CH 10b Lecture Presentation

PowerPoint® Lecture
Presentation
CHAPTER 10b
The Nervous
System:
Sensory
Systems
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Chapter Outline
10.1 General Principles of Sensory Physiology

10.2 The Somatosensory System
10.3 Vision
10.4 The Ear and Hearing
10.5 The Ear and Equilibrium
10.6 Taste
10.7 Olfaction

10.3 Vision
• Anatomy of the eye

• The nature and behavior of light waves
• Accommodation
• Clinical defects in vision
• Regulating the amount of light entering the eye
• Retina
• Phototransduction
• Neural pathways for vision
• Parallel processing in the visual system
• Depth perception
Anatomy of the Eye
• Fluid filled
• Three layers
• Outermost
• Sclera and cornea
• Middle
• Choroid, ciliary body, iris, zonular fibers, lens
• Inner
• Retina, photoreceptors, fovea
• Optic disk (blind spot)

Figure 10.19a Anatomy of the eye.
Muscle
Cornea
Iris
Pupil Fovea
Optic disk
Anterior
segment
(aqueous
humor)
Lens
Zonular fibers Blood

vessels
Ciliary body Optic nerve
Sclera
Vitreous chamber
Choroid
(vitreous humor)
Retina

Figure 10.19b Anatomy of the eye.
Fovea Blood vessels Optic disk

Figure 10.20 The blind spot.
+ −
The Nature and Behavior of Light Waves
• Light energy

Figure 10.21 The electromagnetic spectrum.
1012 nm
Radio
750 nm
109 nm
TV
105 nm Micro-
waves
104 nm Infrared
750 nm Visible
350 nm
light
Ultra-
102 nm violet
1 nm X rays
10–2 nm Gamma
rays
350 nm
Cosmic
rays
The Nature and Behavior of Light Waves
• Reflection
• We perceive light waves reflected off objects
• Refraction: if not perpendicular, light waves bend
as they pass from one medium density to another
• Degree of refraction depends on three factors:
• Differences in densities
• Angle of light waves
• Curve of the cornea and lens, which refract light as it
enters eye

Figure 10.22 Refraction of light waves passing through different media.

Figure 10.23 Refraction of light waves passing through curved surfaces.
Focal point
Light Light
Focal length
Concave surface Convex surface

Figure 10.24 Refraction of light waves in the eye.
Lens
Cornea
Light
waves

Accommodation
• Increasing lens curvature enables the eye to focus

on near objects
• Mechanisms
• Under parasympathetic control
• Ciliary muscle contracts
• Decreased tension on zonular fibers
• Lens becomes rounder (refractive index increases)

Figure 10.25a Focusing light from distant and near sources.
Nearly parallel
light rays
Flattened lens
for weak refraction
Viewing a distant object

Figure 10.25b Focusing light from distant and near sources.
Diverging
light rays
Round lens
for strong refraction
Viewing a near object

Figure 10.26a Mechanism of accommodation.
Ciliary
muscle
Zonular
fibers
Ciliary Lens
muscle (flat)
(relaxed)
Pupil
Zonular Cornea
fibers
(tight) Iris
Lens
No parasympathetic stimulation
Far vision of distant objects

Figure 10.26b Mechanism of accommodation.
Ciliary
muscle
Zonular
fibers
Ciliary Lens
muscle (rounded)
(contracted)
Pupil
Zonular (constricted)
fibers
(slack)
Cornea
Iris
+
Lens
Parasympathetic stimulation
Accommodation for near vision

Clinical Defects in Vision
• Emmetropia: normal vision

• Myopia: near-sightedness
• Hyperopia: far-sightedness
• Presbyopia: hardening of lens
• Cataract: discoloration of lens
• Glaucoma: increased volume of aqueous humor
• Astigmatism: irregularities of lens or cornea

Figure 10.27a Normal, near-sighted, and far-sighted vision.
Distant object Near object
Emmetropia
Focused Focused
on retina on retina
No accommodation Accommodation

Figure 10.27b Normal, near-sighted, and far-sighted vision.
Myopia
(Lens of eye too

Focused
strong for length Not focused on retina
of eyeball) on retina
No accommodation No accommodation
Myopia corrected
with concave lens
(which decreases
overall refractive
power) Focused
Focused on retina
on retina

Figure 10.27c Normal, near-sighted, and far-sighted vision.
Hyperopia
(Lens of eye too

weak for length Focused Not focused
of eyeball) on retina on retina
Accommodation Accommodation
Hyperopia corrected
with convex lens
(which increases
overall refractive
power) Focused
Focused on retina
on retina

Regulating the Amount of Light Entering
the Eye
• Size of the pupil

• Iris consists of two layers of smooth muscle
• Inner circular muscle: constrictor
• Outer radial muscle: dilator
• Hole opening in center: pupil

Figure 10.28a Regulation of the amount of light entering the eye.
Outer radial
muscle
Iris
Inner circular
muscle
Pupil
Anatomy of iris and pupil

Figure 10.28b Regulation of the amount of light entering the eye.
Parasympathetic
stimulation of
+ circular muscle
Pupillary constriction
Figure 10.28c Regulation of the amount of light entering the eye.
Sympathetic
+ stimulation of
radial muscle
Pupillary dilation
Retina
• Neural tissue
• Contains photoreceptors
• Three layers
• Outer: photoreceptors
• Rods and cones
• Middle
• Bipolar, amacrine, and horizontal cells
• Inner: ganglion cells
• Macular degeneration

Figure 10.29 Anatomy of the retina.
Bipolar Sclera
Ganglion Photoreceptors Retinal
cells pigment Choroid
Axons of cells
optic nerve Cone Rod epithelium Retina
Amacrine Horizontal
cells cells Fovea
Macula lutea
Light
Optic nerve
Optic disk
Sclera
Choroid
Inner layer Middle layer Outer layer

Retina
• Cells of the retina

• Rods and cones are receptor cells
• Rods and cones communicate with bipolar cells
• Bipolar cells communicate with ganglion cells
• Axons of ganglion cells form the optic nerve
• Horizontal and amacrine cells provide lateral modulation

Figure 10.30 Distribution of rods and cones in the retina.
–90O 90O
–45O 45O
0O
Fovea Optic disk
Cones Rods
Number of photoreceptors
Rods
per mm2
Cones Optic disk
–90O –45O 0O 45O 90O
Fovea
Position in retina (relative to fovea)
Phototransduction
• Conversion of light energy to nerve signals

• Function of rods and cones
• Four photopigments
• Each has retinal and opsin
• Four different opsins
• One for the rods (black-and-white vision)
• Rhodopsin
• Three for the cones (color vision)
• L (red), M (green), and S (blue) opsins

Figure 10.31 Morphology of the photoreceptors.
Disks Outer
segment
Nuclei
Inner
segment
Synaptic vesicles Synaptic

terminals
Rod Cone
Figure 10.32 Components of rods.
Fluid
inside Rhodopsin
disk
Disk
Phospho- membrane
diesterase
Retinal α
α
β γ
cGMP Breakdown
Cytosol Transducin

Phototransduction
• In rods in the dark:

• Levels of second messenger cGMP are high
• cGMP opens Na+ channels on the membrane of the
outer segment
• Na+ moves into cell
• Photoreceptor is depolarized, opening Ca2+ channels
• Ca2+ entry triggers neurotransmitter secretion
• Neurotransmitter acts on bipolar cells

Figure 10.33a Phototransduction of light. Slide 1
Retinal
cGMP levels
cGMP in the cytosol
are high
Na+ Sodium channels

are open
Sodium enters
the cell, causing
K+ a depolarization
that spreads from
the outer segment
to the terminal
Calcium channels
open in response
Ca2+ to depolarization
Calcium enters the

cell, triggering
exocytosis
Transmitter of transmitter
Bipolar cell Transmitter causes

graded potentials
in bipolar cell
State of photoreceptor in the dark

Retinal
cGMP levels
cGMP in the cytosol
are high
Transmitter
Bipolar cell

Retinal
cGMP levels
cGMP in the cytosol
are high
Na+ Sodium channels

are open
Transmitter
Bipolar cell

Retinal
cGMP levels
cGMP in the cytosol
are high
Na+ Sodium channels

are open
Sodium enters
the cell, causing
K+ a depolarization
that spreads from
the outer segment
to the terminal
Transmitter
Bipolar cell

Retinal
cGMP levels
cGMP in the cytosol
are high
Na+ Sodium channels

are open
Sodium enters
the cell, causing
K+ a depolarization
that spreads from
the outer segment
to the terminal
Calcium channels
open in response
Calcium enters the

cell, triggering
exocytosis
Bipolar cell

Retinal
cGMP levels
cGMP in the cytosol
are high
Na+ Sodium channels

are open
Sodium enters
the cell, causing
K+ a depolarization
that spreads from
the outer segment
to the terminal
Calcium channels
open in response
Calcium enters the

cell, triggering
exocytosis
Bipolar cell Transmitter causes

graded potentials
in bipolar cell

Phototransduction
• In rods in the light:

• Rhodopsin within membrane of disks
• Light absorbed by rhodopsin
• Retinal and opsin dissociate
• Bleached opsin activates transducin (G protein)
• Transducin activates phosphodiesterase
• Phosphodiesterase catalyzes cGMP
• Without cGMP, Na+ channels close
• Hyperpolarization of cell occurs by K+ leaving
• Hyperpolarization closes Ca2+ channels and secretion
stops

Figure 10.33b Phototransduction of light. Slide 1
Retinal Light is absorbed

by photopigment
Retinal and opsin dissociate
Transducin is activated
Na+ Phosphodiesterase is activated
Light cGMP levels in cytosol decrease

Sodium channels close
K+ With less sodium entering the

cell, the cell hyperpolarizes
Calcium channels
Ca2+ close
Transmitter release
is decreased
Graded potential
in bipolar cell gets
smaller
Response of photoreceptor to light


by photopigment
Light


by photopigment



by photopigment




by photopigment


Calcium channels
Ca2+ close


by photopigment


Calcium channels
Ca2+ close
Transmitter release
is decreased
Graded potential
in bipolar cell gets
smaller

Rod and Cone Sensitivity
• Scotopic vision: rods

• Mesopic vision: rods and cones
• Photopic vision: cones

Figure 10.34 Absorbance spectra for the different photoreceptors.
L
Rods cones
S M
cones cones
100
Light absorbance
(% of maximum)
75
50
25
400 430 500 530 560 600

Wavelength (nm)
Figure 10.35 Rod and cone sensitivity.
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8
Luminance
(log cd/cm2)
Indoor
Starlight Moonlight lighting Sunlight
Luminance of
natural light
on white
Scotopic Mesopic Photopic

Type of vision
Highest
visual acuity

Color Vision
• Three types of cones:

• Blue: responds best to 420 nm
• Green: responds best to 530 nm
• Red: responds best to 560 nm
• Each type responds best (not exclusively) to its
color

Color Vision
• Color perception
• Brain compares responses of cones
• Cone comparison = color perception
• Opponent-process theory
• Some colors inhibit perception of others
• Red–green/green–red
• Blue–yellow/yellow–blue
• Black–white/white–black

Figure 10.36 Theoretical state if only two types of cones existed.
P1 P2
Absorbance
450 500 550

Wavelength (nm)
Color Vision
• Color adaptation experiment

• Stare at the next slide
• Continue staring at the same place on the screen
with the following slide

Figure 10.37 Opponent-color adaptation.

Color Vision
• Color blindness
• Red-green most common
• Affects 4% of men
• Ishihara charts

Clinical Connections 10.2

Light Input to Circadian Rhythms
• Many daily rhythms

• Without light, circadian rhythms would run longer
than 24 hours
• Special photoreceptors contain melanopsin
• Link to rhythm-generating center of the brain

Bleaching of Photoreceptors in Light
• Adaptation to light and dark

• Small changes in light intensity
• Pupillary dilation and constriction
• Larger changes in light intensity
• Changes in photopigment
• Bleaching

• Going from light to dark

• Exposure to light "bleaches" the rods
• Opsin separated from retinal
• No more light can be absorbed
• Move to dark
• Sensitivity of rods is low due to previous "bleaching"
• Retinal and opsin reassociate
• Can again detect light

• Going from dark to light

• Exposure to dark maintains rods in most sensitive state
• Opsin and retinal are associated
• Readily absorb light
• Move to bright light
• Sensitive rods are overwhelmed
• Rods begin to be "bleached"
• Can again see clearly

Neural Processing in the Retina
• Photoreceptors communicate to bipolar cells, and

bipolar cells communicate to ganglion cells
• Convergence
• More than one photoreceptor to bipolar neuron
• More than one bipolar cell to ganglion cell

• Rods converge more

• Lower visual acuity
• Greater sensitivity
• In fovea
• One cone communicates with one bipolar cell
• Greater acuity
• Lower sensitivity

• Bipolar cell receptive fields

• Glutamate
• Stimulatory at ionotropic receptors
• Inhibitory at metabotropic receptors
• Direct photoreceptor → bipolar causes response in
center receptive field
• Glutamate released in dark (decreased in light)
• Bipolars excited by glutamate are inhibited by light
• OFF bipolar cell
• Bipolars inhibited by glutamate are excited by light
• ON bipolar cell

• Bipolar cell receptive fields

• OFF bipolar cell
• Excited by light in surround receptive field
• Due to interaction between photoreceptors, bipolar cells
and horizontal cells
• ON bipolar cell
• Inhibited by light in surround receptive field
• More correct terminology: ON-center, OFF-surround
and OFF-center, ON-surround

Figure 10.38 Receptive fields of ganglion cells.
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ + +
+
+ + + +
+ + + +
+
+ +
+
ON-center, OFF-surround OFF-center, ON-surround

ganglion cell ganglion cell

• Ganglion cell receptive field

• Bipolar cells transmit graded potentials, not action
potentials
• Receptive field properties of bipolar cells are continuous
to ganglion cells
• ON-center, OFF-surround and OFF-center, ON-surround
• Lateral inhibition by amacrine cells
• Transmit action potentials
• Ganglion cell axons make up the optic nerve
• Disinhibition causes excitation

Figure 10.39 Neural circuitry resulting in an ON-center, OFF-surround ganglion cell.
Surround
Center
Surround Center Surround

cone cone cone
– –
–
Bipolar
cell
ON-center
OFF-surround To optic nerve
ganglion cell
Neural Pathways for Vision
• Ganglionic cells
• Optic nerve (cranial nerve II)
• Optic chiasm
• Optic tract
• Lateral geniculate body of thalamus synapses
• Optic radiations
• Visual cortex synapses
• Right visual field to left cortex, and vice versa

Figure 10.40 Neural pathways for vision.
Binocular visual field
Nasal retina
Temporal retina
Optic nerve
Optic chiasm
Optic tract
Lateral geniculate
body of thalamus
Optic radiations
Primary visual
cortex
Parallel Processing in the Visual System
• Parallel pathways transfer different types of visual

information
• Color
• Shape
• Movement

Depth Perception
• Binocular visual field

• Two perspectives of visual field, one from each
eye
• Brain constructs three-dimensional image

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PowerPoint® Lecture

10.1 General Principles of Sensory Physiology

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Anatomy of the eye

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Zonular ﬁbers Blood

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Fovea Blood vessels Optic disk

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Concave surface Convex surface

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Increasing lens curvature enables the eye to focus

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Viewing a distant object

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Viewing a near object

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Emmetropia: normal vision

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Distant object Near object

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Distant object Near object

(Lens of eye too

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Distant object Near object

(Lens of eye too

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Size of the pupil

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Anatomy of iris and pupil

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Inner layer Middle layer Outer layer

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Cells of the retina

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Cones Optic disk

–90O –45O 0O 45O 90O

• Conversion of light energy to nerve signals

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Synaptic vesicles Synaptic

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• In rods in the dark:

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Na+ Sodium channels

Calcium enters the

Bipolar cell Transmitter causes

State of photoreceptor in the dark

State of photoreceptor in the dark

Na+ Sodium channels

State of photoreceptor in the dark

Na+ Sodium channels

State of photoreceptor in the dark

Na+ Sodium channels

Calcium enters the