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Introduction
The nervous system is a network of neurons whose main feature is to generate,
modulate and transmit information between all the different parts of the human body.
This property enables many important functions of the nervous system, such as
regulation of vital body functions (heartbeat, breathing, digestion), sensation and body
movements. Ultimately, the nervous system structures preside over everything that
makes us human; our consciousness, cognition, behaviour and memories.
The nervous system consists of two divisions;
 Central nervous system (CNS) is the integration and command center of the body
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) represents the conduit between the CNS and the
body. It is further subdivided into the somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic
nervous system (ANS).
Cells of The Nervous System
Two basic types of cells are present in the nervous system;
 Neurons
 Glial cells

Neuron

Neurons, or nerve cell, are the main structural and functional units of the nervous
system. Every neuron consists of a body (soma) and a number of processes (neurites).
The nerve cell body contains the cellular organelles and is where neural impulses
(action potentials) are generated. The processes stem from the body, they connect

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 neurons with each other and with other body cells, enabling the flow of neural
impulses. There are two types of neural processes that differ in structure and function;
 Axons are long and conduct impulses away from the neuronal body.
 Dendrites are short and act to receive impulses from other neurons, conducting the
electrical signal towards the nerve cell body.
Every neuron has a single axon, while the number of dendrites varies. Based on that
number, there are four structural types of neurons; multipolar, bipolar, pseudo-unipolar
and unipolar.
The morphology of neurons makes them highly specialized to work with neural
impulses; they generate, receive and send these impulses onto other neurons and non-
neural tissues.
 Efferent neurons (motor or descending) send neural impulses from the CNS to
the peripheral tissues, instructing them how to function.
 Afferent neurons (sensory or ascending) conduct impulses from the peripheral tissues
to the CNS. These impulses contain sensory information, describing the tissue's
environment.
The site where an axon connects to another cell to pass the neural impulse is called
a synapse. The synapse doesn't connect to the next cell directly. Instead, the impulse
triggers the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters from the very end of an axon.
These neurotransmitters bind to the effector cell’s membrane, causing biochemical
events to occur within that cell according to the orders sent by the CNS.

Basic neuron types and the structure of a neuron.

Glial cells

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 Glial cells, also called neuroglia or simply glia, are smaller non-excitatory cells that act
to support neurons. They do not propagate action potentials. Instead, they myelinate
neurons, maintain homeostatic balance, provide structural support, protection and
nutrition for neurons throughout the nervous system.
This set of functions is provided for by four different types of glial cells;
 Myelinating glia produce the axon-insulating myelin sheath. These are
called oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. Remember these
easily with the mnemonic "COPS" (Central - Oligodendrocytes; Peripheral - Schwann)
 Astrocytes (CNS) and satellite glial cells (PNS) both share the function of supporting and
protecting neurons.
 Other two glial cell types are found in CNS exclusively; microglia are the phagocytes of
the CNS and ependymal cells which line the ventricular system of the CNS. The PNS
doesn’t have a glial equivalent to microglia as the phagocytic role is performed by
macrophages.
Most axons are wrapped by a white insulating substance called the myelin sheath,
produced by oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Myelin encloses an axon segmentally,
leaving unmyelinated gaps between the segments called the nodes of Ranvier. The
neural impulses propagate through the Ranvier nodes only, skipping the myelin sheath.
This significantly increases the speed of neural impulse propagation.

White and Gray Matter

The white color of myelinated axons is distinguished from the gray colored neuronal
bodies and dendrites. Based on this, nervous tissue is divided into white matter and
gray matter, both of which has a specific distribution;
 White matter comprises the outermost layer of the spinal cord and the inner part of
the brain.
Gray matter is located in the central part of the spinal cord, outermost layer of the brain
(cerebral cortex), and in several subcortical nuclei of the brain deep to the cerebral
cortex.

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 Nervous System Divisions

Nervous System Breakdown

So nervous tissue, comprised of neurons and neuroglia, forms our nervous organs (e.g.
the brain, nerves). These organs unite according to their common function, forming the
evolutionary perfection that is our nervous system.
The nervous system (NS) is structurally broken down into two divisions;
 Central nervous system (CNS) - consists of the brain and spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - gathers all neural tissue outside the CNS
Functionally, the PNS is further subdivided into two functional divisions;
 Somatic nervous system (SNS) - informally described as the voluntary system
 Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - described as the involuntary system.!
Although divided structurally into central and peripheral parts, the nervous system
divisions are actually interconnected with each other. Axon bundles pass impulses
between the brain and spinal cord. These bundles within the CNS are called afferent
and efferent neural pathways or tracts. Axons that extend from the CNS to connect with
peripheral tissues belong to the PNS. Axons bundles within the PNS are called afferent
and efferent peripheral nerves.

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Central Nervous System

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. These are
found housed within the skull and vertebral column respectively.
The brain is made of four parts; cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum and brainstem.
Together these parts process the incoming information from peripheral tissues and
generate commands; telling the tissues how to respond and function. These commands
tackle the most complex voluntary and involuntary human body functions, from
breathing to thinking.
The spinal cord continues from the brainstem. It also has the ability to generate
commands but for involuntary processes only, i.e. reflexes. However, its main function
is to pass information between the CNS and periphery.

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 Peripheral Nervous System

The PNS consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves and a number
of small neuronal clusters throughout the body called ganglia.
Peripheral nerves can be sensory (afferent), motor (efferent) or mixed (both).
Depending on what structures they innervate, peripheral nerves can have the following
modalities;
 Special - innervating special senses (e.g. eye) and is found only in afferent fibers
 General - supplying everything except special senses
 Somatic - innervates the skin and skeletal muscles (e.g. biceps brachii)
 Visceral - supplies internal organs.

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Cranial nerves

12 cranial nerves

Cranial nerves are peripheral nerves that emerge from the cranial nerve nuclei of the
brainstem and spinal cord. They innervate the head and neck. Cranial nerves are
numbered one to twelve according to their order of exit through the skull fissures.
Namely, they are: olfactory nerve (CN I), optic nerve (CN II), oculomotor nerve (CN
III), trochlear nerve (CN IV), trigeminal nerve (CN V), abducens nerve (VI), facial
nerve (VII), vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus
nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI), and hypoglossal nerve (XII). These nerves
are motor (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII), sensory (I, II and VIII) or mixed (V, VII, IX, and X).

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 Spinal Nerves

Spinal nerves emerge from the segments of the spinal cord. They are numbered
according to their specific segment of origin. Hence, the 31 pairs of spinal nerves are
divided into 8 cervical pairs, 12 thoracic pairs, 5 lumbar pairs, 5 sacral pairs, and 1
coccygeal spinal nerve. All spinal nerves are mixed, containing both sensory and motor
fibers.
Spinal nerves innervate the entire body, with the exception of the head. They do so by
either directly synapsing with their target organs or by interlacing with each other and
forming plexuses. There are four major plexuses that supply the body regions;
 Cervical plexus (C1-C4) - innervates the neck
 Brachial plexus (C5-T1) - innervates the upper limb
 Lumbar plexus (L1-L4) - innervates the lower abdominal wall, anterior hip and thigh
 Sacral plexus (L4-S4) - innervates the pelvis and the lower limb

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Ganglia

Ganglia (sing. ganglion) are clusters of neuronal cell bodies outside of the CNS,
meaning that they are the PNS equivalents to subcortical nuclei of the CNS. Ganglia can
be sensory or visceral motor (autonomic) and their distribution in the body is clearly
defined.
Dorsal root ganglia are clusters of sensory nerve cell bodies located adjacent to the
spinal cord, they are a component of the posterior root of a spinal nerve.
Autonomic ganglia are either sympathetic or parasympathetic. Sympathetic ganglia are
found in the thorax and abdomen, grouped into paravertebral and prevertebral
ganglia. Paravertebral ganglia lie on either side of vertebral column (para- means
beside), comprising two ganglionic chains that extend from the base of the skull to the
coccyx, called sympathetic trunks. Prevertebral ganglia (collateral ganglia, preaortic
ganglia) are found anterior to the vertebral column (pre- means in front of), closer to
their target organ. They are further grouped according to which branch of

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abdominal aorta they surround; celiac, aorticorenal, superior and inferior mesenteric
ganglia.
Parasympathetic ganglia are found in the head and pelvis. Ganglia in the head are
associated with relevant cranial nerves and are the ciliary, pterygopalatine, otic and
submandibular ganglia. Pelvic ganglia lie close to the reproductive organs comprising
autonomic plexuses for innervation of pelvic viscera, such as prostatic and uterovaginal
plexuses.
Somatic Nervous System

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 The somatic nervous system is the voluntary component of the peripheral nervous
system. It consists of all the fibers within cranial and spinal nerves that enable us to
perform voluntary body movements (efferent nerves) and feel sensation from the
skin, muscles and joints (afferent nerves). Somatic sensation relates to touch, pressure,
vibration, pain, temperature, stretch and position sense from these three types of
structures.
Sensation from the glands, smooth and cardiac muscles is conveyed by the autonomic
nerves.
Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is the involuntary part of the peripheral nervous system.
Further divided into the sympathetic (SANS), parasympathetic (PANS) systems, it is
comprised exclusively of visceral motor fibers. Nerves from both these divisions
innervate all involuntary structures of the body;
 Cardiac muscle
 Glandular cells
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 Smooth muscles present in the walls of the blood vessels and hollow organs.
Balanced functioning of these two systems plays a crucial role in maintaining
homeostasis, meaning that the SANS and PANS do not oppose each other but rather,
they complement each other. They do so by potentiating the activity of different organs
under various circumstances; for example, the PSNS will stimulate
higher intestine activity after food intake, while SANS will stimulate the heart to
increase the output during exercise.
Autonomic nerves synapse within autonomic ganglia before reaching their target organ,
thus all of them have presynaptic and postsynaptic parts. Presynaptic fibers originate
from CNS and end by synapsing with neurons of the peripheral autonomic
ganglia. Postsynaptic fibers are the axons of ganglion neurons, extending from the
ganglion to peripheral tissues. In sympathetic nerves, the presynaptic fiber is short as
the ganglia are located very close to the spinal cord, while the postsynaptic fiber is
much longer in order to reach the target organ. In parasympathetic nerves it’s the
opposite; the presynaptic fiber is longer than the postsynaptic.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic system (SANS) adjusts our bodies for situations of increased physical
activity. Its actions are commonly described as the “fight-or-flight” response as it
stimulates responses such as faster breathing, increased heart rate, elevated blood
pressure, dilated pupils and redirection of blood flow from the
skin, kidneys, stomach and intestines to the heart and muscles, where it’s needed.
Sympathetic nerve fibers have a thoracolumbar origin, meaning that they stem from the
T1-L2/L3 spinal cord segments. They synapse with prevertebral and paravertebral
ganglia, from which the postsynaptic fibers travel to supply the target viscera.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) adjusts our bodies for energy
conservation, activating “rest and digest” or “feed and breed” activities. The nerves of
the PSNS slow down the actions of cardiovascular system, divert blood away from
muscles and increase peristalsis and gland secretion.
Parasympathetic fibers have craniosacral outflow, meaning that they originate from the
brainstem (cranio-) and S2-S4 spinal cord segments (-sacral). These fibers travel to
thoracic and abdominal organs, where they synapse in ganglia located close to or within
the target organ.

Enteric Nervous System

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 Enteric nervous system comprises the SANS and PANS fibers that regulate the activity
of the gastrointestinal tract. This system is made of parasympathetic fibers of the vagus
nerve (CN X) and sympathetic fibers of the thoracic splanchnic nerves. These fibers
form two plexuses within the wall of the intestinal tube which are responsible for
modulating intestinal peristalsis, i.e. propagation of consumed
food from esophagus to rectum;
 Submucosal plexus (of Meissner) found in the submucosa of the intestines and contains
only parasympathetic fibers
 Myenteric plexus (of Auerbach) located in the muscularis externa of intestines,
containing both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers
Mnemonic
You can easily remember these two plexuses using a simple mnemonic! ' SMP & MAPS',
which stands for:
 Submucosal
 Meissner's
 Parasympathetic
 Myenteric
 Auerbach's
 Parasympathetic
 Sympathetic

References:

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 Blumenfeld, H. (2018). Neuroanatomy through clinical cases. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.
 Goodfellow, J., Collins, D., Silva, D., Dardis, R., & Nagaraya, S. (2016). Neurology &
neurosurgery. New Delhi, India: Jp medical pub.
 Patestas, M. A., & Gartner, L. P. (2016). A textbook of neuroanatomy. Hoboken: Wiley
Blackwell
 Waxman, S. G. (2010). Clinical neuroanatomy. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical.
Author, review and layout:
Illustrators:
 Nervous system (anterior view) - Begoña Rodriguez
 12 cranial nerves (diagram) - Paul Kim

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