part 2: After the Collision

Data Collected During Experiment

1 3M 3M 0.455 0.37 M 1M 0.455 0.33

1 3M 3M 0.455 0.38 2M 2M 0.455 0.40