Bachelor Computer Science / Bachelor of Information Technology

COPPERSTONE UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

CS/BIT: DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

OBJECTIVES

To introduce and equip the student with the knowledge of the field of data communications and
computer networking.

SIMPLIFIED MODEL OF DATA COMMUNICATION

Source: Where the data originated. This can be computer, peripheral, PDA, cell phone etc.

Transmitter: Converts data into a suitable form for transmission through the medium.

Communication system: Medium through which signal is sent. This can be a simple cable such
as UTP, Coaxial, Fiber, Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network, Internet etc.

Receiver: Which receives the signal and converts it into data or message.

Destination: Where the data is sent. Can be the same devices as the ones used at the source.

BCS/BIT Lecture Notes– Lecture 1 1

Bachelor Computer Science / Bachelor of Information Technology

GROWTH OF COMPUTER NETWORKING

A computer network is an interconnection of computers. The field of computer networking has

grown explosively with the passage of time. In the 1970s, computer networking was just an
esoteric research topic. Today, computer networking has become an essential part of the
infrastructure. In most everyday activities, networking is playing a vital part. Examples of areas
where networking is widely used include:

I. Used in every aspect of business, including advertising, production, shipping, planning,

billing, and accounting.
II. Schools, at all levels are using computer networks to provide students and teachers with
instantaneous access to online information.
III. Governments are using networks for communication planning and management.

GROWTH OF THE INTERNET

The term internetwork (usually referred to as internet) refers to an interconnection of computer
networks. The ability to interconnect networks has made provided a lot of opportunities. As a
result there is an increase in the number of internetworks and in the size of the global Internet.
Some of the significant changes in internetworking include:

 In 1980, the Internet was a research project that involved a few dozen sites.
 Today, the Internet has grown into a production communication system that reaches all
populated countries of the world. Many users have high speed Internet access through
cable modems, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), or wireless technologies.
 The advent and utility of networking has created dramatic economic shifts. Data
networking has made telecommuting available to individuals and has changed business
communication.
 An entire industry emerged that develops networking technologies, products, and
services.
 The importance of computer networking has produced a demand in all industries for
people with more networking expertise.
 Companies need workers to plan, acquire, install, operate, and manage the hardware
and software systems that constitute computer networks and internets.
 Computer programming is no longer restricted to individual computers
o Network programming is required because all programmers are expected to
design and implement application software that can communicate with
applications on other computers.

BCS/BIT Lecture Notes– Lecture 1 2

Bachelor Computer Science / Bachelor of Information Technology

COMPLEXITY IN NETWORK SYSTEMS

Because computer networking is an active, exciting field, the subject seems complex. Some of
the reasons that have increased the complexity of Computer Networking are:-
 Many technologies exist, and each technology has features that distinguish it from the
others.
 Companies continue to create commercial networking products and services, often by
using technologies in new unconventional ways.
 Networking seems complex because technologies can be combined and interconnected in
many ways.
 Computer networking can be especially confusing to a beginner because no single
underlying theory exists that explains the relationship among all parts.
 Multiple organizations have created networking standards, but some standards are
incompatible with others.
 Various organizations and research groups have attempted to define conceptual models
that capture the essence and explain the nuances among network hardware and software
systems, but because the set of technologies is diverse and changes rapidly, models are
either so simplistic that they do not distinguish among details or so complex that they do
not help simplify the subject.
 The lack of consistency in the field has produced another challenge for beginners:
o Instead of a uniform terminology for networking concepts, multiple groups each
attempt to create their own terminology.
 Researchers cling to scientifically precise terminology. The fact that there
is a broad terminology makes it difficult for researchers.
 Corporate marketing groups often associate a product with a generic
technical term or invent new terms merely to distinguish their products or
services from those of competitors. Thus, technical terms are easily
confused with the names of popular products.
 Professionals sometimes use a technical term from one technology when
referring to an analogous feature of another technology. Consequently, in
addition to a large set of terms and acronyms that contains many
synonyms, networking jargon contains terms that are often abbreviated,
misused, or associated with products.

MASTERING THE COMPLEXITY

To master the complexity in networking, it is important to gain a broad background that includes
five key aspects of the subject. These key aspects are network applications and network
programming, Data communication, Packet Switching and Networking Technologies,
Internetworking with TCP/IP and additional networking concepts and technologies.

BCS/BIT Lecture Notes– Lecture 1 3

Bachelor Computer Science / Bachelor of Information Technology

I. NETWORK APPLICATIONS AND NETWORK PROGRAMMING

A Network application provides a network service, that is, an application on one computer
communicates across a network with an application program running on another computer.
Network applications span a wide range, such as email, file transfer, web browsing, voice
telephone calls (VoIP), distributed databases, audio/video teleconferencing. Each application
offers a specific service with its own form of user interface but all applications can communicate
over a single, standardized, shared network. Therefore, we need a well-developed network on
which we can run many applications. A unified (well-defined, standardized) underlying network
that supports all applications makes a programmer's job much easier. The programmer only
needs to learn about one interface to network and one basic set of functions to be used. It is
possible to understand network applications, and even possible to write code that communicates
over a network, without understanding the hardware/software technologies. Once a programmer
masters the interface, no further knowledge of networking may be needed. However, knowledge
of the underlying network system allows a programmer to write better code and develop more
efficient applications

II. DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Data communications refers to the study of low-level mechanisms and technologies used to send
information across a physical communication medium such as a wire, radio wave, or light beam.
Data communications focuses on ways to use physical phenomena to transfer information. Key
concepts from data communications influence the design of many protocol layers. Data
communications provides a foundation on which the rest of networking is built

III. PACKET SWITCHING AND NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES

In 1960s, packet switching concept revolutionized data communications. Before this, circuit-
switching was being used for data communication. In circuit-switched networks a physical pair
of wires between two parties formed a dedicated circuit to use for communicating. During the
time the two computers are communicating, no other computer can communicate with the
computers involved in data communication. This means, other computers wishing to send data
to another computer involved in the data transmission will have to wait until the data
transmission is completed. Due to this limitation, packet-switching was introduced. Packet
switching allows multiple users to share a network. To ensure that each computer gets a fair
share of time to transmit data, Packet switching divides data into small blocks, called packets.
Each computer gets to send a packet when their turn comes. This way computers don’t have to
wait for a long time as was the case in circuit-switched networks. Packet switching provided the
basis for the modern Internet. Since multiple computers are connected in the circuit, packet
switching includes an identification of the intended recipient in each packet. Devices throughout

BCS/BIT Lecture Notes– Lecture 1 4

Bachelor Computer Science / Bachelor of Information Technology

the network each have information about how to reach each possible destination. Packet
switching networks could be designed in many ways. However, each design need to answer the
following basic questions:
 How should a destination be identified?
 How can a sender find the identification of a destination?
 How large should a packet be?
 How can a network recognize the end of one packet
 How can a network recognize the beginning of another packet?
 If a network is shared, then how can they coordinate to insure that each receives a
fair opportunity to send?
 How can packet switching be adapted to wireless network?
 How can network technologies be designed to meet various requirements for
speed, distance, and economic cost?

Many packet switching technologies have been created to meet various requirements for speed,
distance, and economic cost
IV. INTERNETWORKING WITH TCP/IP

In the 1970s, another revolution in computer networks arose. The Internet concept was born. In
1973, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn observed that
 no single packet switching technology would ever satisfy all needs
 especially because it would be possible to build low-capacity technologies for homes or
offices at extremely low cost
They therefore suggested stopping trying to find a single best solution but explore
interconnecting many packet switching technologies into a functioning whole. They proposed a
set of standards be developed for such an interconnection. The resulting standards became
known as the TCP1/IP Internet Protocol Suite (usually abbreviated TCP/IP). TCP/IP allows
different packet switching technologies to work together as a whole. A description of the
TCP/IP model is provided below

THE TCP/IP MODEL

The TCP/IP Model separates networking functions into discrete layers. Each layer performs a
specific function and is transparent to the layer above it and the layer below it. Network models
are used to conceptualize how networks should work, so that hardware and network protocols

1
TCP/IP stands for transmission control protocol/ internet protocol. A protocol in computer network is rules for
networking computers. That is, a set of technical rules for the transmission and receipt of information between
computers.

BCS/BIT Lecture Notes– Lecture 1 5

Bachelor Computer Science / Bachelor of Information Technology

can interoperate. The TCP/IP model is one of the two most common network models, the other
being the OSI Model.

The TCP/IP network model breaks down into four (4) layers:

 Application Layer
 Transport Layer
 Internet Layer
 Network Access Layer

Application Layer

The Application Layer provides the user with the interface to communication. This could be your
web browser, e-mail client (Outlook, Eudora or Thunderbird), or a file transfer client.

The Application Layer is where your application (for example, web browser, e-mail or other
network application runs. That is any application that runs on an internet interacts with the
application layer. The Application Layer sends to, and receives data from, the Transport Layer.
(That is, when the application layer receives data from the application it sends it to the transport
layer. On the receiving end, the application layer receives data from the transport layer and
passes it on to the application).

Transport Layer

The Transport Layer provides the means for the transport of data segments across the Internet
Layer. The Transport Layer is concerned with end-to-end (host-to-host) communication.

Transmission Control Protocol provides reliable, connection-oriented transport of data between

two endpoints (sockets) on two computers that use Internet Protocol to communicate.
Connection-oriented means that the two computers must establish first agree to communicate
before data transmission can start. TCP is said to be reliable because computers agree to
communicate before attempting to transmit data.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides unreliable, connectionless transport of data between
two endpoints (sockets) on two computers that use Internet Protocol to communicate.
Connectionless means that computers do not establish a connection before data transmission
begins. a computer just start sending data without bothering to find out whether the receiving
computer is ready to receive the data. This is the reason why UDP is unreliable.

The Transport Layer sends data to the Internet layer when transmitting and sends data to the
Application Layer when receiving.

BCS/BIT Lecture Notes– Lecture 1 6

Bachelor Computer Science / Bachelor of Information Technology

Internet Layer

The Internet Layer provides connectionless communication across one or more networks, a
global logical addressing scheme and segmenting the data into packets. The Internet Layer is
concerned with network to network communication.

The Internet Layer is responsible for segmenting the data into packets, addressing and routing of
data on the network. Internet Protocol provides the data into packets, logical addressing and
routing functions that forward packets from one computer to another.

The Internet Layer communicates with the Transport Layer when receiving and sends data to the
Network Access Layer when transmitting.

Network Access Layer

The Network Access Layer provides access to the physical network. This is your network
interface card. Ethernet, FDDI, Token Ring, ATM, OC, HSSI, or even Wi-Fi are all examples of
network interfaces. The purpose of a network interface is to allow your computer to access the
wire, wireless or fiber optic network infrastructure and send data to other computers.

The Network Access Layer transmits data on the physical network when sending and transmits
data to the Internet Layer when receiving.

All Internet-based applications and their data, whether it is a web browser downloading a web
page, Microsoft Outlook sending an e-mail, a file, an instant message, a Skype video or voice
call; the data is chopped into data segments and encapsulated in Transport Layer Protocol Data
Units or PDU's (TCP or UDP segments). The Transport Layer PDU's are then encapsulated in
Internet Layer's Internet Protocol packets. The Internet Protocol packets are then chopped into
frames at the Network Access layer and transmitted across the physical media (copper wires,
fiber optic cables or the air) to the next station in the network. Figure 1 illustrates this.

BCS/BIT Lecture Notes– Lecture 1 7

Bachelor Computer Science / Bachelor of Information Technology

Figure 1 Key Aspects of Networking

[more on TCP/IP could be found at http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/network-basics-

tcpip-protocol-suite.html]

V. ADDITIONAL NETWORKING CONCEPTS AND TECHNOLOGIES

In addition to the above, an understanding of other concepts and technologies (as shown in
Figure 2) help in mastering the complexity in networking.

Figure 2: Key Aspects of Networking

BCS/BIT Lecture Notes– Lecture 1 8

Bachelor Computer Science / Bachelor of Information Technology

OSI MODEL

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework to implement
protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application
layer in one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and
back up the hierarchy.
There's really nothing to the OSI model. In fact, it's not even tangible. The OSI model doesn't do
any functions in the networking process, It is a conceptual framework so we can better
understand complex interactions that are happening. The OSI model takes the task of
internetworking and divides that up into what is referred to as a vertical stack that consists of the
following layers:

Physical (Layer 1)
This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through
the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and
receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects.

Data Link (Layer 2)

At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission
protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and
frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access
Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls
how a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC
layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.

Network (Layer 3)
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual
circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this
layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet
sequencing.

Transport (Layer 4)
This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible
for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.

Session (Layer 5)
This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session
layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the
applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.

BCS/BIT Lecture Notes– Lecture 1 9

Bachelor Computer Science / Bachelor of Information Technology

Presentation (Layer 6)
This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by
translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to
transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer formats and
encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is
sometimes called the syntax layer.

Application (Layer 7)
This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified,
quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any
constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This
layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and
other network software services.

CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY

The Internet has spawned a terminology that can be daunting.

 The Internet is formed by interconnecting multiple packet switching networks.
Internetworking is substantially more powerful than a single networking technology
because the approach permits new technologies to be incorporated at any time without
requiring the replacement of old technologies.
 Interoperability: refers to the ability of two entities to communicate. If two entities can
communicate without any misunderstandings, they interoperate correctly.
 A communication protocol specifies the details for one aspect of computer
communication, including actions to be taken when errors or unexpected situations arise.
A given protocol can specify low-level details, such as the voltage and signals to be used,
or high-level items, such as the format of messages that application programs exchange.

VI. RESOURCE SHARING

Early computer networks were designed when computers were large and very expensive, and the
main motivation was resource sharing. Networks were devised to connect multiple users. Each
user with a screen and keyboard connected to a large centralized computer. Later networks
allowed multiple users to share peripheral devices. The American Department of Defense for
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA or ARPA) was interested in finding ways to share
resources (1960s).

BCS/BIT Lecture Notes– Lecture 1 10