Students,

digital devices
and success
OECD Directorate for
Education and Skills
 Students, digital
devices and success

OECD Directorate for

Education and Skills
 Students, digital devices and success

Key findings
• E
 xcessive use of digital devices for leisure in classrooms can
negatively impact students’ academic performance.
• 5 8% of students in France reported being distracted by
using digital devices in at least some maths lessons.
• 5 9% of students across the OECD said their attention was
diverted due to other students using phones, tablets or
laptops in at least some maths lessons.
• S
 tudents who reported being distracted by peers using
digital devices in some, most or every maths class score
significantly lower in maths tests.
• 2
 9% of students reported using smartphones several times
a day in schools with phone bans, on average across the
OECD; 21% used one every or almost every day.
• 4
 3% of French students reported feeling nervous or anxious
if their phones were not near them.
• T
 he digital environment offers educational opportunities
but also presents risks such as cyberbullying, exposure to
inappropriate content and privacy concerns.
• S
ome studies show a positive link between children’s
literacy skills and the time they spend watching screens with
families, but a negative link if children watch screens alone.
• P
olicies such as smartphone bans can help mitigate
distractions, but effective enforcement and other strategies
are needed for focused learning environments.
• A
 ccess to digital technology is essential for education;
efforts should be made to ensure all students have access
to the necessary digital tools and resources with the
age-appropriate support and supervision of adults.

Findings from PISA 2022 results.

2 © OECD 2024
 Students, digital devices and success

The digital environment has become an integral aspect of children’s lives.

It offers many opportunities such as enhancing educational opportunities,
expanding social interactions and having fun. However, the digital
environment also exposes children to risks such as cyberbullying, the viewing
of violent and other inappropriate content, sexual exploitation and abuse and
breaches of privacy. Much current debate also centers on concerns that digital
technologies can detract from human interaction and reduce the quality of
children’s social and emotional experiences.
All of these issues have fueled concerns from parents, teachers, governments
and young people themselves that digital technologies and social media
may be exacerbating feelings of anxiety and depression, disturbing sleep
patterns and distorting body image. As we integrate new digital technologies
into education, we must acknowledge the challenges and complexities that
arise. As stated in the OECD Recommendation on Children in the Digital
Environment, it is crucial to establish conditions for a safe and beneficial digital
environment. Education systems have a vital role in supporting children to
navigate the risks while reaping the benefits.

Digital risks
The OECD recognises four main risk categories for children in the digital
environment: content, contact, consumer and conduct risks. Advanced technology,
privacy, and health and well-being risks are also identified as cross-cutting risks.
With advances in digital technology, there is more worrying material out there,
including hate speech, offensive content and false and misleading content. The fact
children have greater access to digital devices and the pervasiveness of algorithms
also means that they may stumble upon this content more easily.
This has translated into rising concerns about the amount of potentially disturbing
and harmful material that kids are seeing online. Other risks, including consumer
risks, such as exposure to inappropriate marketing messages and online fraud, also
continue to be an issue. In-app purchases and digital marketing pose additional
threats to children’s well-being and privacy.
There is also evidence that children and adolescents’ mental health is impacted by
time spent online. Higher rates of screentime for adolescents has been found to
be associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression, and young people appear
to be more vulnerable to these mental health impacts than adults. The causal
pathways behind this require further investigation, but young people’s ongoing
brain development, exposure to problematic or harmful online content, exposure
to online bullying, and the substitution of other activities – in particular sleep but
also in-person socialising and exercise – for screen time all likely play a part.

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 Students, digital devices and success

Policymakers have made efforts to tackle many of these issues. For example, many
countries have tried to combat online hate speech and fake news by passing rules
to restrict false or misleading content. There are also initiatives aimed at enhancing
digital literacy and critical thinking skills, particularly among children and youth
who primarily consume news from social media, where reliability varies widely.

Associations with learning

and well-being
So it should be no surprise that there has been a lot of concern about the amount
of time kids use digital tools. Health organisations and medical societies tend
to advocate for limiting use of digital devices insofar as they may interfere
with other health-promoting behaviours. Insights from the latest PISA survey,
which assessed 15-year-olds’ skills in maths, reading and science in 81 education
systems, suggest that the amount of time that children use smartphones and
other digital devices for leisure at school is strongly negatively related to learning
outcomes.
While the data suggest a positive relationship between the intentional
integration of technology in school education and student performance, the use
of smartphones and other digital devices for leisure can be a learning distraction.
Notably, the impact on classroom learning could be substantial, with 58% of
students in France reporting being distracted by using digital devices in at least
some maths lessons, compared to an OECD average of 65%. The proportion
topped 80% in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Finland, Latvia, Mongolia, New
Zealand and Uruguay.
Just as importantly, across the OECD, 59% of students said their attention was
diverted due to other students using phones, tablets or laptops in at least some
maths lessons. In France the proportion was 53% although in some countries the
percentage was far lower, for example just 18% of students in Japan and 32% in
Korea reported this level of distraction.
Digital distraction is not merely an inconvenience; it appears to have a tangible
association with learning outcomes, according to PISA. Students who report
being distracted by peers using digital devices in some, most or every maths
class score significantly lower in maths tests, equivalent to three-quarters of a
year’s worth of education. The amount of time spent on digital devices for leisure
at school, particularly for more than an hour a day, also seems to correlate with
a significant drop in maths scores.
While students who devoted one to five hours a day to learning on digital devices
generally achieved better learning outcomes than their non-using counterparts,
those who used them more than an hour a day at school for leisure — such as
using social media apps, browsing the internet or playing games —experienced

4 © OECD 2024
 Students, digital devices and success

a significant decline in their maths scores. On average across OECD countries,

students who spent up to one hour a day for leisure activities on digital devices
at school scored 49 points higher in maths than their counterparts who spent five
to seven hours daily glued to their screens, even after adjusting for students’ and
schools’ socio-economic profiles. All in all, students who used their smartphone
at school in most maths lessons were 1.4 times as likely to be distracted than
students who did not.

Time spent on digital devices at school

and mathematics performance
Based on students’ reports; OECD average

Mean score in mathematics Learning Leisure

500

490

480

470

460

450

440

430

420
None Up to 1 hour More than More than More than More than More than
1 hour and up 2 hours and up 3 hours and up 5 hours and up 7 hours
to 2 hours to 3 hours to 5 hours to 7 hours

Time spent on digital devices at school per day

Note: Differences between categories are all statistically significant (see PISA Results Volume II Annex A3).
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Volume II Annex B1, Chapter 5 (Figure II.5.14).

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 Students, digital devices and success

The battle against distraction

This highlights how the use of digital devices in classrooms has become a double-
edged sword. On one hand, these devices can expand access to learning resources
and provide flexibility, including promoting digital inclusion for students with
disabilities. On the other hand, the temptation for students to multitask, shift
attention to non-academic activities, or explore the vast information available on
their devices can impact their concentration and, consequently, their academic
performance.
That said, not all digital devices contribute equally to distraction. Students who
frequently use smartphones at school are more susceptible to their attention
wandering, with the allure of non-educational activities and notifications proving
hard to resist. In contrast, PISA data suggest that the use of educational software
exhibits a more moderate negative association with concentration. This supports
other emerging research which indicates that what children consume and do in
digital environments is as important as the length of time they spend on digital
devices.
Furthermore, it is somewhat stating the obvious, but students appear to be less
distracted in class when they switch off notifications from social networks and
apps on their digital devices, do not use digital devices to take notes or search
for information, and when they do not feel pressured to be online and answer
messages while in class. The use of digital devices in schools also raises questions
regarding children’s well-being. For example, in France, 43% of students reported
feeling nervous or anxious if their phones were not near them, according to
PISA data, similar to the average across OECD countries. The data suggest that
students who felt this way scored 9 points less in PISA tests than the average,
across the OECD. They were also less satisfied with their lives, had less emotional
control and were less resistant to stress, although the direction of the causation
cannot be determined based on the available data.

6 © OECD 2024
 10
10

30
30

50
50

0
0

20
20

40
40

60
60

%
%
Argentina
Belgium Uruguay
Hungary Chile
Estonia Bulgaria
Germany New Zealand*
Jordan Brazil
Singapore Canada*
Panama* Latvia*
Thailand Philippines
Slovak Republic Finland
Palestinian Authority Australia*
Lithuania Morocco

distracted by using digital devices.

Mexico Greece
Albania Italy
Indonesia Sweden
United Arab Emirates Montenegro
Ukrainian regions (18 of 27) Romania
El Salvador Poland
Türkiye Costa Rica
mathematics lessons

Austria Serbia
Slovenia Portugal
Kazakhstan Netherlands*
Switzerland Mongolia
Croatia Spain
Qatar Moldova
Peru Baku (Azerbaijan)
every or in most of their mathematics lessons
Students get distracted by using digital devices

Malaysia Iceland
Ireland* Paraguay
Uzbekistan Denmark*
Saudi Arabia Norway
Cambodia Israel

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Volume II Annex B1, Chapter 3 (Figure II.3.4).
United Kingdom* Dominican Republic
Distraction from digital devices in

Malta Czech Republic

Students get distracted by other students who are using digital devices

Hong Kong (China)* OECD average

Chinese Taipei Colombia
Viet Nam France
Guatemala Kosovo
Macao (China) Jamaica*
Brunei Darussalam United States*

© OECD 2024
Percentage of students who reported that the following happens in

Korea Georgia
Japan North Macedonia
Students, digital devices and success

Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the percentage of students who reported that they get

7
 Students, digital devices and success

To ban or not to ban

It is therefore no surprise that how to mitigate distractions in schools is a key
policy debate. Many educational institutions have introduced rules to address
the distraction issue, but their effectiveness is nuanced. When a school’s written
statements or rules are too generally designed, imprecise or lenient, they are
unlikely to support effective teaching and learning with digital devices. Teachers
also need to be able to enforce the rules but will likely often struggle to monitor
students effectively, even when incorporating digital devices into lessons.
One action that has demonstrable impact is a ban on smartphones at school.
PISA data suggest that such bans can be effective, although with a lot depending
on enforcement. Even in schools with phone bans, 29% of students reported
using smartphones several times a day, on average across the OECD, with 21%
using one every day or almost every day at school. France, which has banned
phones in schools for kids up to the age of 14 until they attend Lycée, did not take
part in this area of the PISA survey.
The possible relationship between mobile phone bans and students’ digital
behaviour outside of school further underscores the complexity of the issue. At
schools with phone bans in Canada, Chile, Indonesia, Korea, New Zealand, Peru,
the Philippines, the Slovak Republic and Chinese Taipei, students were less likely
to turn off notifications from social networks and apps on their digital devices
when going to sleep. The data suggest that even in schools with bans, students
may struggle to adopt responsible behaviour regarding phone use.

8 © OECD 2024
 100
100

70
70

10
10

30
30

0
50
0
50

20
20

80
80

40
40

90
90

60
60

%
%
Sweden Costa Rica
Chinese Taipei Netherlands*
Chile Colombia
Germany El Salvador
Canada* Peru
Lithuania Panama*
Uzbekistan Slovenia
Moldova Portugal

Never or almost never

Korea Mexico

All or almost all of the time

Bulgaria France
Finland Ireland*
Saudi Arabia Spain
Austria Dominican Republic
Based on students’ reports

Singapore Hungary
Brazil Kosovo
Georgia Uruguay
Not applicable

Palestinian Authority Japan

devices are not near

Romania Belgium
Ukrainian regions (18 of 27) Switzerland
Less than half of the time

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Annex B1, Chapter 5

Qatar Argentina
Slovak Republic New Zealand*
Jamaica* Montenegro
Latvia* Croatia

feel nervous/anxious when they don’t have digital devices near them.
Poland Albania
Jordan North Macedonia
United Arab Emirates Iceland
Indonesia Estonia
Israel Mongolia
Baku (Azerbaijan) Italy
Greece Morocco
Philippines Kazakhstan
Hong Kong (China)* United Kingdom*
Malta OECD average
Feeling nervous/anxious when digital

Thailand Australia*
Brunei Darussalam Serbia
Macao (China) Czech Republic

© OECD 2024
About half of the time or more than half of the time

Malaysia Norway
Türkiye Denmark*
Students, digital devices and success

Countries and economies are ranked in descending order of the percentage of students who never or almost never

9
 Students, digital devices and success

Sharing screen time early on

As reflected in the PISA data, one critical aspect that must not be overlooked is
the context in which children use screens. For example, the nature of the content
being viewed and interactions during screen time are likely important factors.
Some studies have shown a positive correlation between children’s literacy skills
and the time they spend watching screens with their families. While a negative link
was observed when kids watched screens alone, a positive association emerged
when parents watched screens together with their children. This underscores the
potential value of the quality of interactions during screen time.
This is backed up by other OECD research into the impact of technology on young
children, aged two to six. According to the OECD’s “Empowering Young Children in
the Digital Age” report, screen time can be positive if supervised and focused on
educational content. Digital technologies can potentially enrich learning activities
through interactive features, the report found, and lay the foundation for skills
crucial in later life, such as fostering interest in fields like artificial intelligence,
programming and engineering.
However many issues warrant attention, including extended screen time and
exposure to inappropriate content, as previously discussed. Educators, caregivers
and parents must comprehend the benefits of technology in active and educational
contexts, while enforcing time constraints to ensure a holistic learning experience,
the report argues.

Addressing digital divides

It is also important to consider the widening digital access and skills gaps that
disproportionately affect many groups, including girls and disadvantaged children
across the globe. The COVID-19 pandemic underscored the importance of
extending education beyond traditional school boundaries, emphasising the need
for devices and connectivity at home for effective digital education. During the
pandemic, remote lessons, digital tools, and educational apps became integral
components of the learning experience, offering personalised and adaptive
approaches to education.
However, many children lacked access to technology during this period. The lack
of available devices and connectivity in some homes posed a significant hurdle,
which could have negatively impacted learning outcomes. While some countries
implemented initiatives during the pandemic to level the playing field, many of
these efforts, such as providing free access to educational platforms, have been
discontinued.

10 © OECD 2024
 Students, digital devices and success

Other issues, such as funding disparities among public schools across different
regions, may result in varying provisions of digital tools. This can also potentially
widen the achievement gap and inequality of opportunities between richer and
poorer neighborhoods, or urban and rural communities. Governments need to
ensure a minimum baseline of digital tools and resources across all schools to
prevent such disparities.
Teachers also need opportunities to develop digital competences to ensure all
teachers have the confidence and skills to effectively integrate digital resources
into their teaching. 70 percent of students in France in 2022 were taught by teachers
who have the necessary technical and pedagogical skills to integrate digital devices
into teaching, according to principals, up from 56 percent in 2018. 87% of French
students also have an effective online learning support platform – up from 35% in
2018. But the proportion of French students whose teachers have time to prepare
lessons which integrate digital devices into their classes has dropped to 58% in
2022, down from 81% four years earlier.

What else to consider?

As much learning now takes place through a connected device, digital literacy
is crucial. 21st-century literacy means checking facts before basing opinions
on them. It means asking questions about sources of information: Who wrote
this? Who made this video? Is it a credible source? Does it even make sense?
What are my biases? All this belongs in school and teacher-training curricula.
It has applications far beyond detecting false and misleading content; this is
about ensuring people can make informed decisions - the basis for functioning
democracies.
However, the ability and habit of reading long pieces of text is key to building
up reading skills. According to the OECD’s “21st-Century Readers: Developing
Literacy Skills in a Digital World “ report, reading digital texts more frequently
showed a negative association with reading performance in 55 countries and
economies, even after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic
profiles. In contrast, reading fiction texts and reading long texts more frequently
was positively associated with reading performance. On average across OECD
countries, students who had to read longer pieces of text for school (101 pages
or more) achieved 31 PISA score points more in reading than those who reported
reading smaller pieces of text (10 pages or less), after accounting for students’
and schools’ socio-economic profiles and students’ gender.

© OECD 2024 11
 Students, digital devices and success

Heavy use of digital devices and the Internet can take away time that could
otherwise be used to read books or do other activities, such as sports. It is
stating the obvious that physical activity is beneficial for development and sets
good habits for adulthood. But even before the global disruption caused by the
COVID-19 pandemic, a significant number of children were not engaging in
sufficient levels of physical activity. Within the EU in 2018, about 25% of 11-year-
olds and roughly 14% of 15-year-olds met the daily exercise recommendation of
one hour of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, according to OECD data. The
World Health Organization (WHO) advises a minimum of 60 minutes of exercise
per day for children. More strikingly, physical activity each day has decreased
between 2006 and 2018 for both 11-year-olds and 15-year-olds.
Among surveyed nations, Italy, France, Portugal, and Denmark reported some
of the lowest physical activity rates among both genders. Conversely, Finland
and Ireland were noted for their higher levels of activity. A consistent trend
across all countries was that boys were generally more active than girls. Factors
influencing the amount of physical activity undertaken by children include the
availability of safe space and equipment, increasing road traffic, overscheduling
and overprotective parenting, lack of green spaces in urban centres, their school
curricula and activities that compete for their attention – including the use of
mobile devices and the web.

Push for a ban?

So, what can schools do to strike a balance between the benefits and challenges
of digital technology? Digital tools have potential. They offer innovative
pathways for learning and personalisation, including the opportunity to give
access to a wide variety of perspectives and opinions. However, the pitfalls,
including distractions and potential impacts on mental well-being, must not
be overlooked. More than a dozen countries have already implemented phone
bans in classrooms to minimise distractions, promote face-to-face interaction,
and prevent cheating. By implementing such policies, schools aim to create a
focused learning environment, foster interpersonal skills, maintain academic
integrity, and ensure a safe and inclusive atmosphere. In terms of screen time,
many experts have emphasised the need for a precautionary approach and the
importance of not just concentrating on the length of time spent on devices, but
on how children consume content. Experts have also advised turning off devices
when not in use, limiting exposure to blue-light emitting devices before bedtime,
and designating certain times and locations such as the dinner table as media-
free zones. PISA data suggest that phone bans in schools can help alleviate
digital distractions, but not always. As we navigate this complex landscape, it
is imperative for educators, policymakers, and parents to collaboratively find
solutions that harness the benefits of digital technologies while safeguarding
the focus and well-being of students. Only then can we ensure that the digital
classroom becomes a space of enrichment rather than a source of distraction.
12 © OECD 2024
 Students, digital devices and success

Share of 11- and 15-year-olds meeting

WHO recommended daily physical activity
2018
11-year-olds 15-year-olds

Girls Boys
38 12 Finland 22 52
36 18 Serbia 39 45
35 17 North Macedonia 31 42
33 11 Ireland 20 44
26 12 Slovak Republic 24 28
25 17 Bulgaria 23 26
25 13 Croatia 21 31
24 10 Austria 19 31
24 11 Hungary 18 31
23 8 Albania 22 26
23 9 Spain 24 34
22 11 Slovenia 24 31
22 9 Poland 18 24
22 12 Lithuania 17 24
20 16 Iceland 23 26
20 14 Latvia 20 23
19 10 EU26 18 26
19 10 Czech Republic 17 26
19 5 Malta 15 29
19 9 Norway 13 22
18 10 Belgium¹ 20 26
18 9 Greece 17 24
18 11 Estonia 16 20
18 7 UK (England) 15 22
17 14 Netherlands 21 23
15 7 Romania 16 21
15 8 Switzerland 15 23
14 6 Luxembourg 17 21
14 7 Germany 13 21
13 9 Sweden 13 23
10 7 Denmark 13 13
9 5 Portugal 12 16
9 4 France 11 17
7 4 Italy 7 18
% who report moderate-to-vigorous activity at least one hour daily

Notes: The EU average is unweighted.

1. The value for Belgium is the unweighted average of the Flemish and French Communities.
Source: 2017/2018 Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) survey in Europe and Canada data
from Inchley, J. et al. (2020)

© OECD 2024 13
 Students, digital devices and success

Feeling nervous/anxious when digital

devices are not near and selected student
outcomes
Based on students’ reports; OECD average

Before accounting for students' and schools' socio-economic profile¹

After accounting for students' and schools' socio-economic profile
0 0.0
Index-point difference
Score-point difference

-1 -0.1
-2 -0.2
-3 -0.3
-4 -0.4
-5 -0.5
-6 -0.6
-7 -0.7
-8 -0.8
-9 -0.9
-10 -1.0
Mathematics performance Life satisfaction Emotional control Stress resistance

1. The socio-economic profile is measured by the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status.
Notes: All values are statistically significant before and after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-
economic profile (see Annex A3).
The results show the difference between students who feel nervous/anxious less than half of the time, about
half of the time, more than half of the time or all or almost all of the time when they don’t have their digital
devices near them compared to those who never or almost never feel nervous/anxious when they don’t have
their digital devices near them.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Annex B1, Chapter 5.

14 © OECD 2024
 Students, digital devices and success

Digital devices, distraction and school

policies
Change in the likelihood of students becoming distracted by using
digital devices in mathematics lessons when students reported that
they use their smartphone at school and school principals reported
the school’s policy on smartphone use; OECD average
Odds ratio
0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50

In less than half of the lessons

In about half of the lessons

In more than half of the lessons

In every or almost every lesson

The school has written statement about the

general use of digital devices on school premises

The use of cell phones is not

allowed on school premises

Teachers establish rules for when students

may use digital devices during lessons

Teachers establish rules in collaboration with students

about their use of digital resources at school or in class

The school has a specific programme to prepare

students for responsible Internet behaviour

Teachers have the necessary technical and pedagogical

skills to integrate digital devices in instruction
0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50
Odds ratio

Note: Statistically significant differences are shown in a darker tone (see Annex A3).
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Annex B1, Chapter 5

© OECD 2024 15
This report has been authorised by Andreas Schleicher, Director of the Directorate for
Education and Skills, OECD.
This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The
opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official
views of the Member countries of the OECD.
This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the
status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and
boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant
Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of
the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms
of international law.

© OECD 2024