Sandec News 9

Sandec: Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries
August 2008, No. 9
SandecNews
Factors Influencing the Sustained Use of SODIS. Page 4

Biogas in Cities – A New Trend? Page 8
Conversion of Organic Refuse by Saprophages. Page 10
Editorial
Ending the Sanitation Crisis
“ Research and capacity development

can help end the sanitation crisis!
The focus on priority problems, suitable
innovative approaches and technologies
go hand in hand, with outreach going
”
far beyond academia to integrate field
practitioners and policy-makers
According to a reader survey in the British Medical Journal, sanita- well as solid waste management (projects in India, Tanzania and
tion is the most important medical advance since 1840. Today, 2.6 Lesotho). These issues, together with the topics of faecal sludge
billion people, including almost one billion children, still live with- management (projects in Senegal, Cameroon, Thailand, Burkina
out even the most basic sanitation. Every 20 seconds a child dies Faso, and Togo), and strategic environmental sanitation planning
as a result of poor sanitation, i. e. 1.5 million preventable deaths (ongoing projects in Costa Rica, Tanzania, Kenya, Burkina Faso,
each year. Nepal, and Laos) pave the way to a holistic, integrated approach to
The UN made an impressive commitment when sanitation water and environmental sanitation.
was included in the targets of the Millennium Development Goal The past year has also shown some significant staff chang-
(MDG) No. 7, “To halve by 2015 the number of people without ac- es. Roland Schertenleib and Martin Wegelin retired. The younger
cess to safe drinking water and sanitation”. This is an ambitious members of Sandec can luckily still rely on their extensive knowl-
target! Today, halfway to this target, achievements in sanitation edge and experience, as they remain active and involved in Sandec
are slow in 74 countries. At the current rate of progress, the target projects as Senior Consultants and are a daily source of inspiration.
is not likely to be met in sub-Saharan Africa until at least 2076! This Sandec is obviously what it is today thanks to Roland Scherten-
lack of progress in sanitation and hygiene will have a significant im- leib. As founder of Sandec, he directed the department from a
pact on other MDG goals. Recognising this crucial role of sanita- reference centre back in the late 1960s/1970s to an internation-
tion, the UN General Assembly has decided to declare 2008 the In- ally renowned and respected research department of Eawag. We
ternational Year of Sanitation (IYS). strive to maintain and further develop this position. Martin Wege-
Sandec is paying special attention to this topic, fostering not lin, commonly known as Mr SODIS, is one of Sandec’s pillars. With
only applied research and capacity development this year, but also his SODIS development, research and demonstration projects, he
strongly interacting and coordinating with local and international achieved an impact that most researchers only dream of. We, the
partners and institutions, including practitioners and policy-makers. whole Sandec team, would like to express our sincere thanks to
A coordination action project of the EU called NETSSAF “Network both Roland and Martin for their outstanding achievements. To-
for the development of Sustainable Approaches for large-scale gether with our new staff, composed of motivated and commit-
implementation of Sanitation in Africa“ has been able to bring to ted young minds (cf. page 19), we shall pursue our objective of
gether 19 members, each representing relevant fields of sustain- further ensuring capacity development and implementation of our
able sanitation, to develop tools to enhance large-scale imple- research in academia, policy and practice. To reach this objective,
mentation. Further, Sandec is also active in SuSanA “Sustainable you – our partners – are of course the main key to success. Close
Sanitation Alliance”, an open network of organisations active in the contact creates clear understanding and fosters trust and success-
field of sanitation created to support the IYS. In a number of work- ful partnership. We shall continue in this direction and hereby in-
ing groups, which form part of SuSanA, Sandec contributes to the vite you to do the same.
development of fact sheets and supporting material to enhance
sustainable sanitation on all stakeholder levels. Some of the activ-
ities are described in more detail in this Newsletter, and inquiries
can be directed to our staff.
Though 2008 highlights the topic of “sanitation”, Sandec nev-
ertheless stills maintains continuity of research and capacity de-
velopment in the other domains, such as water treatment (with Chris Zurbrügg
SODIS projects and research on fluoride removal technologies) as Director Sandec
Sandec News 9 / 2008

Table of Contents
Household Water Treatment Systems
4 Factors Influencing the Sustained Use of SODIS 10 Conversion of Organic Refuse by Saprophages
Project evaluations in 18 countries Use of the Black Soldier Fly larvae

and two social studies help under- to treat organic waste and generate
stand the pitfalls and state-of-the- a valuable (by-)product in low and
art of SODIS implementation. middle-income countries.
.
6 Improving Fluoride Removal Efficiency

Enhancing bone char filters with calcium phosphate pellets Excreta and Wastewater Management
improves filter performance for lower fluoride concentra-
tion in drinking water. 12 Forage Plants Used in Faecal Sludge Dewatering Beds
Dewatering experiments with an-

Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning telope grass and papyrus in pilot
beds fed with highly concentrated
7 Household-Centred Solutions faecal sludge.
A multi-stakeholder and informed systems’ approach for
decision-taking in urban service delivery. First results from
field-based research. 14 Development of Nitrogen Transformation Model for
VFCWs
Efficiency of vertical-flow constructed wetlands (VFCWs)
Solid Waste Management in treating faecal sludge, including their nutrient and
biosolids recovery potential.
8 Biogas in Cities – A New Trend
Analysing the great potential of
biogas plants in treating organic Urban Agriculture
solid waste at decentralised level.
A situation assessments from 16 Turning Waste into a Fertiliser
South India.
Successful maize planting experi-
ments with COMLIZER, a newly
developed fertiliser made from
co-compost and inorganic fertiliser.
Sandec In Brief
Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries
17 New Publications
Publisher: Eawag, P.O. Box 611, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland,
• Capacity Development with Sandec’s Training Tool
Phone +41 (0)44 823 52 86, Fax +41 (0)44 823 53 99,
E-mail [email protected], www.sandec.ch • New Booklet on Global Waste Challenge
Editors: Sylvie Peter and Chris Zurbrügg, Eawag
Copyright: Published texts and figures may be reproduced freely for non- 18 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies
commercial purposes only (except when reproduction or translation rights – Not Just Another Sanitation Book
are explicitly reserved), provided that mention is made of the author and this
publication.
Publication: Sandec News appears once a year and is free of charge. Our
19 New Faces/The Sandec Team
newsletter is available as printed copy, as e-mail attachment or it can be
downloaded as pdf file from our homepage www.sandec.ch 20 On the Bookshelf
Cover: Hygiene workshop in Yunnan province, China. (Photo E. Medilanski)
Concept: TBS Idendity Zürich; Peter Nadler, Küsnacht, Switzerland
Layout and figures: Yvonne Lehnhard, Eawag
Printer: Mattenbach AG, Winterthur, Switzerland
Circulation: 4000 copies printed on original recycled paper
New subscribers: Should contact [email protected]
ISSN 1420-5572
Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology

Factors Influencing the Sustained Use

of Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS)
More than two million people currently use SODIS in 33 countries. Factors influencing sustained use of
SODIS comprise the local availability of bottles, repeated promotion and training programmes, commit-
ment of promoters, educational level of users, social pressure, and institutional aspects. Regula Meierhofer
Intervention strategies used for The implementation strategy was de- SODIS at grassroot level, as they can of-
dissemination of SODIS veloped in a joint exercise with Eawag/ ficially sanction a method or an approach.
In 2000, Eawag/Sandec started SODIS Sandec. Local partners developed their Official statements and policies provide
promotion campaigns in selected devel- own approach in their field of expertise, credibility, and programme sustainability is
oping countries. Pilot projects to educate but were supported by Eawag/Sandec in strengthened if it forms part of the national
users at the grassroot level in SODIS ap- strategic planning and capacity develop- extension and education plan.
plication were formulated in collaboration ment on technical aspects [1]. Between 2000 and 2005, the SODIS
with local partner organisations, mainly From working with NGOs towards promotion and dissemination programme
NGOs experienced in health education. Im- partnership with governments focussed on a collaboration with NGOs as
plementation programmes, generally last- Working through NGOs during start-up of partners for SODIS implementation. Since
ing for about 12 months, were developed activities in a country proved to be quite then, a gradual shift has taken place to in-
after assessing the need to introduce SODIS effective as their management structures creased collaboration with government in-
and determining suitable local conditions are lean and flexible and sound results can stitutions. Official institutions are directly
for SODIS promotion. Follow-up projects be obtained within a relatively short time. involved in implementing SODIS projects
in neighbouring areas were formulated Though the collaboration with NGOs can in Pakistan, Nepal, Uzbekistan, Indonesia,
based on the results obtained in the pre- produce quick results in a confined area, Vietnam, Philippines, Bhutan, Ecuador,
vious phase. the sustained activity of the organisation Bolivia, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala,
is dependent on available external funds. and El Salvador.
The potential for upscaling SODIS dissem- Project evaluations of SODIS implemen-
Information campaigns ination at national level therefore relies on tation in 18 countries and two socio-scien-
• Promotion and information campaigns using
the local mass media (TV, radio, newspapers)
the funds available. tific assessments [6], [7] reveal that a sus-
• Public exhibitions and demonstrations at Evidence of health improvements among tainable spread of the method is dependent
markets, in front of health posts SODIS users trained by the NGO partners on the promotion approach. One year after
• Street plays
• SODIS entertainment night with songs, is an excellent tool to support advocacy project implementation, 20–80 % of the
karaoke and plays activities with national governments and trained people used SODIS on a regular ba-
• Public display of posters and prompts in the
project area official institutions. Successful collabora sis. This variation in actual acceptance and
• Poster designing competitions tion with government institutions is use of the method has prompted us to look
Advocacy
achieved by involving the extension serv- into factors influencing the sustained use
• Advocating by involving and convincing
opinion leaders ices of the health, education and water of SODIS at grassroot level.
• Submitting evidence of project impact to supply sectors, as these have a great po- In the following chapter, the insights
local authorities
• Creating involved stakeholder networks tential to reach a large number of people. gained on the factors influencing the sus-
(NGOs and official institutions from the Moreover, the normative functions of insti- tained use of SODIS, are based on half-
health, education and water supply sectors,
universities, int. organisations) tutional bodies facilitate the promotion of yearly project evaluations in Nepal, India,
• Setting up mechanisms to facilitate the
exchange of information, such as regular
meetings, workshops, electronic exchange
of information
• Conducting water quality tests in front of the
community
Training of users
Training and promotion of SODIS and hy- SODIS users Uzbekistan
giene aspects at grassroot level via promot- in Africa:
Pakistan
ers (staff of a local NGO, health workers, 344 600 India
Nepal
community volunteers): Bhutan
Philippines
• Raising awareness and behavioural change Guatemala
Senegal Laos
El Salvador Cambodia
via participatory methods such as PHAST Honduras Guinea
Sierra Leone Vietnam
Nicaragua DR Congo Sri Lanka
(Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation) Ecuador
Burkina Faso
Ghana Uganda
Brazil
Transformation) Peru Togo Kenya
Indonesia
Cameroon Tanzania
• Using locally adapted training materials Bolivia Zambia
Zimbabwe
(posters, flyers, pamphlets, calendars) Mocambique SODIS users
• Training during group and community SODIS users in
in Asia:
gatherings (mothers’ & youth groups etc.) Latin America: Projects started before 2006
1425200
• Regular household visits 360 000 Projects started in 2006 or 2007
Projects started in 2008
• Promoting through schools
Table 1: Diffusion and promotion interventions. Figure 1: More than two million users currently implement SODIS in 33 countries.

Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Indonesia, Kenya, technology, positively influence adoption leaders. Observations made in several
Uganda, Bolivia, Nicaragua, Peru, Ecuador, and use of the method [7]. project areas and confirmed by the field
Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador and SODIS acceptance and use by the local study in Nicaragua reveal that the inten-
on two socio-scientific assessments. population in Uzbekistan were also high- tion to use SODIS is related to the use of
ly dependent on the motivation and ini- SODIS by neighbours [7]. Different tools
Factors influencing the sustained tiative of key officials in the field. Users can be used to enhance the visibility of
use of SODIS at grassroot level in the rural community also accepted SODIS in a project area: dissemination of
Availability of bottles. Local availabili- SODIS more readily if the method was in- messages through mass media (TV, radio
ty of the required bottles (PET or glass) is troduced by the official health workers rath- etc.), display of posters in prominent areas
crucial for sustainability of SODIS applica- er than by the NGO staff who originally in- of the community, public exhibitions, and
tion. In many areas, accessibility of PET itiated SODIS pilot activities in Uzbekistan the display of signs at the entrance of the
bottles is the limiting factor for regular [4]. The influence of the promoters is re- house, indicating that this household is us-
SODIS application. Creation of a micro-en- flected in the health impact assessment ing SODIS for drinking water treatment.
terprise to secure the supply of bottles ap- conducted in the project areas in Novem-
pears to be the solution to address the lack ber 2006: highest SODIS adoption rate Conclusions
of PET bottles in some areas. East Lom- was found in the Burkhara (50 %) and Sird- SODIS is currently used in 33 countries.
bok is a successful example of a bottle aryo Provinces (75%), where a 57 % re- A large variation of 20 – 80 % adoption and
supply scheme. During project implemen- duction in diarrhoea incidence in just one sustained use of the method was observed
tation, the health system set up a supply year was achieved. The control group in at grassroot level and can be attributed to
scheme, which buys empty bottles from the same region reported a comparative- the different circumstances encountered
the PET bottle producer and sells them to ly lower reduction in diarrhoea of only 7 %. during project implementation. A wide-
the users at the health posts. The secured SODIS use and also diarrhoea reduction spread dissemination and sustained use
bottle supply ensured the high spread of were much lower in the two other project of the method can be reached if: the car-
SODIS practice in the project area: origi- regions of Karakalpakstan and Ferghana. riers of the message (the promoters) are
nally, the inhabitants of 100 sub-villages in The project team attributes this difference convincing, committed and respected per-
East Lombok were planned to be trained. in adoption of the method and related health sons; enough bottles are available for sus-
At the end of the project, 80 % of the pop- impact to the highly committed official tained application; several training events
ulation in 144 sub-villages or 130000 peo- field staff in the Sirdaryo and Burkhara are conducted; the method is practised
ple used SODIS to treat their drinking wa- Provinces [4]. by many other users and thus clearly visi-
ter. Similarly, direct observations of the au- ble; implementation strategies are tailored
Single information events are not suffi- thor during a project mission to Nepal in to the education level of the recipients; a
cient to achieve a behavioural change. 2007 revealed that a highly motivated and health improvement is felt by users; and
Habits are hard to change. Interventions committed Health Volunteer in Thimi was both the institutional setup and official
with just one information event are not able to motivate 80 % of the population backup of the method are supportive.
sufficient to establish a sustainable SODIS in her working area to use SODIS, where-
practice [5]. Long-term interventions with as other, less dedicated volunteers in the
promoters visiting trained users regularly same city reached about 50 % SODIS use [1] Meierhofer, R. (2006): Training Manual for
SODIS promotion. Eawag/Sandec, Düben-
over several months after conducting ini- in their respective working zones.
dorf, Switzerland, http://www.sodis.ch/files/
tial training are required to raise awareness Education level influences willingness TrainingManual_sm.pdf
and establish sustainable practices [1]. to behavioural change. People with a [2] Graf, J. (Aug. 2006): The effects of SODIS
Motivated promoters play a key role higher education, such as teachers, health and hygiene behaviour on diarrhoea cases
Local SODIS promoters play a key role re- workers or village leaders, were more diffi- among young children in the Kibera Slum. A
quantitative field study about water consump-
garding acceptance and use of SODIS at cult to convince that SODIS can efficiently
tion and hygiene in Nairobi, Kenya. Project Re-
grassroot level. SODIS practice was the treat drinking water. Bacteriological water port Eawag/Sandec, Dübendorf, Switzerland.
highest in villages where locally respected quality tests with raw and treated water [3] Gamper, S. (2004): Acceptance, Use and
persons worked as highly motivated and were effectively used to reduce scepti- Health Impact of Solar Water Disinfection. A
convinced promoters. cism about the microbiological efficien- Case Study from Rajoa and Chiniot. Eawag/
Sandec, Dübendorf, Switzerland.
A socio-scientific study on the effec- cy of the method. Field observations in
[4] Grimm, B. (Nov. 2006): SODIS Health Impact
tiveness of different SODIS dissemination Bolivia and Nepal as well as a project evalu- Study. Uzbekistan 2004–2006. JDA Kokand.
strategies in Bolivia revealed that promo- ation in Kenya revealed that once doubts on [5] Rainey, R.C., Harding, A.K. (2005): Acceptabil-
tion of SODIS by skilled staff of local au- SODIS efficiency were dispelled, people ity of solar disinfection of drinking water treat-
thorities or local NGOs was the most ef- with a higher education and higher eco- ment in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Internation-
al Journal of Environmental Health Research,
fective strategy [6]. nomic status are more likely to adopt
15 (5): 361–372.
Another field study in Nicaragua con- SODIS, improve their hygiene behaviour [6] Moser, S., Heri, S., Mosler, H.-J. (2005): De-
cluded that intention to use SODIS and and also sustain it over a longer period [2]. terminants of the diffusion of SODIS. A quan-
the actual use of SODIS are related main- Social pressure influences behaviour. titative field study in Bolivia. Summary Re-
ly to an overall positive attitude. Well-de- SODIS acceptance is more prominent in port. Eawag, Dübendorf, Switzerland.
[7] Altherr, A.M. et al. (2006): Attitudinal and rela-
signed promotion activities, particularly in areas where SODIS is clearly visible in the
tional factors predicting the use of solar water
the choice of highly motivated promoters community (many bottles on the roofs or disinfection. A field study in Nicaragua. Health
capable of inspiring confidence in the new in front of the houses) and used by a great Education and Behaviour, accepted for publi-
number of people, including community cation.

Improving Fluoride Removal Efficiency

Bone char is a highly efficient fluoride removal material, however, its lifespan is rather limited. Laboratory
experiments reveal that the addition of pellets containing phosphate and calcium can extend the lifespan
of bone char filters. Kim Müller, Francis Kage, Esther Wanja, Michael Mattle, Lars Osterwalder, Annette Johnson
According to UNESCO estimates, more mise contact precipitation for enhanced to be conducted to scientifically describe
than 200 million people worldwide rely filter performance. The potential of con- and optimise this method. A PhD study is
on drinking water with fluoride concen- tact precipitation can best be assessed currently determining and quantifying the
trations exceeding the international WHO in fixed-bed experiments carried out both different fluoride removal mechanisms of
guideline of 1.5 mg/L [1]. While industr- at Eawag and CDN, using PVC columns the contact precipitation method. In par-
ialised countries commonly use activat- filled with 260 mL of filter material (here- allel, ongoing testing and monitoring of
ed alumina or membrane technology to after referred to as one empty bedvol- pilot implementation in Kenya and Ethio-
remove fluoride from drinking water, de- ume, eBV). For column experiments at pia will complement the lab findings with
fluoridation is still uncommon in low and Eawag, distilled water spiked with 6 mg field data.
middle-income countries. A survey of de- F/L was used. CDN’s columns were fed
fluoridation treatment in Eastern Africa re- with natural Kenyan groundwater contain-
veals that bone char filtration is an efficient ing 6.0–6.3 mg F/L. The columns were run 7
a
[ m / L]
Inlet concentration
and viable fluoride removal method. In- at a constant flow rate of 10 eBV/d (gravity 6 0
F - o u t l e t c o n c e nt r a t i o n g
creasing the uptake capacity of bone char flow with clamps for flow rate regulation 5 20
and thus prolonging the lifespan of the fil- at CDN, peristaltic pumps for flow rate 4
40
ters can, however, reduce maintenance regulation at Eawag). 3
requirements and improve treatment sus- Fig. 1 shows fluoride breakthrough WHO guideline 60
2
tainability, especially for remote areas. curves for bone char and contact precipi-
1 80
tation columns conducted at Eawag and
0 100
Improving bone char filters CDN. Addition of pellets significantly pro-
7
In the 1990s, research experiments were longs the filter’s lifespan, i. e. by a factor 6 F - outlet concentration [gm / L] b Inlet concentration
6 0
conducted to extend the lifespan of bone in the case of synthetic water and 3 with
char filters by adding calcium and phos- natural Kenyan groundwater. The results 5 20
phate to the water [2]. This new method obtained from the contact precipitation ex- 4
40
WHO guideline
was then referred to as co- or contact pre- periments at Eawag correlate well with 3
60
cipitation. Fluoride concentrations are re- those of CDN, as breakthrough of bone 2
duced by both precipitation and sorption char was increased by a factor 2 under nat- 1 80
reactions in contact with hydroxyapatites ural groundwater conditions compared to
0 100
(Ca5 (PO 4) 3OH), the main component of distilled water spiked with fluoride. High- 0 250 500 750
Treated water in eBV (-)
bone char. In 1995, this method was field er pH-buffering capacity in natural ground-
tested in a community pilot plant in Tan- water and possible precipitation processes a Experiments at Eawag
b Experiments at CDN
zania [3]. Though filter lifespan was in- with naturally occurring calcium (3 mg/L)
Contact precipitation
creased, high maintenance requirements and phosphate (0.3 mg/L) may enhance flu- Bone cha
due to continuous calcium and phosphate oride removal with bone char.
supplies hindered large-scale implemen- Uptake capacity in the case of distilled Figure 1: Fluoride breakthrough curves as a func-
tation. To overcome this drawback, the water spiked with fluoride increases from tion of treated water in empty bedvolumes (eBV).
Catholic Diocese of Nakuru (CDN), a Ken- 0.6 mg F/g to 3.7 mg F/g filter material for
yan faith-based organisation, took on the bone char and contact precipitation, re-
challenge of developing pellets that con- spectively. Removal efficiency is generally In 2006, Eawag and CDN initiated a
tain calcium and phosphate mixed with higher than 98 % for the first few eBV. The collaboration to: i) further develop and optimise
low-cost defluoridation methods applicable
the bone char filter material. These pellets contact precipitation experiment at CDN in low and middle-income countries and ii)
slowly release the required chemicals for revealed slightly lower removal efficien- facilitate its implementation.
Contact: [email protected] and
fluoride precipitation into the water without cies, averaging 90 % for the first 300 eBV. [email protected]
creating additional maintenance efforts to The steeper breakthrough curves for bone
the user. According to preliminary, un- char columns indicate faster removal proc-
[1] UNESCO Ground water briefing: Trace ele
published lab investigations at CDN, this esses compared to contact precipitation, ments in groundwater and public health,
method prolongs the lifespan of the filters where the outlet fluoride concentration http://www.unesco.org/water/third_wwf/
compared to filtration by bone char alone. only rises slowly. groundwater_health.pdf (status 29.2.2008)
[2] Larsen, M.J., Pearce, E.I.F. (1999): Partial De-
fluoridation of Drinking Water Using Fluorapa-
In-depth lab investigations Only the beginning…
tite Precipitation. Caries Res. 26 (1), 22–28.
Eawag and CDN are currently conduct- These lab findings reveal that contact pre- [3] Dahi, E. (1996): Contact precipitation for de-
ing comprehensive lab analyses to acquire cipitation can improve filter performance, fluoridation of water. In: Proceedings, 22nd
an improved understanding and to opti- however, far more experiments will have WEDC Conference, New Delhi, 262–265.

Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning
Household-Centred Solutions
Last year, Sandec chose six sites to validate the household-centred approach in Burkina Faso, Kenya,
Tanzania, two in Costa Rica, and Laos. First results from the selected sites reveal that the multi-
stakeholder approach can enhance the taking of decisions in urban service delivery. Christoph Lüthi
The sites selected vary in size and context, the most suitable in terms of socio-eco- the 33rd WEDC Conference in Accra, Gha-
with target populations ranging from 1000 nomic, cultural and technical conditions. na in 2008. It will also be featured at the
to 35 000 inhabitants. New approaches in We call this approach the informed ‘sys- World Water Week in Stockholm this com-
environmental sanitation planning for un- tems’ approach. ing August.
served urban and peri-urban areas are cur- This does not exclude the choice of mul- The HCES guidelines can be download-
rently being tested together with our part- tiple systems or technologies for different ed from www.eawag.ch/hces
ner institutions. Most of the six sites have users or urban areas, which may overlap to
Sandec
already undergone the following steps: varying degrees (e.g. lower income house-
– launching of the planning process; holds could opt for the low-cost ‘Arborloo’
– submitting of a ‘status report’ analysing latrine, while the more expensive ‘Urine
the current enabling environment and Diverting Dry Toilet’ is a technically more
current environmental sanitation cover advanced option). Step 6 will subsequently
age; integrate the sanitation system(s) and other
– assessing user priorities, i. e. identifying environmental services based on institu-
community priorities and their willing tional arrangements and level of stake-
ness to contribute. holder involvement. What should be done
if stakeholders fail to reach consensus or if
After completing the planning process shortlisted sanitation options differ signifi-
at the different sites, the potentially most cantly? A multi-step negotiation process,
important HCES steps 5 and 6 were initi- involving the community, sector experts
ated, i. e. identification of technical, insti- and a good process moderator, will proba-
tutional and financial options for improved bly have to be conducted.
services, and discussion of service com- We are confident that once the nego-
binations regarding solid and liquid waste tiation process of the informed ‘systems’
as well as greywater reuse etc. To carry approach is completed, the environmen-
out these two steps, different participa- tal sanitation service plans can be readily
tory approaches will be tested by bringing developed and adopted. Improved urban
together sector knowledge from sanitary services will be subsequently implement-
engineers/planners and context-specific ed by the end of this year. Sandec has in-
community experience. itiated accompanying research in selected
Step 5 of the HCES approach focuses HCES sites:
on ‘identification of options’. However, in- – In Waruku, Kenya, the long-term effects
stead of just simply identifying technol- of greywater reuse in urban agriculture
ogy options, Sandec has recently devel- are being analysed (UNESCO-IHE
oped a planning tool, the “Compendium of Master Thesis).
Sanitation Systems” (cf. page 18) to assist – Usefulness of the Material Flux Analysis
users in identifying compatible and appro- (MFA) approach as an analytical tool for
priate technologies to build a sustainable HCES has been assessed (EPFL Master Photos of three planning exercises:
Laos, Tanzania (Dodoma), Costa Rica
sanitation system. This Compendium is Thesis) in collaboration with CREPA in
targeted at engineers, planners and other Fada, Burkina Faso.
professionals primarily responsible for se- – We are piloting a number of cost- Key aspects of the household-centred
approach:
lecting and proposing the “possible“ op- effective sanitation technologies and • sustainable environmental sanitation
tions. Use of the Compendium presuppos- evaluating user acceptance in the low- solutions are central to improving both
human dignity, health and environmental
es some basic knowledge in sanitation. income settlement of Chang’ombe
concerns;
Though some concepts and processes in collaboration with IHRDC (Ifakara • people’s skills, abilities and knowledge are
may be new, the underlying principles Health Research and Development valued;
• multi-stakeholder approach engaging
should be easily understood. The objective Centre) in Dodoma, Tanzania. authorities, utilities to local beneficiaries;
is to effectively increase the range of previ- In the past year, the approach received • formation of a locally based taskforce to
champion the HCES process;
ously neglected options and potential vari- increased acknowledgement and accept- • mobilisation of local and national resources
ations. ’Possible’ systems identified by en- ance by the international WatSan sector. to enable implementation; and
• cradle-to-grave systems approach for
gineers/planners will be negotiated by the HCES was presented at the WSSCC Plan-
sanitation planning
community in a workshop before selecting ning Meeting in Geneva in 2007 and at

Solid Waste Management
Biogas in Cities – A New Trend?

Anaerobic Digestion of Kitchen and Market Waste in Developing Countries
So far, several million conventional biogas plants, using predominantly animal manure as feedstock,
have been successfully installed in rural areas of developing countries. However, can anaerobic
digestion also be a suitable technology to treat organic household waste in urban and peri-urban areas
to alleviate the solid waste crisis in cities of the developing world? Yvonne Vögeli, Chris Zurbrügg
In many cities of developing countries, the ents and is rich in organic matter. AD of or- oping countries identified South India as
most serious environmental and health ganic solid waste is already widespread in a location characterised by numerous re-
problems are related to inadequate solid industrialised countries and is gaining im- search, development and implementation
waste management (SWM). Progressing portance given the growing demand for activities. Research institutions, NGOs
urbanisation and rapid population growth renewable energy and high market prices and commercial organisations active in
lead to increasing amounts of waste, for fuel. To date, AD of livestock manure, the sector have jointly generated much
thereby also increasing pressure on lo- as major feedstock, is common mainly knowledge and experience in anaerobic
cal authorities responsible for the provi- in rural areas of low and middle-income digestion of kitchen/market waste as well
sion of safe and reliable public services. countries. In urban or peri-urban settings, as organic household waste. In August
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in develop- where organic solid waste is predomi- 2007, an on-site assessment and evalu-
ing countries is rich in organic material (up nantly available as feedstock, the accessi- ation study examined 16 biogas plants in
to 70 %). However, if this organic fraction ble knowledge and information on techni- different South Indian cities. All the visited
is not managed adequately, it causes nui- cal and operational feasibilities, challenges plants developed by Indian research insti-
sance for urban dwellers and pollutes the and opportunities is limited. This lack of tutes, private enterprises or local NGOs
environment due to its easily biodegrad- research and development and/or limited were specifically designed to treat organic
able nature. Unreliable collection leads spread of knowledge and information is solid waste rather than manure. Plant size
to smelly dumps in neighbourhoods and astonishing in the light of the enormous and scale of operation vary from smallest
attracts animals, such as rodents, the waste problems faced by most urban areas household plants (1–5 kg/d), medium-size
typical transmitters of diseases. Lack of in low and middle-income countries. facilities at institutional and municipal level
treatment or non-engineered and unsafe (< 3 t/d) to large-scale facilities of up to
disposal causes soil, surface water and Situation analysis in South India 100 t/d capacity.
groundwater pollution through leachate, A literature review and Internet search The feedstock used for digestion com-
and uncontrolled methane emissions con- [1] conducted by Sandec on anaerobic di- prises kitchen waste from households,
tribute to global warming. Consequently, gestion of organic solid waste in devel- canteens and restaurants, market waste
particular attention should be given to the
organic fraction of municipal solid waste.
Some treatment options for biodegrada-
ble waste, such as aerobic composting or
direct animal feeding have been identified
in practice and are more or less well-rec-
ognised as proven solutions in certain con-
texts. Nevertheless, there is still scope for
improvement by increasing the value and
further potential benefits of the treatment
steps and generated products. Aside from
using worms or larvae to digest the waste
(as described in another article of this San-
dec News issue), anaerobic digestion (AD)
or biomethanation of organic solid waste
is likely to be a promising treatment op-
tion. Under anaerobic conditions, bacte-
ria break down the organic matter and
produce biogas. This mixture of CO2 and
methane (CH 4) can be used as an energy
source for cooking, lighting or even to gen-
erate electricity, thereby replacing other
fuels. The digestate, similar to compost,
can be used as soil conditioner in agricul-
ture or landscaping since it contains nutri- Photo 1: BIOTECH biogas plant fed with canteen waste (30 kg/d) in Trivandrum, India.

(vegetables, fish), waste from slaughter- Anaerobic digestion of kitchen waste at household level in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
houses and – in a few plants – also toilet
waste. The biogas generated by the anaer-
obic digestion process is generally used di-
rectly for cooking in close proximity to the
plant. This is the easiest and most efficient
way of using the gas, as complicated stor-
age and transport are not required nor any
further treatment steps (e. g. hydrogen sul-
phide removal). In other cases, the gener-
ated gas is used for street lighting or con-
verted into electricity. The type of gas use
depends not only on the daily amount gen-
erated, but also on the spatial and site-spe-
cific location of the plant.
The main motivation of plant developers
and operators is driven by the need to find
waste treatment solutions. The perceived
comparative advantage of anaerobic diges-
tion is its controlled and contained (closed)
waste treatment process perceived as a
technically advanced but “clean” solution
not requiring much surface area. In this
sense, generation of biogas is seen as a Photo 2: ARTI biogas plant in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
welcome added value of the technology
and not necessarily as the decisive fac- The ARTI Compact Biogas Plant is a small household system developed in India for the daily treatment
of 1−2 kg of food waste. This widespread system in South India is now being promoted in Tanzania
tor for choosing anaerobic digestion over
and Uganda. Though a seemingly successful approach, data on its performance in Africa is still
another organic waste treatment option. scarce. Further information will be required to obtain a detailed assessment of this treatment option.
Furthermore, little attention is often paid Monitoring of an ARTI biogas plant at household level and experiments at the Ardhi University of Dar
es Salaam shall provide reliable data on daily gas production, gas composition, effluent quality, and
to the digested residues (solid and liquid suitability of this technology with different feedstock, including convenience of operation. This project
fractions) and their agricultural, garden- will be launched in July 2008 in collaboration with the Ardhi University of Dar es Salaam and the
University of Applied Sciences in Zurich.
ing or landscaping value. Scarcity of well- For further information on this technology, kindly consult www.arti-india.org
documented information on gas genera-
tion rates in relation to loading rates, types
of waste, reactor volume, retention time, waste segregation at source to avoid vestments may thus further boost devel-
or also characteristics and composition of biodegradable waste disposal in landfills. opment and implementation of AD facili-
residues is therefore not surprising. According to current legislation, biode- ties in developing countries.
To date, all the evaluated experience gradable waste must be processed by Experience from India shows that AD of
points to the fact that the initiative and mo- composting, vermicomposting, anaerobic organic solid waste is a promising technol-
tivation to support, develop, invest, and digestion or by any other appropriate bio- ogy in developing countries with a tropical
operate biogas plants is driven by the in- logical process. Unfortunately, legislation climate. Biogas plants treating organic solid
terest of researchers, private enterpris- is not yet fully implemented. However, waste in urban areas have a great poten-
es or NGOs. Though national government the existence of such a legal framework, tial. Sandec’s solid waste research activi-
agencies, such as the Ministry of New and in combination with the interest of mu- ties will look at the performance of small
Renewable Energy (MNRE) or the Indian nicipal authorities in finding solutions to and medium-size biogas units to collect
Renewable Energy Development Agency comply with these rules, can significant- scientific evidence on gas production, gas
Limited (IREDA) promote, develop and pro- ly contribute to promoting biogas plants in composition and effluent quality, as well as
vide financial assistance to renewable en- India. Furthermore, promotion of anaero- study the economic aspects of this waste
ergy and energy efficiency/conservation bic digestion can achieve substantial mo- treatment method. Preliminary monitor-
projects, the support from local govern- mentum, since the technology qualifies ing results of a household biogas plant in
ments, specifically from municipal author- as a CDM project (avoiding uncontrolled Tanzania will be available at the end of
ities responsible for waste management methane emissions from dumped waste 2008 (cf. box).
is largely lacking. These waste treatment on landfills). CDM is an arrangement under
options are rarely embedded in the ur- the Kyoto Protocol, allowing industrialised
ban strategic waste management plan and countries with a greenhouse gas reduction [1] Müller, C. (2007): Anaerobic Digestion of
therefore often remain isolated individual commitment to invest in projects that re- Biodegradable Solid Waste in Low and
Middle-Income Countries.
initiatives. This is all the more surprising duce emissions in developing countries as
Sandec Report, May.
as India has an innovative legal framework an alternative to more expensive emission
and city authorities are liable to promote reductions in their own countries. CDM in-

Solid Waste Management
Conversion of Organic Refuse by

Saprophages (CORS)
Composting is a proven technology for organic waste treatment under certain site and context-
specific conditions. Nevertheless, there is still scope for improvement by increasing the value and
potential benefits of organic waste treatment and its products. Sandec is currently evaluating
and developing a CORS system using larvae of the Black Soldier Fly for organic waste treatment in low
and middle-income countries. Stefan Diener, Chris Zurbrügg
The method used to handle, collect, store, where worms and microorganisms turn Australia led, for instance, to the genera-
and dispose of the waste generated by hu- organic waste into a dark, earth-smelling, tion of large amounts of cow dung, which
man activity determines the environmen- nutrient-rich soil conditioner (Photos 1– the native beetle fauna was unable to han-
tal and public health risks. Poor, inaccessi- 4) for use in agriculture and landscaping. dle. The accumulated dung contributed to
ble and marginal urban areas suffer most Much research has been conducted on the widespread proliferation of the bush fly
from deficiencies in public service and the treatment process of organic residen- Musca vetustissima, to nuisance and to in-
infrastructure; thus aggravating poverty, tial or market waste and livestock manure. creasing disease transmission. The Com-
health and social marginalisation. Munici- At the agronomic research station of the monwealth Scientific and Industrial Re-
palities and other key urban stakeholders Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica in San search Organisation (CSIRO) subsequently
have recognised these risks and have set Carlos, for instance, the manure of 45 pigs introduced several non-native copropha-
high priorities in finding sustainable solu- is transformed by earthworms into com- gous beetles, which buried the dung to
tions to improve waste management [1]. post in just eight weeks. The pig manure breed their offsprings and thus withdrew
Improvements of sustainable waste man- produced in one week is stored for five the flies’ means of reproduction [2].
agement approaches using resource re- weeks in a dry area. The mature material CORS is not only applied to solid waste.
covery and a closed-loop economy are, is then filled into plastic crates and inoc- At Wageningen University, experiments
in fact, clearly linked to issues of employ- ulated with earthworms from the former with the aquatic worm Lumbriculus varieg-
ment opportunities and income genera- compost generation before the contain- atus led to a noteworthy reduction of fae-
tion, both in the formal and informal sec- ers are left to rest for another three weeks cal sludge volume. The treatment reactor,
tor. Recycling of inorganic materials (glass, prior to use. containing one sludge and one water com-
metal, plastics) from municipal solid waste However, CORS approaches are also partment, is divided by a carrier material
already constitutes an important source of used in natural, non-engineered envi- on which the worms position themselves
income and employment, especially in low ronments. The introduction of cattle in with the tail protruding into the water and
and middle-income countries. However,
Sandec
recycling and reuse of organic waste ma-
terial is still fairly limited despite its very
high recovery potential. For reasons of de-
ficient waste collection services (typically
one to two thirds of the solid waste gen-
erated is not collected), organic waste,
often mixed with human and animal ex-
creta, is dumped arbitrarily in streets and
drains, where it causes pipe and drain
blockages, flooding and breeding places
for disease transmitting insects and ro-
dents, including odour nuisance. Finding
appropriate and sustainable solutions for
organic waste treatment thus constitutes
a major thrust in the endeavour to improve
solid waste management.
CORS
Use of CORS (Conversion of Organic
Refuse by Saprophages) provides a po-
tential and proven solution to treating or-
ganic waste by feeding it to organisms
(saprophages) specialised in decaying Photos 1–4: Different CORS protagonists, clockwise from top left: vermicomposting using Eisenia fetida
(Photo: Robin DeGrassi), dung beetles Onthophagus gazella (Photo: T. Murray), larvae of the Black Soldier
matter. Probably the most well-known ap-
Fly, Hermetia illucens (Photo: Sandec), experimental set-up of sludge treatment with Lumbriculus variegatus
plication of CORS is vermicomposting, (Photo: T. Hendrickx).
10 Sandec News 9 / 2008

The prepupae bodies are rich in protein periments, larvae were given organic ma-
Cadmium
272
and fat and thus an excellent component terial spiked with selected heavy metals
244
of animal feedstuff for aquaculture or poul- (cadmium, lead and zinc). The fate of these
172 try production. Feeding experiments re- heavy metals was then traced throughout
141 placing fishmeal by larvae meal revealed the waste treatment process. The results
120
100 highly promising results [4, 5]. Such feed obtained show that prepupae accumulat-
of animal origin is also becoming a very ated cadmium within their body, whereas
16 13 tractive and urgently needed alternative, lead and zinc were found concentrated in
given the growing global role of aquac- the discarded skin after moulting (Fig. 1).
Lead 256 ulture and the increasing but ecological- Therefore, if prepupae are used as feed-
ly questionable demand for fishmeal. The stuff, larval food with high cadmium con-
155 growing demand for fishmeal is current- centrations should be avoided.
ly reflected by steadily mounting market The next experimental phase will exam-
100
66 74 71
prices. In this case, waste management ine the fate of human intestinal parasites
51
using the larvae of the Black Soldier Fly originating from and transmitted by hu-
20
may not only become a self-sustained man faeces, as adequate sanitation serv-
waste treatment option, but a profitable ices are not available for a large part of the
Zinc 246
and flourishing business. population in low and middle-income coun-
194 tries Such human and animal parasital in-
Current research results fections are unfortunately common, partic-
Sandec’s solid waste research on CORS ularly soil-transmitted helminth infections,
100 97
83 technologies centres on experiments con- mankind’s most prevalent infections [6].
51
24
38 ducted in a climatised room in Düben- Since helminths are robust parasites, they
dorf, Switzerland. These small-scale ex- are good indicators of the hygienisation
periments provide the scientific basis for performance of a human waste treatment
Food
Residue
Larvae
Prepupae
Exuviae
Pupal skin
Male adults
Female
adults
the next scaled-up phase, where research system. A study by Erickson et al. [7] with
will be conducted in a pilot treatment plant larvae of Hermetia illucens revealed a re-
in Costa Rica. The research will focus on duction in E. coli and Salmonella enterica.
Figure 1: Fate of heavy metals fed to Black Soldier the following three areas: waste degrada- However, the ability of H. illucens to elim-
Fly larvae in per cent of food concentration.
tion potential, quality and quantity of the inate helminth eggs shall be tested this
prepupae and microbiological safety of the year during a research collaboration be-
the head in the sludge. L. variegatus feeds residue. tween Sandec and the Instituto Tecnológi-
with its head but breathes and defecates First laboratory results allow to assume co de Costa Rica in Cartago.
via its tail. Aerating the water thus allows an ideal daily loading rate of 3–5 kg/m2 for
the worms to breathe while the sludge is kitchen and market waste, and 6–8 kg/m2 [1] UNDP. (1997): Survey of Mayors: Major Ur-
being fed and digested [3]. for manure and human faeces. With such ban Problems. In: Governance for Sustainable
feeding rates, the dry mass can be reduced Growth and Equity, Report of the International
Conference, New York, 28–30 July 1997.
Income generating waste by 40–50 %. However, these preliminary
[2] Berenbaum, M.R. (1997): Blutsauger, Staatt-
treatment results need to be verified on a larger scale gründer, Seidenfabrikanten: die zwiespältige
Sandec is now evaluating another sim- under outdoor conditions, for instance, in Beziehung von Mensch und Insekt, Spektrum
ple CORS technology that promises to the planned facility in Costa Rica. Akademischer Verlag GmbH.
combine waste treatment and generation The fate of pollutants, such as heavy [3] Elissen, H.J.H., Hendrickx, T.L.G., Temmink,
H. and Buisman, C.J.N. (2006): A new reac-
of a valuable (by-)product, which in fact, metals, is another aspect of concern dur-
tor concept for sludge reduction using aquatic
is the organism feeding on waste itself. ing the waste treatment process. Organic worms. Water Research 40 (20), 3713–3718.
The life cycle of the non-pest Black Sol- waste from street sweepings may, for in- [4] Bondari, K. and Sheppard, D.C. (1981): Soldier
dier Fly, Hermetia illucens fits this purpose stance, show elevated concentrations of Fly Larvae as Feed in Commercial Fish Pro-
very well (Fig. 2). The larvae, which vora- heavy metals. Do such pollutants affect duction. Aquaculture 24 (1–2), 103–109.
[5] St-Hilaire, S., Sheppard, C., Tomberlin, J.K.,
ciously feed on organic material, reduce the treatment process or the final prepu-
Irving, S., Newton, L., McGuire, M.A., Mos-
its dry mass by 40–50 %. This figure cor- pae quality? In small-scale laboratory ex- ley, E.E., Hardy, R.W. and Sealey, W. (2007):
responds to a similar reduction likely to be Fly prepupae as a feedstuff for rainbow trout,
Adult Eggs
achieved by composting or biogas diges- 4d 4d Oncorhynchus mykiss. Journal of the World
tion units. Yet, it is not only the ability to Aquaculture Society 38 (1), 59–67.
[6] de Silva, N.R., Brooker, S., Hotez, P.J., Mon-
reduce waste that makes the Black Sol-
tresor, A., Engels, D. and Savioli, L. (2003):
dier Fly a promising waste manager. After Soil-transmitted helminth infections: updating
feeding extensively on waste, the larvae the global picture. Trends in Parasitology 19
Pupae Larvae
or the so-called prepupae (the last larval ~ 14d (12), 547–551.
~ 14d
stage) crawl out of the waste in search [7] Erickson, M.C., Islam, M., Sheppard, C., Liao,
Prepupae
J. and Doyle, M.P. (2004): Reduction of Es-
of a dry pupation site. The prepupae can
cherichia coli O157 : H7 and Salmonella en-
thus be easily harvested by simply chan- terica serovar enteritidis in chicken manure by
nelling their migration paths into a collec- Figure 2: Life cycle of the Black Soldier Fly, larvae of the black soldier fly. Journal of Food
Hermetia illucens at 25 °C.
tion vessel. Protection 67 (4), 685–690.
Sandec News 9 / 2008 11

Excreta and Wastewater Management
Technology Transfer – Forage Plants

Used in Faecal Sludge Dewatering
Beds in Sub-Saharan Africa
In collaboration with the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok, Eawag has previously
demonstrated that constructed wetlands, especially in Thailand, offer a viable solution for
the treatment of faecal sludge. However, since the characteristics of sludge vary widely from one
region to another, appropriate indigenous plants had to be identified so as to ensure successful
operation of these facilities. Doulaye Koné1 and Ives Kengne2
In urban areas of developing countries, es- vertical-flow constructed wetlands (VFCW) months at one application per week, ex-
pecially in those of sub-Saharan Africa, could be efficiently used to tackle the lack cept in E. pyramidalis beds whose FS ap-
on-site sanitation systems predominate of treatment options in Africa. plication was interrupted for one month
over sewered alternatives. Since area- during plant harvesting and regrowth.
wide sewerage is not affordable, they Vegetation and operation SLRs were derived from TS content of
will play an important role in excreta dis- Experiments, conducted on a yard-scale the raw sludge prior to each application.
posal for decades to come. Unfortunate- at the University of Yaoundé I, Cameroon, Since the TS contents were constant, the
ly, the gap in knowledge on low-cost and over the last three years, aim at assess- hydraulic sludge load applied to the beds
efficient treatment options is one of the ing the effects of FS application on the was determined each time according to
main factors leading to the uncontrolled performance of the system in order to de- the following equation:
discharge of untreated faecal sludges (FS) termine the factors likely to affect its sus- Hydraulic load (l) = C1 x 1
into drains, water bodies and open land tainability (Photo 1). Faecal sludges were C2 x 52
spaces. This improper practice is at odds applied weekly on beds vegetated either with: C1 = annual loading rate (kg TS/m2 /yr)
with ecological principles, as the faecal with antelope grass (Echinochloa pyrami- C2 = TS content of each newly deliv-
sludge contains high concentrations of dalis) or papyrus (Cyperus papyrus). This ered raw FS by the mechanical emptiers
pathogens and pollutants impairing pub- allows the solid phase to be retained on (kg/L)
lic health and the aquatic environment. In the surface of the filtering matrix, where Based on the results obtained, both indig-
Cameroon as in other sub-Saharan coun- it undergoes mineralisation, while the enous plants were found suitable for de-
tries, eutrophication of lakes and streams liquid phase is drained out of the system watering of highly concentrated FS in trop-
is significant, and diseases linked to poor for further treatment. Prior to sludge ap- ical regions at 100 kg TS/m2 /yr. Indeed,
water and sanitation management remain plication, young shoots or fragments of
burning issues. Faecal sludges contain ex- E. pyramidalis stems with at least one in- 6
C. papyrus
tremely high pathogen concentrations re- ternode and old fragments of rhizomes of
Clogging occurrence
5
sponsible for the elevated endemic rate C. papyrus, weighing 300 to 350 g (fresh
4
of excreta-related diseases, especially weight), were allowed to grow for six
among children [1]. weeks in a media saturated with raw do- 3
Development of efficient and low-cost mestic wastewater. 2

methods for separation of the solid and
1
liquid fraction is a key requirement for System performance
0
sustainable management of faecal sludge. For six months, the sludge loads were
This step is essential to avoid hygienic gradually increased by a mixture of FS 6
problems and allow the recovery of re- from traditional pit latrines, septic tanks E. pyramidalis
Clogging occurrence
5
sources or energy [2, 3]. If well managed, and public toilets delivered by emptying
trucks to reach nominal solid loading rates 4
1 Eawag/Sandec of 100, 200 and 300 kg TS (total solids)/ 3

2 University of Yaoundé I, Department of Plant m2 /yr. Faecal sludges, stored in two tanks
Biology, Water Research Unit 2
The authors acknowledge the support
(1 cm2 each), were stirred prior to each
1
received from the Swiss National Centre of loading. This gradual SLR (sludge load-
Competence in Research (NCCR) North– ing rate) increase was performed to avoid 0
South: Research Partnerships for Mitigating J-06 F-06 M-06 A-06 M-06 J-06
Syndromes of Global Change, co-funded by withering of the macrophytes due to the
Date
the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNF) application of rapid and large amounts of
and the Swiss Agency for Development and 100 200 300 kg TS/m 2 /yr
Cooperation (SDC). Additional support was also pollutants, and to master all the adverse
provided by the International Foundation for conditions that could hamper the experi- Figure 1: Occurrence of clogging events in the
Science (IFS, Sweden, grant W4115/1). different beds as a function of the solid loading
Contact: [email protected]
ments. The beds were subsequently fed
rates applied.
at nominal loading rates for another six

being subjected to the classic mesophilic,
Sandec
thermophilic and maturation phase for their
stabilisation. Indeed, their C/N ratio was
equal to 11, a value close to that general-
ly found in mature composts. Furthermore,
the humification indices obtained, espe-
cially the degree of polymerisation of 3.7,
was higher than that found in other mature
co-composts [7]. The biosolids also exhib-
ited high nutrient contents with total N and
P2O5 accounting for up to 2 and 2.3 % DM,
Photo 1: Pilot beds of the VFCW developed for the FS dewatering study in sub-Saharan countries. respectively. Nevertheless, helminth eggs
remained relatively higher (79 eggs/g TS
bed clogging, the main operational prob- vesting varied from 260 to 400 and from on average) than the WHO guidelines of
lem encountered in such a system, rare- 56 to 150 shoots/m2 for E. pyramidalis and less than 1 helminth egg/g TS for un-
ly occurred at this loading rate (Fig. 1). The C. papyrus, respectively. Cross-surveys of restricted agricultural use, thus requiring
average dry matter content for this SLR their density in natural wetlands revealed longer storage periods or co-composting to
amounts to ≥ 30 % prior to each weekly an average of 89 and 24 shoots/m2 for E. obtain a safer product.
application. However, at ≥ 200 kg TS/m2 /yr pyramidalis and C. papyrus, respectively. The findings of this research were con-
loading rate, clogging occurrence was This significant growth rate can be attrib- sidered an added value pleading for the de-
higher in the C. papyrus beds than in uted to the availability of sufficient nutri- velopment of this ecotechnology in Africa.
those of E. pyramidalis (Fig. 1). These re- ents, especially nitrogen and phosphorus Indeed, besides the primary goal of using
sults contrast with the operational load- contained in faecal sludge. An important the VFCW to tackle the lack of affordable
ing rates of less than 80 kg TS/m2 /yr gen- development of the aerial parts of antelope FS treatment options, the harvested mac-
erally applied in Europe and North America grass was noted in the beds, thus requir- rophytes (antelope grass) could be used
[4, 5], but lie within the range of previous ing frequent harvests to allow a regrowth as fodder for sheep and goats. The high
work conducted in Thailand [6]. Pollutant of new shoots from the rhizomes. Shoots mineral content of the produced biosolids
removal efficiencies, based on average growing from the rhizomes are expected could also serve as organic soil amend-
differences in input and output fluxes, re- to create enough tubular spaces during ment, reduce the need for fertilisers by lo-
vealed that beds vegetated either with wing movement, and enhance FS dewa- cal farmers and generate funds to sustain
C. papyrus or E. pyramidalis performed rel- tering rather than the growth of shoots the system if properly managed.
atively well for solids, nutrients and organ- from the aerial internodes. A potential an-
ics, irrespective of the solid loading rates nual harvest of at least 150 dry tons/ha of
applied, with removal rates often higher this highly prized local forage plant can be
[1] World Health Organization (2006): Guidelines
than 78 % (Table 1). Despite these good obtained if harvested thrice a year. Severe for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and
removal efficiencies, the percolate con- signs of plant wilting were nevertheless greywater. Vol. 4, WHO, Geneva.
centration in pollutants remained relatively observed when loaded with FS exhibit- [2] Koné, D. (2007): Excreta and Wastewater
Management Contributing to Cities’ Econom-
high. These percolates will need to under- ing high salinity (15 mS/cm), such as those
ic Development. A Paradigm Shift. Sandec
go further treatment in constructed wet- from public toilets, especially when the in-
News, 2007. No. 8, 8–9.
lands or waste stabilisation ponds to com- filtration rate was slow. Monitoring of the [3] Koné, D. and Strauss, M. (2004): Low-cost
ply with reuse standards for unrestrictive effects of salinity on the growth and nutri- options for treating faecal sludge (FS) in de-
agriculture. tive value of the antelope grass is currently veloping countries: challenges and perform-
ance. In: Proc. of 9th Int. Conf. on Wetland
A comparison of the growth character- being conducted.
Systems held in Avignon, France, Sept. 26–
istics of the plants in constructed and nat- Extensive rhizome growth, as well as
Oct. 02. IWA & ASTEE, Vol. 1, 213–220.
ural wetlands indicate that both macro- weak and slow culm regrowth were identi- [4] Kim, B.J. and Smith, D. (1997): Evaluation
phytes adapted and developed relatively fied as potential factors limiting the use of of sludge dewatering reed beds: A niche for
well when loaded with faecal sludge. As a C. papyrus for FS dewatering when loaded small systems. Water Science and Technolo-
gy, 35(6):21–28.
result of FS applications, shoot numbers at at more than 100 kg TS/m2. Easy regrowth
[5] Nielsen S. (2005): Sludge reed beds facilities
harvesting were two to four times higher of Echinochloa shoots was observed from
– Operation and problems. Water Science and
in dewatering beds despite their short pe- the fragments of stems remaining in the Technology, 51(9), 99–107.
riod of growth. Indeed, their density at har- beds after the harvest of shoots by cut- [6] Koottatep, T., Surinkul, N., Polprasert, C.,
tings. As regards the operational condi- Kamal, A.S.M., Koné, D., Montangero, A.,
Parameters Average Removal Heinss, U., and Strauss, M. (2005): Treatment
tions of the sludge treatment plant, this
Efficiencies of septage in constructed wetlands in tropical
could be an interesting aspect pleading in
climate: lessons learnt from seven years of
TVS 95.4 – 98.9 favour of the use of this macrophyte. In- operation. Water Science & Technology 51(9),
TS 90.2 – 95.8 deed, easy regrowth could result in a time 119–126.
NTK 89.5 – 95.7 and money saving factor. [7] Jouraiphy, A., Amir, S., El Gharous, M., Revel,
NH4 77.6 – 90.9 At least 2000 tons of fresh weight/ha/ J.-C., and Hafidi, M. (2005): Chemical and
COD 97.8 – 99.2 spectroscopic analysis of organic matter
year biosolids can be accumulated on top
transformation during composting of sewage
Table 1: Pollutant removal efficiencies of the of the beds. These biosolids can be con- sludge and green plant waste. International
VFCW for FS dewatering. sidered as mature compost even without Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 56(2):101–108.

Excreta and Wastewater Management
Development of Nitrogen
Transformation Model for VFCWs
Treating Faecal Sludge
The thousands of tons of faecal sludge currently collected every day from on-site sanitation installa-
tions are not properly disposed of, especially in developing countries. In Bangkok, only 8.5 % of the
4 600 m3 of FS collected daily are treated in faecal sludge treatment plants [3]. Among the potential
low-cost treatment systems, which enhance nutrient and biosolids recovery for reuse purposes [1], the
vertical-flow constructed wetland (VFCW) system has proven robust for efficient FS dewatering and
quality biosolids production [2]. Atitaya Panuvatvanich1, 2, Thammarat Koottatep1, Doulaye Koné2
Early 1997, three pilot-scale, vertical-flow Methodology Preliminary findings

constructed wetlands were developed at Experimental setup Figure 3, which indicates influent and ef-
the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) in Five laboratory-scale VFCWs, located at fluent nitrogen concentrations in form of
Bangkok. Based on the available experi- the Environmental Research Station of the org-N, NH 4 -N, NO2-N, and NO 3 -N, reveals
mental data, the optimum solids loading Environmental Engineering and Manage- that 94 % of the influent N concentration
rate was established at 250 kg TS/m2.yr ment Programme of AIT, Thailand, were is in the form of NH 4 -N. After ponding
with a 6-day percolate impoundment. The used for this research. for six days, the TN removal efficiency in
CW units treating faecal sludge achieve Unit 1 was higher than in Unit 2 by about
80–96 % removal efficiencies for COD, Lab-scale VFCW units 10 %. Similarly, the TN removal efficiency
TS and TKN. The current knowledge on Each unit, consisting of a square plastic in Unit 3 is higher than in Units 4 and 5 by
nitrogen transformation within the system tank, was planted with cattail (Typha au- about 8 % and 26 %, respectively. This in-
could be useful to further develop system gustifolia). The effluent outlet was divided dicates that accumulated sludge may af-
design. This study aims at identifying nitro- into two groups as shown in Figs. 1a and fect total nitrogen removal efficiency of
gen transformation pathways and kinetics 1b, without and with water holding in the the systems. Moreover, VFCW operated
of processes corresponding to nitrogen drainage layer. A PVC pipe was connected with percolate impounded in large gravel
compounds, such as organic nitrogen, am- to the effluent outlet of three laboratory- layers does not reveal a significant differ-
monia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen in ver- scale VFCW units to maintain a constant ence in terms of TN removal efficiency, as
tical-flow constructed wetland (VFCW) for water level in the drainage layer, as illus- compared to a VFCW operated without
treating faecal sludge. trated in Fig. 1b. percolate impoundment.
Figure 1a:
Without retained percolate
in large gravel layer
Figure 1b:
With percolate retained in
large gravel layer

250 250 250
Unit 1 Unit 2
Concentration, mg/L
Concentration, mg/L
200 200 200
150 150 150
mg/L
100 100 100
50 50 50
0 0 0
Inf Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit
0.00 0.01 0.30 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.01 0.30 0.50 0.75 1.00
-1 -2 -3 -4 -5
Time (day) Time (day)
250 250 250

Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5
Concentration, mg/L
Concentration, mg/L
200 Concentration, mg/L 200 200
150 150 150
100 100 100
50 50 50
0 0 0
0.00 0.01 0.30 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.01 0.30 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.01 0.30 0.50 0.75 1.00
Time (day) Time (day) Time (day)
NO 2-N NO 3-N NH 4-N Org-N
Figure 2 (top left): Profiles of nitrogen compounds after passing the sand layer in lab-scale VFCW units.
Figure 3: N compounds in influent and effluent of each unit (1−5).
With regard to nitrification in the sand Moreover, the different drainage types, Accordingly, ammonia volatilisation, ni-
layer, preliminary results indicate that ap- either with or without retained percolate in trification and denitrification will be exam-
proximately 50% of NH4-N concentrations the system, also had not effect on nitrogen ined in new column units and controlled
disappear and NO2-N concentrations in- transformation in the sand layers (Table 1). conditions. Two new lab-scale VFCW units
crease by about 80 %. NO3-N concentra- at different depths of the sand layer will
tions increase by about 40 % in relation to Further investigations be set up to investigate the relationship
the influent concentrations (Fig. 2). This in- Based on the preliminary results, the fol- between sand layer depth and nitrogen
dicates that NH4-N was probably converted lowing three investigations will also have conversion. Finally, small units will be in-
through nitrification to NO2-N and NO3-N to be carried out to identify nitrogen trans- stalled at different depths in the accumu-
after passing the sand layer. Moreover, formation in the vertical-flow constructed lated sludge to study nitrogen releakage.
plant uptake or another mechanism could wetland:
be responsible for unrecovered NH4-N in 1) Ammonia volatilisation, nitrification, den-
this layer. itrification, and plant uptake – the main
After sludge accumulation at various mechanisms for nitrogen transforma-
depths on the top of the VFCW, org-N con- tion. 1 School of Environment, Resources and
Development (SERD), Asian Institute of
centrations increased by about 90 % in re- 2) Relationship between sand layer depth Technology (AIT) Pahtumthani, Thailand
lation to the influent concentrations. The and nitrogen conversion. 2 Eawag/Sandec
3) Releakage of nitrogen from accumulat- Contact: [email protected]

results reveal that the different levels of ac-
cumulated sludge had no significant effect ed sludge.
on nitrogen transformation in the sand layer. [1] Koné, D. and Strauss, M. (2004): Low-cost
options for treating faecal sludges (FS) in
developing countries – challenges and
performance. Paper presented at the
Depth of accumulated 6 th International Conference on Waste
Type of influent Drainage type Units Stabilisation Pond and the 9 th International
sludge (cm)
Conference on Wetland Systems,
Without impounded perco- 1 0 Avignon, France.
AIT wastewater (NH 4 + late in large gravel layer 2 10 [2] Koottatep, T., et al. (2005): Treatment of
concentration adjusted septage in constructed wetlands in tropical
3 0 climate – Lessons learnt after seven years of
with soluble NH 4 Cl so-
With impounded percolate operation, Wat. Sci. Tech., 51, 119−126.
lution) 4 10
in large gravel layer [3] Stoll, U. and Parameswaran, K. (1996):
5 20 Treatment and disposal of domestic sewage
sludge and nightsoil sludge for Bangkok, Wat.
Table 1: Configuration of experimental unit.
Sci. Tech., 34, 209−217.

Urban Agriculture
Turning Waste into a Fertiliser

The authors of this article have recently developed COMLIZER, a fertiliser made of municipal solid
waste, faecal sludge and mineral fertiliser. Since this new product meets the crop nutrient
requirements and has an excellent soil conditioning quality, it has become an attractive source of
nutrients for farmers. Noah Adamtey1, Olufunke Cofie1, Godfred K. Ofosu-Budu2, Dionys Forster 3
Sandec
Ghana’s municipal waste consists mainly Production and enrichment of
of household (domestic) and market waste co-compost
(69 %). On average, about 1800 t of munic- The organic fractions of market and house-
ipal solid waste (household/market waste) hold waste were separated from the total
and over 600 m3 of human excreta are pro- waste generated and composted with de-
duced daily in Accra. However, the waste watered faecal sludge at 2:1 ratio (v/v). Co-
is poorly managed due to logistics reasons compost quality was monitored using pH,
(waste collection vehicles/containers), fi- temperature, nitrate and ammonia nitrogen,
nancial constraints and lack of skilled per- as well as cress (Lepidium sativum) germi-
sonnel [1]. Nevertheless, as this waste nation. The mature co-compost was sub-
contains considerable amounts of plant sequently air-dried to less than 10 % mois-
nutrients, it can be used, if managed prop- ture content and sieved through a 2-mm
erly, to produce food crops safe for human mesh. The sieved co-compost (1.5 % N con-
consumption. Furthermore, food produc- tent) was then enriched with ammonium
tion has been decreasing in the tropics as sulphate (21 % N) until the co-compost
a result of reduced soil fertility, i. e. declin- and inorganic N fertiliser each contributed
ing soil organic matter content, low avail- 50 % of the total N content in the resulting
ability of plant nutrients, poor water in- product, the so-called COMLIZER.
filtration and water holding capacity [3].
Crop cultivation in and around urban areas Characteristics of COMLIZER
has recently been intensified to meet the The agronomic importance of COMLIZER
growing urban food demand. was tested on maize grown on sandy
In 2002, a pilot co-composting plant was loam soil subjected to additional irrigation.
set up in Buobai, Ghana, 15 km from Ku- Maize yield from COMLIZER-treated plots
masi’s city centre (6°41’ N, 1°37’ W) to with 91 kg N ha -1 was 3 % higher than NPK
study municipal solid waste (SW) and fae- (15-15-15) + ammonium sulphate with
cal sludge (FS) treatment and reuse in ur- 150 kg N ha -1, and 11 times higher than soil
ban and peri-urban agriculture. The co- alone (Photo). Nitrogen and phosphorus
compost produced at this plant from SW uptake in maize plants from COMLIZER-
and FS revealed fairly high phosphorus (≤ treated plots were 11 and 29 % higher Photo: Maize cobs and mature plants grown
(a) on soil; (b) on COMLIZER-treated plots with
3 %) and potassium (≤ 3 %) contents, but a than NPK (15-15-15) + ammonium sul-
91 kg N ha-1 and (c) with 150 kg N ha-1 NPK (15-15-
low nitrogen concentration averaging 1 %. phate, resp., and three times higher than 15) + ammonium sulphate.
Moreover, since co-compost releases nu- soil alone. The organic matter content of
trients only slowly, its N mineralisation rate soil treated with COMLIZER was 22 %
amounted to less than 10 %. The farmers’ and 64 % higher than NPK (15-15-15) + 1 Int. Water Management Inst., Accra, Ghana
2 University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
reticence to buy and use the product as an ammonium sulphate and soil alone. Crop
3 Eawag/Sandec
alternative nutrient source in crop produc- water use efficiency was 12 % higher in
Contact: [email protected]
tion can be attributed to its low nitrogen COMLIZER-treated crops over NPK (15- The research was supported by the NCCR
content and costs required to transport the 15-15) + ammonium sulphate and 9 times North-South and IDRC Agropolis.
large co-compost volumes [2]. over soil alone, whereas the heavy metal
As nitrogen is the most limiting ele- content in maize (grain and plant) was far [1] AMA (2006): Municipal solid waste and bio-
ment of all main nutrients in tropical soils, below WHO’s threshold value. solids generation & management in Accra,
Ghana, Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA).
any soil amendment should be able to sup- Compared to NPK (15-15-15) + ammo-
Personal Interview conducted on 20.01.2006.
ply enough N to meet the crop require- nium sulphate, COMLIZER made from mu- [2] Danso, G., Drechsel, P., Fialor, S., Giordano,
ment. Enriching co-compost with minimum nicipal waste co-compost and inorganic fer- M. (2006): Estimating the demand for munici-
amounts of inorganic fertiliser is therefore tiliser improves crop yield, nutrient uptake, pal waste compost via farmers‘ willingness-
an option to overcome the low N content, to soil organic matter content, and crop wa- to-pay in Ghana. Waste Management 26 (12),
1400–1409.
reduce the total volume to be transported ter use efficiency. Hence, municipal waste
[3] FAO-RAF (2000): Integrated soil management
to farm sites and, thus, make the product is not a waste after all, as COMLIZER has for sustainable agriculture and food security.
attractive for farmers. the potential to meet farmers’ needs to en- Case studies from four countries in West
hance crop production. Africa, FAO Regional Office, Accra, Ghana.

In Brief
New Publications
Capacity Development with Point presentations, lecture notes and fur-
Sandec’s Training Tool ther reading material. The product – the
Lack of knowledge is a major barrier pre- “Sandec Training Tool” – addressing in-
venting large-scale and effective water terested lecturers, students or practition-
and sanitation improvements. To ensure ers, will subsequently be available free of
state-of-the-art training and education of charge as CD and download.
sanitary and environmental engineers, The “Sandec Training Tool” is divided
both lecturers and students must be able into two overview modules entitled “Over-
to easily gain access to training materials view” and “Environmental Health”, four
covering not only topics relevant to high in- thematically focussed modules on “House-
come countries (sewers, activated sludge, hold Water Treatment and Safe Storage”,
wastewater treatment or membrane bio- “Sanitation Systems and Technologies”,
reactors). Instead, teaching should specif- “Faecal Sludge Management” and “Solid Figure 1: User-Interface provides access to the
ically cover technologies and approaches Waste Management”, and finally a Module seven modules and all specific documents.
adapted to situations in developing coun- on “Planning for Environmental Sanitation”

tries. It should also raise the attention to (Fig. 1). A preliminary version of Sandec’s Train-
the fact that technologies alone cannot All modules, interlinked through an html- ing Tool shall be finalised in September
solve the problems but must be based user-interface can be accessed by any In- 2008 and distributed to selected partners
on the socio-cultural, economic and insti- ternet browser. The user can thus navigate for testing and reviewing. The feedback
tutional context. Following the numerous through the materials and find documents from end users will then contribute to
requests for such possibly free materi- related to his/her specific interest. A stand- complement and update the seven mod-
als, Sandec has initiated a project aiming alone application on a CD will not re- ules with specific exercises, case studies
at creating a pool containing Sandec’s nu- quire Internet access. Since the Power- and other missing topics. Sandec hopes
merous literature notes and presentations Point presentations will be available as that this tool will create improved precon-
collected over several years. In a first step, open source, they can be adapted if neces- ditions for enhanced capacity development
all existing lecture materials will be struc- sary by local lecturers in their teaching and in the sector.
tured, collated and enhanced by Power- training activities.
New Booklet on Global Waste

Challenge
Management of Municipal Solid Waste is Collection
one of the major challenges worldwide. Full waste collection coverage is a key to a hygienic environment.
Uncollected waste remains in the neighbourhood, attracts patho-
Inadequate collection, recycling or treat- gens and pollutes waterways. This situation leads not only to health
risks but also constitutes a public eyesore and negatively affects
ment and uncontrolled disposal of waste economic development. Furthermore, the waste collection systems
in dumps lead to severe hazards, such as Global sustainable and integrated waste management system.
Waste
In developing countries, collection and transport activities account
health risks and environmental pollution. for most of the municipal solid waste management budget. Despite
this high expenditure, only a small fraction of the waste generated is
This situation is especially serious in low collected. In Sri Lanka and in the Philippines, for example, only 40 %
and middle-income countries. Challenge of the total waste generated is collected. In Vietnam and Paraguay,
waste collection coverage is around 50 % and in India 70 %.
This booklet aims at raising the aware-

Situation in Developing Countries
ness of the appalling situation related to
Municipal Solid Waste Management in de-
veloping countries. Data on MSW reveals
the differences between high-income
countries and the developing world. We
believe that bilateral and multilateral devel-
opment cooperation has an important role
to play, as it can catalyse solid waste man-
agement efforts if treated on a higher pri- Figure 4: Total MSW generated (kg/capita/yr) and collection coverage in %
in 17 countries.
ority level.
Available online from www.sandec.ch
or order free copy from [email protected]
Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology

In Brief
Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies – Not Just

Another Sanitation Book
For more than a year, the members of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Group have been compiling,
researching, writing, and designing a comprehensive handbook for sanitation professionals. In August 2008,
the ‘Compendium’ will finally make its long awaited debut. Elizabeth Tilley
Every year, hundreds of publications on these technologies are presented, or even options more fairly, but also select and
sanitation appear on the market. This time to highspeed Internet (where many re- combine different options from different
around, the International Year of Sanita- ports are now published), the professional ‘schools’ not usually thought to be compat-
tion will see the Internet and the book- charged with the mammoth task of provid- ible. For example, in one of our study sites
shelves crammed with even more litera- ing sanitation to their cities and countries, in Costa Rica there is a dense informal set-
ture on the latest membrane technologies are severely limited in the variety and tlement with small, poorly functioning sep-
in Switzerland, aquaculture projects in In- number of resources that they can access. tic tanks (a fairly standard, textbook de-
dia and Ecosan projects in China. Not con- Practitioners in the field have no need for rived technology). A standard approach to
tent to be left behind, Sandec is planning another publication on sewers, but rather a improve this situation would be to empty
to launch a book of its own: the Compen- publication that shows them all the options all the septic tanks in a massive but unsus-
dium of Sanitation Systems and Technolo- available, including sewers. This is what tainable government programme and hope
gies – but why will it be different? makes the “Compendium” different. they continue functioning for another year
Every day, Sandec has the opportuni- The goal of the Compendium is three- or two, or seal up the tanks and install ex-
ty to work with NGOs, regional engineers, fold: firstly, to expose the user to a broad pensive sewers that connect to the main
city planners, and municipal officers who range of sanitation systems and technol- sewer line: a service few can afford. It is
are tackling the massive problem of pro- ogies that he/she may not have known this type of limited assessment of the clas-
viding sanitation to the billions of people about or may not have considered; sec- sically available options and their often un-
that are currently without. These profes- ondly, to help the user understand how to attainable costs that causes hopelessness
sionals are, by and large, highly trained link and choose different sanitation tech- and prevents sanitation from being priori-
and have advanced degrees in engineer- nologies, and finally, to describe and pro- tised and realised in the communities that
ing, planning or community development; vide an unbiased view of the advantages need it most.
they have sound technical backgrounds and disadvantages of different technolo- Instead of conventional solutions,
and working experience in industry or re- gies. Essentially, by bringing together the we hope to offer tools and resources
search. What they lack is not skill or dedi- information contained in hundreds of publi- to achieve environmental, operation-
cation, but access to information and ex- cations, we can provide a brief, yet concise al and financial sustainability that meet
posure to alternative or cutting-edge ideas. resource that can be used as an informed local sanitation needs. One possible ap-
While most universities still only teach tra- starting point for a more comprehensive proach gleaned from Compendium System
ditional sewer-based sanitation systems approach to sanitation planning – some- 7 (Simplified sewerage with semi-central-
(regardless of their location), a growing thing a sanitation textbook just cannot do. ised treatment), would be to leave in place
movement recognises and understands As in all disciplines, there are schools of the overworked septic tanks, allow them
the importance of technologies previously thought that differ both in their approach to act as settling tanks to remove solids
deemed ‘non-technical’, which are now re- and their recommendations. The goal of and then connect the tanks to low-cost,
garded as appropriate, sustainable and ur- this publication is to overcome ideological simplified sewers, which can be installed
gently needed. biases and present the advantages and dis- on the property (rather than under the
Unfortunately, with limited access to advantages for each technology in the con- streets). The sewers transfer the effluent
information, to the newest journal arti- tinuum from ‘low-tech’ to ‘high-tech’. In to an engineered wetland for final treat-
cles, to international conferences, where this way, not only can users assess their ment. Solids would be removed from the
settling tanks with a locally operated pump
Sandec
and transport tank and co-treated with or-

ganic waste in a small co-composting fa-
cility. Combining standard with innovative
technologies is beyond the scope of most
design manuals. However, it is exactly this
kind of modular planning and system de-
velopment that the Compendium is meant
to encourage.
The Compendium is 150 pages long
and available for download from:
www.sandec.ch
Requests for hard copies can be made
by writing to [email protected]
Finding the information they need when they need it: Project planners in Chamg’ombe, Tanzania.

In Brief
New Faces
Marie-Madeleine Monika Tobler, biol- Atitaya
Ngoutane Pare, Plant ogist, was appointed Panuvatvanich, Thai
Biologist, started her SODIS Project Offic- PhD student from
PhD thesis with San- er in March 2008. Af- the Asian Institute of
dec in 2007 on “Fac- ter two years of em- Technology (AIT) in
tors influencing the ployment with FAO in Bangkok, Thailand,
nutritive value of an- Burkina Faso, she is collaborated with San-
telope grass (Echi now responsible for dec on Faecal Sludge
nochloa pyramidalis) grown on faecal several SODIS projects in Africa with spe- Management in January 2006. After work-
sludge and wastewater in constructed cial focus on East Africa. ing as Research Associate on a Decen-
wetlands”. Mrs Ngoutane is currently en- tralised Wastewater Treatment project
rolled at the Department of Plant Biology, Mingma Gyalzen, (DEWAT) for two more years at AIT, she
University of Yaounde I, Cameroon under Sherpa, environmen- has now started a dissertation on the
the co-supervision of Dr Doulaye Koné, tal scientist from Ne- “Development of Nitrogen Transformation
Sandec and Prof. Amougou Akoa, Univer- pal, started his PhD Model for Vertical-Flow Constructed Wet-
sity of Yaounde I. thesis at the Asian In- land Treating Faecal Sludge”. Her PhD
stitute of Technology focuses on nitrogen transformation path-
Samuel Luzi, envi- (AIT) in 2007 in collab- ways and kinetics of nitrogen compounds,
ronmental scientist, oration with Sandec. such as organic nitrogen, ammonia ni-
joined the SODIS His first contact with Eawag dates back to trogen, nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate nitro-
team in March 2008 2002 with the SODIS programme imple- gen in Vertical-Flow Constructed Wetland
after completing his mented in Nepal. For his Master’s degree (VFCW) treating faecal sludge.
PhD thesis at the in Environmental Science at the UNESCO-
Center for Security IHE Institute for Water Education in Delft,
Studies, ETHZ, in the The Netherlands, he once again collabo-
field of conflict and cooperation in trans- rated with Sandec on the topic of faecal
boundary river basins. He will be in charge sludge management in the Kathmandu
of coordinating the SODIS projects fund- Valley. His PhD now focuses on the
ed by the SOLAQUA Foundation in Asia Household-Centred Environmental Sanita-
and Africa. tion Planning (HCES) process and its spe-
cific challenges and opportunities in the
Nepalese context.
The Sandec Team

Sandec
Back from left to right: Mbaye Mbéguéré, Martin

Wegelin, Doulaye Koné, Antoine Morel, Christoph
Lüthi, Roland Schertenleib, Caterina Dalla Torre,
Stefan Diener, Regula Meierhofer, Pierre-Henri
Dodane, Monika Tobler, Kim Müller, Samuel Luzi,
Dionys Forster
Front: Chris Zurbrügg, Yvonne Vögeli, Elizabeth
Tilley, Valérie Cavin, Karin Güdel
Missing on photo: Benjamin Hemkendreis,

Susanne Koller, Lars Osterwalder, Sylvie Peter,
Melanie Savi
Associated doctoral students: Noah Adamtey,

Horacio Chamizo, Marie-Madelaine Ngoutane,
Atitaya Panuvatvanich, Yuttachai Sarathai,
Mingma Sherpa, Narong Surinkul

In Brief
On the Bookshelf
Apart from the publications cited in the previous articles, we recommend the following new books and key readings in the water and sanitation, solid waste man-
agement, urban agriculture, as well as excreta and wastewater management sectors.
Irrigated Urban Vegetable Production in Gha-

Water and Sanitation Solid Waste Management na: Characteristics Benefits and Risks
More than 200 000 urban dwellers eat exotic
Liquid Gold: The Lore and Logic of Using Improving Municipal Solid Waste Management
vegetables daily on Accra’s streets and in can-
Urine to Grow Plants in India – A Sourcebook for Policy Makers and
teens and restaurants. Most of the perishable
This book tells you how urine – which contains Practitioners
vegetables are produced on open spaces in the
most of the nutrients in domestic wastewater and Though this book is about SWM in India, we ex-
cities or their fringes due to insufficient cold
usually carries no disease risk – can be utilised pect that its content will also help local gov-
transport and storage. This activity is highly
as a resource.Liquid Gold features three ways to ernments throughout the developing world to
profitable and can lift vulnerable groups out of
use urine hygienically and productively for plant plan and implement sustainable solutions to the
poverty. It can also contribute to flood control,
growth, with studies that show the science be- waste management challenge. The publication
land reclamation and city greening. However,
hind this practice. Several advocates of urine di- was prepared by the World Bank Institute, Infra-
poor farmers have increasing problems finding
version and their gardens are profiled, demonstrat- structure Professionals Enterprise, Centre for
in and around the cities unpolluted water
ing that using urine as a fertiliser is a feasible, safe Environment Education and by Eawag/Sandec.
sources for irrigation. This book gives a
and cost-saving way to prevent pollution and save By Zhu D., Asnani P.U., Zurbrügg C., Anapolsky
comprehensive overview of urban and peri-
on fertiliser costs. S., Mani S., 2008, 176 pages, ISBN 978-0-8213-
urban vegetable farming in Ghana’s major
By Steinfeld D., 2005, 96 pages, ISBN 978-0- 7361-3. Available from http://findarticles.com
cities, with a special focus on “wastewater” use.
9666783-1-4. Available from http://www.ecowa-
It ends with recommendations on how in a low-
ters.org/products.html Management of Solid Wastes in Developing
income country like Ghana health risks for
Countries
consumers could be effectively reduced, while
Reusing the Resource: Adventures in Ecolog- This book is a collection of selected articles on
simultaneously supporting the important
ical Wastewater Recycling key issues of proper management of solid waste.
contribution of open-space urban and peri-urban
Imagine a future in which gardens, greenhouses It shows “state-of-the-art and perspectives“ as
agriculture. The book highlights further research
and groves of trees replace sewage outfall pipes well as best practices of waste management top-
needs and will serve students, the academia and
and leaching fields. Sewage will grow ecologi- ics of technical, economic, social, and institutional
decision-makers as an important resource.
cal tree plantations that provide fuel, fibre, con- nature. The publication has been prepared by the
By Obuobie E. et al., 2006, IWMI-RUAF-CPWF,
struction materials, wildlife habitat, and beautiful International Waste Working Group (IWWG).
150 pages, ISBN 92-9090-628-6. Available from
landscapes. A pig farm’s wastewater will fertilise By Diaz L.F., Eggerth L.L., Savage G.M., 2007,
http://www.ruaf.org/node/1046
a tree farm instead of pollute a river. A house’s 430 pages, ISBN 978-88-6265-000-7. Available
wastewater will irrigate and fertilise its surround- from http://www.cisapublisher.com
ing landscape. A planted roof will collect and filter
rainwater for use in the house. Solid Waste Management and the Millennium
By Steinfeld C. and Del Porto D., 2007, 124 pag- Development Goals
es, published with UNICEF, ISBN 0-9666783-2-X. This booklet is the third in a series published by
Available from http://www.ecowaters.org/prod- the CWG (Collaborative Working Group on Solid
ucts.html Waste Management in Low and Middle-Income
Countries). The CWG is concerned to spread
The Last Taboo – Opening the Door on the information that will help to improve standards
Global Sanitation Crisis of solid waste management using publications,
This book is highly readable, exhaustively inform- workshops and other means.
ative, and will be of considerable help to those By Gonzenbach B. and Coad A., 2007, 34 pages,
trying to adapt and redesign toilet technologies ISBN 3-908156-11-4. Available from http://www.
for local conditions. Its multifaceted approach cwgnet.net/
has important implications for attaining the
Millennium Development Goal for sanitation.
By Black M. and Fawcett B., 2008, 272 pages, Urban Agriculture
ISBN 9781844075447 (paperback), ISBN
Profitability and Sustainability of Urban and Excreta and Wastewater Management
9781844075430 (hardback). Available from
http://www.earthcan.co.uk/?tabid=1494 Peri-urban Agriculture
Towards an Improved Faecal Sludge Manage-
The challenge is for urban agriculture (UA) to be-
ment (FSM)
come part of sustainable urban development and
Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium
to be valued as a social, economic and environ-
and Workshop on Faecal Sludge Management
mental benefit rather than a liability. This paper
Policy held in Dakar, Senegal from 9–12 May
aims at providing pertinent information on profit-
2006. The goals of the Symposium comprised
ability and sustainability of UA to a wide audience
the identification of key issues and challenges
of managers and policy-makers from municipali-
in FSM, discussion of effective policies and
ties, ministries of agriculture, local government,
approaches as well as the development of con-
non-governmental organisations (NGOs), donor
crete steps for sustainable FSM improvement.
organisations, and university research institu-
A French version entitled “Vers une Gestion
tions. It aims at highlighting the benefits of link-
Améliorée des Boues de Vidange (GBV)” with
ages between agriculture and the urban environ-
all the relevant documents and presentations is
ment, leading to a more balanced understanding
also available both as download or CD.
of the conflicts and synergies. It examines how
Contacts: Koné, D. and Saywell D., May 2006,
UA can contribute substantially to the Millenni-
32 pages. Both versions available from
um Development Goals (MDGs), particularly in
http://www.sandec.ch/
reducing urban poverty and hunger (MDG 1) and
ensuring environmental sustainability (MDG 7).
By van Veenhuizen R. and Danso G., 2007, 95
pages, FAO. Available as pdf from http://www.
ruaf.org/files/2838.pdf

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Sandec: Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries

August 2008, No. 9

Factors Influencing the Sustained Use of SODIS. Page 4

Ending the Sanitation Crisis

“ Research and capacity development

 Sandec News 9 / 2008

Household Water Treatment Systems

Project evaluations in 18 countries Use of the Black Soldier Fly larvae

6 Improving Fluoride Removal Efficiency

Dewatering experiments with an-

Sandec News 9 / 2008 

Factors Influencing the Sustained Use

 Sandec News 9 / 2008

Sandec News 9 / 2008 

Improving Fluoride Removal Efficiency

 Sandec News 9 / 2008

Sandec News 9 / 2008 

Biogas in Cities – A New Trend?

 Sandec News 9 / 2008

Sandec News 9 / 2008 

Conversion of Organic Refuse by

10 Sandec News 9 / 2008

Sandec News 9 / 2008 11

Technology Transfer – Forage Plants

Development of efficient and low-cost mestic wastewater. 2

1 Eawag/Sandec of 100, 200 and 300 kg TS (total solids)/ 3

12 Sandec News 9 / 2008

Sandec News 9 / 2008 13

Early 1997, three pilot-scale, vertical-flow Methodology Preliminary findings

14 Sandec News 9 / 2008

100 100 100

250 250 250

150 150 150

100 100 100

NO 2-N NO 3-N NH 4-N Org-N

3) Releakage of nitrogen from accumulat- Contact: [email protected]

Sandec News 9 / 2008 15

Turning Waste into a Fertiliser

16 Sandec News 9 / 2008

adapted to situations in developing coun- on “Planning for Environmental Sanitation”

New Booklet on Global Waste

This booklet aims at raising the aware-

Sandec News 9 / 2008 17

Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies – Not Just

and transport tank and co-treated with or-

18 Sandec News 9 / 2008

The Sandec Team

Back from left to right: Mbaye Mbéguéré, Martin

Missing on photo: Benjamin Hemkendreis,

Associated doctoral students: Noah Adamtey,

Sandec News 9 / 2008 19

Irrigated Urban Vegetable Production in Gha-

20 Sandec News 9 / 2008

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