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veral attributes dictate how devices are used.

Devices such as diodes conduct when


a forward voltage is applied and have no external control of the start of
conduction. Power devices such as silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors (as
well as the mercury valve and thyratron) allow control of the start of conduction
but rely on periodic reversal of current flow to turn them off. Devices such as
gate turn-off thyristors, BJT and MOSFET transistors provide full switching control
and can be turned on or off without regard to the current flow through them.
Transistor devices also allow proportional amplification, but this is rarely used
for systems rated more than a few hundred watts. The control input characteristics
of a device also significantly affect design; sometimes, the control input is at a
very high voltage with respect to ground and must be driven by an isolated source.

As efficiency is at a premium in a power electronic converter, the losses generated


by a power electronic device should be as low as possible.

Devices vary in switching speed. Some diodes and thyristors are suited for
relatively slow speed and are useful for power frequency switching and control;
certain thyristors are useful at a few kilohertz. Devices such as MOSFETS and BJTs
can switch at tens of kilohertz up to a few megahertz in power applications, but
with decreasing power levels. Vacuum tube devices dominate high power (hundreds of
kilowatts) at very high frequency (hundreds or thousands of megahertz)
applications. Faster switching devices minimize energy lost in the transitions from
on to off and back but may create problems with radiated electromagnetic
interference. Gate drive (or equivalent) circuits must be designed to supply
sufficient drive current to achieve the full switching speed possible with a
device. A device without sufficient drive to switch rapidly may be destroyed by
excess heating.

Practical devices have a non-zero voltage drop and dissipate power when on, and
take some time to pass through an active region until they reach the "on" or "off"
state. These losses are a significant part of the total lost power in a converter.

Power handling and dissipation of devices is also critical factor in design. Power
electronic devices may have to dissipate tens or hundreds of watts of waste heat,
even switching as efficiently as possible between conducting and non-conducting
states. In the switching mode, the power controlled is much larger than the power
dissipated in the switch. The forward voltage drop in the conducting state
translates into heat that must be dissipated. High power semiconductors require
specialized heat sinks or active cooling systems to manage their junction
temperature; exotic semiconductors such as silicon carbide have an advantage over
straight silicon in this respect, and germanium, once the main-stay of solid-state
electronics is now little used due to its unfavorable high-temperature properties.

Semiconductor devices exist with ratings up to a few kilovolts in a single device.


Where very high voltage must be controlled, multiple devices must be used in
series, with networks to equalize voltage across all devices. Again, switching
speed is a critical factor since the slowest-switching device will have to
withstand a disproportionate share of the overall voltage. Mercury valves were once
available with ratings to 100 kV in a single unit, simplifying their application in
HVDC systems.

The current rating of a semiconductor device is limited by the heat generated


within the dies and the heat developed in the resistance of the interconnecting
leads. Semiconductor devices must be designed so that current is evenly distributed
within the device across its internal junctions (or channels); once a "hot spot"
develops, breakdown effects can rapidly destroy the device. Certain SCRs are
available with current ratings to 3000 amperes in a single unit.

DC/AC converters (inverters)


Main article: power inverter
DC to AC converters produce an AC output waveform from a DC source. Applications
include adjustable speed drives (ASD), uninterruptible power supplies (UPS),
Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), voltage compensators, and photovoltaic
inverters. Topologies for these converters can be separated into two distinct
categories: voltage source inverters and current source inverters. Voltage source
inverters (VSIs) are named so because the independently controlled output is a
voltage waveform. Similarly, current source inverters (CSIs) are distinct in that
the controlled AC output is a current waveform.

DC to AC power conversion is the result of power switching devices, which are


commonly fully controllable semiconductor power switches. The output waveforms are
therefore made up of discrete values, producing fast transitions rather than smooth
ones. For some applications, even a rough approximation of the sinusoidal waveform
of AC power is adequate. Where a near sinusoidal waveform is required, the
switching devices are operated much faster than the desired output frequency, and
the time they spend in either state is controlled so the averaged output is nearly
sinusoidal. Common modulation techniques include the carrier-based technique, or
Pulse-width modulation, space-vector technique, and the selective-harmonic
technique.[15]

Voltage source inverters have practical uses in both single-phase and three-phase
applications. Single-phase VSIs utilize half-bridge and full-bridge configurations,
and are widely used for power supplies, single-phase UPSs, and elaborate high-power
topologies when used in multicell configurations. Three-phase VSIs are used in
applications that require sinusoidal voltage waveforms, such as ASDs, UPSs, and
some types of FACTS devices such as the STATCOM. They are also used in applications
where arbitrary voltages are required, as in the case of active power filters and
voltage compensators.[15]

Current source inverters are used to produce an AC output current from a DC current
supply. This type of inverter is practical for three-phase applications in which
high-quality voltage waveforms are required.

A relatively new class of inverters, called multilevel inverters, has gained


widespread interest. The normal operation of CSIs and VSIs can be classified as
two-level inverters, due to the fact that power switches connect to either the
positive or to the negative DC bus. If more than two voltage levels were available
to the inverter output terminals, the AC output could better approximate a sine
wave. It is for this reason that multilevel inverters, although more complex and
costly, offer higher performance.[16]

Each inverter type differs in the DC links used, and in whether or not they require
freewheeling diodes. Either can be made to operate in square-wave or pulse-width
modulation (PWM) mode, depending on its intended usage. Square-wave mode offers
simplicity, while PWM can be implemented in several different ways and produces
higher quality waveforms.[15]

Voltage Source Inverters (VSI) feed the output inverter section from an
approximately constant-voltage source.[15]

The desired quality of the current output waveform determines which modulation
technique needs to be selected for a given application. The output of a VSI is
composed of discrete values. In order to obtain a smooth current waveform, the
loads need to be inductive at the select harmonic frequencies. Without some sort of
inductive filtering between the source and load, a capacitive load will cause the
load to receive a choppy current waveform, with large and frequent current spikes.
[15]
There are three main types of VSIs:

Single-phase half-bridge inverter


Single-phase full-bridge inverter
Three-phase voltage source inverter

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