AdditivesinDairy BasedFood

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/366756045
Additives in Dairy-Based Food
Chapter · January 2023

DOI: 10.1007/978-981-19-5711-6_8
CITATION READS
1 1,840
4 authors, including:
Gaytri Mahajan Manpreet Kaur

Himachal Pradesh University Himachal Pradesh University
12 PUBLICATIONS 42 CITATIONS 28 PUBLICATIONS 82 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
Reena Gupta
Himachal Pradesh University
176 PUBLICATIONS 3,863 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Manpreet Kaur on 01 June 2023.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Microorganisms for Sustainability 38
Series Editor: Naveen Kumar Arora
Ashok Kumar Nadda

Gunjan Goel Editors
Microbes
for Natural
Food Additives
Chapter 8
Additives in Dairy-Based Food
Harshika Sharma, Gaytri Mahajan, Manpreet Kaur, and Reena Gupta
Abstract Additives have been widely used in food industries since the twentieth
century to maintain physical properties like smell, color, texture, etc. and to prevent
the food product from microbial attacks. Nowadays, food additives are being used to
increase the flavor, texture, emulsification, and stabilization of the food at the time of
manufacturing and processing of the product at the industrial level. An additive can
be natural or synthetic, depending upon the chemical formula and complexity of the
compound. Additives can be categorized as preservatives, colorants, antioxidants,
flavoring agents, thickeners, humectants, emulsifying agents, antifoaming agents,
stabilizers, etc., which are generally used in dairy-based products. Natural additives
are in high demand because some artificial additives have toxic effects on health like
cancer, attention deficit disorder, disorders in the immune system, digestive disor-
ders like diarrhea and colicky pains, etc. Because of this reason there is high pressure
in increasing the yield of natural additives. In the USA, the guidance about the
concentration and toxicity of additive use is regulated by Acceptable Daily Intake
(ADI) and Generally Regarded as Safe (GRAS) status while, in India, it is generally
guided by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI). In order to
maintain the safety of consumers, the use of additives must be restricted and verified
in accordance with national and international laws.
Keywords Additive · Preservative · Antimicrobial · Antioxidant · Thickener ·

Emulsifying agent · Stabilizer
8.1 Introduction
In the modern food industry, food additives play an important role in maintaining the
physical and chemical properties of food like color, smell, taste, and nutrition.
Additives are also used to enhance the shelf life of various food products
(Wu et al. 2013a, b; Wang et al. 2015). The use of additives is common practice
H. Sharma · G. Mahajan · M. Kaur · R. Gupta (*)

Department of Biotechnology, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 169
A. K. Nadda, G. Goel (eds.), Microbes for Natural Food Additives, Microorganisms
for Sustainability 38, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5711-6_8
170 H. Sharma et al.
on a global scale (Amin et al. 2013; Cai and Liu 2014). In recent years, improved life
style of consumers have led to an increase in the demand of natural and nonadditive
food products. To overcome the increased demand, synthetic food additives with
potential food safety hazards are being introduced to the market. Despite the
widespread use of additives, many consumers still believe that additives are just
unnecessary to use (Christensen et al. 2011; Chen et al. 2015). Food additives are
difficult to understand about because of their complex and diverse functions, which
in turn leads to deceptive and misleading information about the additives. Along
with this, a number of banned additives or nonedible chemical additives have also
been characterized as food additives which are capable of causing health as well as
environmental hazards. Technical and accurate information about food additives
remains unexplained because the information about the hazards of food additives is
dominated, leading consumers to worry about the potential risks caused by food
additives (Chen and Han 2009).
8.2 Additives
Additives are those substances which are added in small quantities in food to
preserve its flavor or to improve taste, appearance, or other physical and chemical
properties. These have been used since ancient times as part of an effort to preserve
food. Salt, vinegar, pickling agent, smoke, sugar, etc. are the ancient sources of
additives which allow foods like sweets and wines to last longer. In the twentieth
century, natural and artificial additives were introduced. The food additives used
indirectly to preserve the food at the time of manufacturing, packaging, or storage
are known as indirect additives.
A unique number, which is known as E-number, is assigned to every additive for
its regulation and ease of use. Codex Alimentarius Commission has extended and
adopted the E-numbering design to identify and classify a number of food additives,
regardless of their use. For example, products which contain acetic acid are men-
tioned with a number E260 while in other countries it is simply written as additive
260. Another additive alkannin (additive 103) does not have any E-number, since it
is not approved in Europe, although in Australia and New Zealand its use is
acceptable.
8.3 Types of Additives
8.3.1 Natural Additives
Natural additives are made up of chemicals found in the environment. These are
generally considered as harmless, originate from salt, sugar, vinegar, alcohol, etc.
and have high demand in the market. These natural additives still contain some types
8 Additives in Dairy-Based Food 171
of impurities. These compounds are also purified in order to remove accompanying

substances that do not play a significant role in the final end product. This step is
difficult to perform since raw materials cannot be easily differentiated from the
natural additives.
8.3.2 Synthetic Additives
Synthetic food additives are synthesized compounds added to the food products to
enhance the flavor, texture, appearance, and shelf life of the final product. These are
widely produced and used in industrialized countries by chemical and enzymatic
methods in order to preserve the food and enhance their properties. A number of
synthetic additives are known to be associated with cancer, digestive disorders, and
behavioral changes in humans and other animal models. Saccharin is a well-known
example of a synthetic additive accepted for edible purposes by the FDA in the
United States in early 1907 when additives were considered unsafe for human
health.
8.4 Uses of Additives
Additives are added to food for one or many reasons including enhancement of shelf
life and flavor enhancement. Food additives are also known to increase the nutri-
tional value of food items. Different uses of additives are depicted in Fig. 8.1.
8.5 Classification of Additives
8.5.1 Preservatives
From ancient time, chemicals have been used to preserve fresh food for later use.
This mainly includes drying, cooling, fermenting, and heating to increase the shelf
life of edible food items. Several chemical preservatives, namely salt, nitrite, and
sulfite, have been used for a number of years, whereas others have been used
tremendously. Chemical preservatives have been extensively used to manufacture
and market food items in modern times (Davidson and Branen 2005). Today,
customers assume food to be easily available, free from foodborne microbes, and
to have a fairly longer shelf life (Bacak 2017). Due to the overuse of chemical
preservatives, microbes become resistant and there is more demand for natural or
nonchemical preservatives in the market (Mahmud and Khan 2018). In general, food
Storage
property
Modification
of oil Appearance
Crystallization Uses of Flavor

of fat Additives
Softening and Nutritional

strengthening value
Shelf life
Fig. 8.1 Uses of additives
preservatives are chemical compounds that stimulate food, slow down changes
brought about by microbial growth, or prevent the growth of microorganisms from
changing the food’s physical properties, chemical composition, or nutritional value.
The extracts of different compounds and herbal essential oils have inhibitory effects
against a number of organisms including insects, bacteria, viruses, and fungi (Xing
et al. 2012). Essential oils are derived from clove, oregano, citrus plants and fruits,
coriander, garlic, cinnamon, lemongrass, parsley, sage, and rosemary. They act as
antioxidant and antimicrobial agents which find applications in bioreactive packag-
ing of food products (Gonelimali et al. 2018). In ancient times, some chemicals have
been used as oblique or direct inhibitors to inhibit the growth of microbes and are
nevertheless extensively used without considering any restrictions. Preservatives
play a key part in food industries, starting from production and dispensation to
final customer. The preference of a preservative takes into account the product to be
preserved, the kind of microbial spoilage indigenous to it, the product pH, term of
shelf life, and simplicity of administration. Using bacteria or their bioreactive
metabolites to inhibit foodborne pathogens is bio-preservation (Tumbarski et al.
2020). The microbial peptides and proteins have an advantage that these do not harm
or change the quality of food (Rai et al. 2016). As a result, blends or mixtures are
frequently used. In a number of food items, particular preservatives do have little or
no competition. In general, the concentration used to preserve the food represses the
activity of microbes.
8.5.1.1 Characteristics of Food Preservatives
Food preservatives should be simple, economical, and easily available. They should
possess acceptable inhibition activity against a variety of microbial pathogens and
high stability in food products in which they are added. These preservatives should
not change the identity and characteristic attributes of the product and should be
practicable and suitable with the processing of final product.
8.5.1.2 Selection of Food Preservatives
Preservatives need to be introduced into the batch quickly after the fruits or vege-
tables are mashed or the batch is mixed. Any sort of delay results in the growth of
microorganisms. Even delay of some hours may allow fermentation to start and give
rise to enzymes. These enzymes continue to degenerate the product even after the
addition of preservatives. If the additives are water-soluble, it is better to add them to
the solution to eliminate the possibility of irregular scattering in food. If the additives
are added in powder form, they should be first stable at room temperature. The
fermentation might start earlier in these types of solutions. In case of a viscous or
thick additive, it is necessary to make a uniform suspension of the additive before its
addition into the food product. All the receptacles like bottles, carboys, and barrels
should be thoroughly cleaned with steam, hot water, or a 0.02% solution of sodium
hydrochloride. Good sanitary practices must be used to get the maximum outcome of
preservatives and their conjugation. Food preservatives to be used in a particular
food must be decided by some of the major factors as shown in Fig. 8.2.
Majorly the preservatives are divided into two categories, i.e., class I and class II
as shown in Table 8.1.
Fig. 8.2 Factors that decide the choice of preservative for food
Table 8.1 Classification of preservatives

Classification of preservatives
Class I Class II
Table salt, sugar, dextrose, glucose, spices, Benzoic acid, sulfhurous acid, sorbic acid,
vinegar, acetic acid, honey, edible vegetable propionic acid, lactic acid, sodium diacetate, etc.
oils, etc.
There are no restrictions for the addition of FSSAI guidelines must be followed for adding
class I preservatives to the food items class II preservatives to the food items
8.5.1.3 Antimicrobial Agents
Due to the shortage of food, consumers expect food to be available the whole year
and that food should be free from foodborne pathogens so that it can have a
comparatively longer shelf life (Davidson et al. 2001). Packaging and processing
have improved the preservation of food without the use of chemicals.
Antimicrobial products help to reduce and prevent microbial growth. The reduc-
tion in water availability and acidic nature is the basic principle/mechanism of
antimicrobial agents. Other characteristics of food like flavor, color, texture, and
nutritional value are also preserved by these agents. Sorbic acid, potassium and
sodium sorbate, calcium and sodium propionates, benzoic acid, etc. are the primary
food additives. Growth of bacteria like B. cereus, L. monocytogenes, S. aureus,
E. coli, and Salmonella anatum is inhibited by the use of cinnamon (Shan et al.
2007). In addition to these compounds, several organic compounds like citric acid,
malic acid, lactic acid, and ascorbic acid also act as antimicrobial agents. Lactic acid
bacteria (LAB) lead to the production of lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide, fatty acids,
acetaldehyde, and benzalkonium chlorides (BACs) that resist microbial growth.
Therefore, their cultures are mainly used in dairy food products (Amiri et al.
2020). Sulfur dioxide and sulfites are also extensively used for controlling undesir-
able microorganisms in soft drinks, juices, wine, beer, and other products. Food
properties like taste, aroma, or texture and other physical, chemical, or biological
properties are not altered by Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria after
pasteurization (Rai et al. 2016). A few examples of antimicrobial compounds are
summarized in Table 8.2.
8.5.2 Colors
The coloration of food is achieved by using natural and synthetic color additives on
food. It is generally used to provide good quality, satisfy consumers, or assist
marketing (Peira et al. 2018; Teigiserova et al. 2020).
“Coloration” does not include any contamination or substance added to food for
the purpose of maintaining and improving its nutritional qualities (Codex
Alimentarius Commission 2017). Natural food colors are lost by exposure to air,
Table 8.2 Various antimicrobial compounds present in food products

Target
S. no. Antimicrobial compounds microbes Food products
1 Acetic acid, acetates, diacetates, Yeast, Dairy products, meats, sauces
dehydroacetic acid bacteria
2 Lactic acid Bacteria Meat and fermented food
3 Lysozyme Bacteria Cheese, cooked meat, poultry product
4 Natamycin Molds Cheese
5 Nisin Bacteria Cheese, cooked meat, poultry product
6 Nitrite, nitrate Bacteria Cured meats
7 Propionic acid, propionates Molds Bakery products, dairy products
light, temperature, moisture, or improper storage conditions, which can be restored

by colorants. These are added to food matrices to obtain the desired food products. It
also adds vitamin to the food due to its antioxidant potential. Other than this, it is also
used to provide color to colorless food, to protect the flavor, and to enhance the
general appearance and nutritional value of food (Benucci et al. 2022). Color
additives are of two types, i.e., primary colors and secondary colors (Rodriguez-
Amaya 2016). Primary colors are used without dilution whereas secondary colors
are blends of primary colors with solvents and other additives (Carmen 2007). Dyes
are water-soluble pigments, and they are generally used in beverages, dry mixes,
baked goods, dairy products, etc. It is an important indicator of food quality. Good
processing and safety of food color are important for marketing. Natural pigments or
synthetic organic dyes result in the color of food (de Souza et al. 2021). The basic
categories of colorants are depicted in Fig. 8.3.
Colorants or dyes are used as food additives to improve the presentation of the
food or to provide color to the food (Sigurdson et al. 2017). Natural pigments are in
the form of dye like hydrophilic powders or lipophilic oleoresin. Anthocyanins,
carotenoids, betalains, and chlorophyll are some of the most commonly used natural
pigments (Miranda et al. 2021). The consumption of these natural colored com-
pounds is used in dietary application because it reduces the risk of diseases like
cancer, diabetes (Brennan 2005), and obesity (Cortez et al. 2017). A few examples of
natural colorants are mentioned in Table 8.3.
8.5.2.1 Caramels
Caramels have been used in home cooking since ancient times and are responsible
for giving dark brown or black products. The basic function of caramels is to provide
a specific aroma or color to foods. These are made up of carbohydrates or their
combinations like sucrose, glucose, fructose, invert sugar, lactose, maltose, molasses
etc. in the presence of acids, alkalis, or salts. According to the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), caramel is the dark brown liquid or solid material that is the
result of controlled heat treatment of carbohydrate material. There are four categories
Isoprenoids
Carotenoids
Phenolics
Anthocyanins, Betalains, Categories Porphyrins
quinones, curcuminoids, of Chlorophylls and Heme
etc. colorants
Miscellaneous colorants
Riboflavins, caramels,
melanoidins, melanins,
etc.
Fig. 8.3 Categories of colorants
Table 8.3 Some common S. no. Natural colorants Color produced

examples of natural colorants
1 Caramel Brown or black
2 Carotenoids Yellow color
3 Annatto Orange-red
4 Annatto cheese color Yellow or orange
5 Annatto butter color Bright yellow
6 Paprika oleoresin Orange
7 Saffron Yellow or orange
8 Carrot extract Red or purple
9 Chlorophyll Green
10 Anthocyanin Blue, red, or purple
11 Beetroot Red
12 Riboflavin Yellow or orange
of caramel according to FSSAI (Table 8.4). Caramels can be used as both flavoring
and coloring compounds. Food and beverages mostly use caramel color as a food
coloring agent.
8.5.2.2 Carotenoids
The source of carotenoids is alfalfa, carrot, tomatoes, citrus peel, palm oil, etc. They
are widely used in foodstuffs like annatto, paprika, and saffron. At the time of food
processing and storage, carotenoids are very sensitive to redox reactions and isom-
erization because of their electron-rich nature and highly unsaturated chemical
structure (Rodriguez-Amaya 2015).
Table 8.4 Categories of caramel

Type Name Description
I Plain caramel Carbohydrates are heated with or without acids/alkalis or their salts
II Caustic sulfite Carbohydrates are heated with or without acids/alkalis or their salts
caramel in the presence of sulfite compounds
III Ammonia Food grade carbohydrates are heated with or without acids/alkalis
processed caramel or their salts in the presence of ammonium compounds. Sulfites
avoided in this process
IV Ammonia sulfite Carbohydrates are heated with or without acids/alkalis or their salts
caramel by using both sulfite and ammonium compounds
8.5.2.3 Annatto
It is a pigment extracted from “the pericarp of the seed of Bixa Orellana.” It is a

water-soluble compound that is yellow-orange in color. Diapocarotenoids are the
basic color components in annatto. Some other degrading pigments are also avail-
able like bixin, transbixin, and norbixin. The methyl ester of a dibasic fatty acid
forms the bixin pigment, which leads to the formation of hydrolyzed water-soluble
norbixin on treatment with alkalis. Annatto is available in two different types: bixin
(oil extract) and norbixin (powdered form).
8.5.2.4 Annatto Butter Color
An extract of annatto in solution, suspension, or oil is prepared by extracting the

outer covering of seeds along with vegetable oils. It possess little or no toxicity when
compared to synthetic colorants. It is used in several different ways in a number of
food industries particularly in the dairy industry as it can impart color to butter and
other related dairy products.
8.5.2.5 Annatto Cheese Color
The outer coating of the seed is extracted with aqueous alkali which leads to the
production of water-soluble annatto color. The color of the solution in 0.1N NaOH
or KOH measured in a 1-cm cell at a dilution of 1:1000 (m/v) shall be yellow units
(Min.)—5.0; red units (Min.)—0.4. The color of annatto cheese is bright yellow to
slight orange.
8.5.2.6 Paprika Oleoresin
It is a water-soluble extract from sweet red pepper. It is orange-red in color.

Xanthophylls like capsanthin, capsorubin, and beta-carotene are the basic coloring
compounds. This foodstuff is limited because of the flavoring and spicy pungency
components. Raw, unrefined palm oil, which is used as a colorant for margarine,
contains 0.05–0.2% carotenoids as the main constituents.
8.5.2.7 Saffron
It is a water-soluble pigment. It contains some components like crocin,

digentiobioside of apocarotenic acid, and beta-carotene as flavoring compounds.
The yellow color of saffron is responsible for attractive colors of beverages, cakes,
and other bakery products but its high cost is a restraint in the market (Jeszka and
Jadwiga 2006).
8.5.2.8 Carrot Extracts
The different types of market products based on carrots, like carrot extract, oils
derived from carrot, and plant-related extracts are the colorants. The main compo-
nents are alpha- and beta-carotene. Purified crystalline products are constituted up by
20% alpha-carotene and 80% beta-carotene. Fat-based products such as dispersion
of microcrystals in oil are the basic use of these carrot extracts. The carotenoids when
combined with surface active agents form micro-emulsions, which are important to
color foods that contain higher amounts of water.
8.5.2.9 Chlorophyll
It is the green pigment extracted from plants and widely used as a coloring agent for
food items. In higher plants, chloroplast is the source of this green pigment, while
blue-green algae and bacteria are other sources of chlorophyll. It is located in the
intracellular lamellae. It can absorb light between 400 and 500 nm (Rehman et al.
2020). Polypeptides, phospholipids, and tocopherols form complex with the chlo-
rophyll in the plant tissues and they are held within the hydrophobic membrane. A
typical leaf contains about 2.5 mg/g of total chlorophyll, 0.3 mg/g of xanthophyll,
and 0.15 mg/g of carotene. The unripe state of fruit also contains chlorophyll,
which gradually disappears during ripening because yellow and red carotenoids
overexpose.
Chlorophylls are derivatives of dihydroporphyrin chelated with a centrally
located Mg2+ ion. Copper and zinc ions help in retaining the green color. Preparation
of food colorant from chlorophyll is mainly obtained from alfalfa and nettles. Brown
seaweeds are single-cell phytoplankton and are a good source of chlorophyll. They
mainly contain chlorophyll C, which is more stable than the rest of chlorophyll.
Some solvents like acetone, methanol, ethanol, and chlorinated solvents are used to
extract chlorophyll (Vermeulen et al. 2015). The yield of extraction is 20%, which
include pheophytins and other degradation products along with chlorophylls.
Chlorophyll is of two types, i.e., water soluble and oil soluble in nature. They are
stable in light, heat, and are even stable with acids and alkalis (Rehman et al. 2020).
They find application as food colorants in canned products, confectionery, soups,
and dairy products.
8.5.2.10 Anthocyanin
Anthocyanin being a dominant pigment in a number of fruits and flowers is

responsible for providing the red, violet, or blue color. Some reactions affect the
color of anthocyanin like the substitution of the hydroxyl and methoxyl groups.
The increase in the concentration of the hydroxyl group provides a deep blue
color whereas the methoxyl group concentration increases the redness of the food
product. Examples of naturally occurring anthocyanidins include Pelargonidin
(orange color), Cyaniding, Peonidin (orange-red color), Delphinidin, Petunidin,
and Malvidin (bluish-red color). Anthocyanin-rich fruits include blackberry, bil-
berry, blackcurrant, chokeberry, cranberry, strawberry, and red grapes. The stability
of anthocyanin as a colorant is poor. Anthocyanins have low stability because these
pigments are very sensitive to light, heat, oxygen, and pH which limits their use as
food colorants (Dangles and Fenger 2018). These are generally used at a low pH,
nearly in the range of 4.0.
8.5.2.11 Beetroot Red
It is available in liquid and powder form. Beetroot contains some synthetic colorants
like betanin, isobetanin, prebetanin, and smaller quantities of vulgaxanthin I and
II. These are used in dairy products because they have low acid concentration. Redness
can be achieved by using red beet, which is also considered as a replacement for nitrite.
Antimicrobial activity is present in nitrite, but it is absent in beet root.
8.5.2.12 Riboflavin
Riboflavin is a bitter in taste, orange-yellow crystalline powder which shows green-

yellow fluorescence in solutions. It is highly soluble in hydrophilic solvents like
water and ethanol. It is highly stable in acidic conditions when exposed to light.
Riboflavin is an essential micronutrient in the human diet, acting as precursor of
flavine adenine dinucleotide and flavin mononucleotide, which in turn functions as
hydrogen carrier in biological redox processes (FAO 2021). Reduction leads to the
formation of a colorless leuco form, whose color gets regenerated when comes in
contact with air. The physiologically active form of vitamin B2 is a riboflavin-
50 -phosphate sodium salt. It is highly soluble in water as compared to riboflavin, but
highly unstable in the presence of light. Both of these forms can be used as coloring
agents and food additives in dressings and cheese production. The market for natural
pigments is rapidly expanding, necessitating more sustainable production. Vegetable

waste is the ray of hope for natural colorants for the recovery of natural pigments that
are in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmeceutical sectors (Sharma et al. 2021).
8.5.2.13 Synthetic Colorants
Organic synthetic colorants are being used in a number of industrial processes. There
are more than 80 synthetic colorants present to date. These are generally used as food
additives without any proper guidelines; as a result, this may lead to many health
problems, intoxication, and death. Synthetic compounds are stable, easy to produce,
less expensive, and have better coloring properties as compared to natural colorants.
Strict rules are subjected to the use of synthetic colorants. As synthetic colorants are
advanced in color supply, strength, stability, and ease of application, these are highly
used. They have low market prices and provide a great spectrum of colors.
There is a trend of using fewer synthetic colorants as it increases the toxicity of food
products. Many countries limit the type, use, and amount of colorants in food products.
The triarylmethane group constitutes the triarylmethane dyes, and the main represen-
tative of such dyes includes bright blue, fast green, patent blue, and bright black. These
compounds are generally used in dairy products like yogurt, ice cream, drinks, and
sweets (Unsal et al. 2015). Indigo dye is a synthetic colorant that is chemically
obtained and used in gelatin, ice cream, jelly beans, bubble gum, and candies (Deroco
et al. 2018). A few examples of synthetic colorants are framed in Table 8.5.
8.5.2.14 Preparation of Food Color Solutions
The homogeneous solution can be prepared by dissolving the powder or granules in

hydrophilic solvents like propylene glycol or glycerine or water, as recommended by
Table 8.5 Examples of synthetic colorants

Synthetic
S. no. colorants Uses
1 Allura red Bitter soda, bitter wine, and other nonalcoholic flavored drinks, flavored
milk, flavored cheese
2 Amaranth Wine and spirit drinks
3 Azorubine Americano, bitters and wine, nonalcoholic flavored drinks, fine bakery
wares, flavored processed cheese, flavored milk products, edible cheese
rind
4 Brilliant blue Mushy and canned garden peas
5 Erythrosine Candied cherries, dietary supplements
6 Fast green Dietary products
7 Green S Jam, jelly, marmalades, low caloric products, processed cheese
8 Tartrazine Americano, bitter soda, and wine
the manufacturer. It is important to select a suitable organic solvent which depends

on the compatibility of the solution with the target pigment, toxicity, cost, and
recovery (Souza Mesquita et al. 2021). For the stability of food colorants, specific
diluents and matrices like lecithin; emulsifiers like polysorbates, diglycerides, glyc-
erine; esters of sucrose with fatty acids; sorbitan; etc. are being used. The limiting
factors of natural colorants are the color stability in the watery environment and the
presence of light.
8.5.2.15 Dairy Products Using Natural Colorants
Dairy-based companies are producing beverages using flavored and anthocyanin-

rich natural juices to color milk, whey-based and fermented products. Hydrophilic
extracts, carmine, and beet juices are used as colorants for yogurt. These are
generally resistant to microbial contamination. These colorants are generally stable
at low pH and are used in dairy products. The most commonly used red colorants in
yogurt are acid-proof cochineal extract and water-soluble carmine. These are heat
stable at low pH, i.e., 2–7, and produce a bright color. Various examples of colorants
in dairy-based food products are shown in Table 8.6.
8.5.3 Antioxidants
The molecule which inhibits the oxidation of another molecule, especially free
radicals, is termed as an antioxidant. Antioxidants are important for protection
from oxidative damage and maintaining the shelf life of the dairy products. Nowa-
days, consumers prefer natural antioxidants as synthetic antioxidants have carcino-
genic effects and are toxic in nature (Abdel-Hameed et al. 2014). The formation of
free radicals in food products can be controlled by natural antioxidants from plant
sources. These antioxidants can avoid side effects like liver damage and carcino-
genesis caused by synthetic antioxidants (Meenakshi et al. 2009). On the basis of
origin they are divided into natural and synthetic antioxidants whereas on the basis
of microbial production these can be classified into primary and secondary
antioxidants.
Table 8.6 Various colorants used in dairy food products

S. no. Dairy food products Colorants used
1 Butter Carrot extract
2 Cheese Carotene, bixin, norbixin
3 Sausages Curcumin, turmeric, riboflavin, carminic acid, caramel colors
4 Malt bread Caramel colors
5 Yogurt Carmine, beetroot color
8.5.3.1 Primary and Secondary Antioxidants
Primary antioxidants are produced by microbes and have an essential role in free
radial termination, whereas secondary antioxidants are not directly formed by
microbes. Carotenoids, retinol, and alpha-tocopherol are the leading lipid-soluble
antioxidants present in milk, whereas ascorbic acid is the water-soluble
antioxidant (Song et al. 2013). Primary antioxidants work by donating an H-atom
or by a single electron transfer mechanism, and secondary antioxidants function by
retarding chain initiation (Zeb 2020).
8.5.3.2 Natural and Synthetic Antioxidants
Antioxidants are broadly classified into natural and synthetic antioxidants based on
their origin. Natural antioxidants are produced from natural sources and used in
casein, cream, cheese, milk, etc. Butylated hydroxyanisole, propyl gallate, and
butylated hydroxytoluene are examples of synthetic antioxidants which are not
directly produced by microbes. These help in controlling lipid oxidation and
off-flavor development by free radicals in food (Zeb 2020). A high concentration
of synthetic antioxidants is harmful and carcinogenic, resulting in the high demand
preference for natural antioxidants in the food industry (Kumar et al. 2019). A few
examples of natural and synthetic antioxidants are shown in Table 8.7.
There is always a high demand for foods such as fruits, vegetables, grains, and
dairy products. This high demand for antioxidants is completed by increasing
product retention periods so that fresh and nutrient-rich food is available to con-
sumers. Antioxidants not only extend food shelf life but also protect against oxida-
tive stress and inflammation. The entire dairy products need antioxidants for better
life. Nowadays, both primary and secondary antioxidants are in industrial use.
8.5.3.3 Antioxidants in Milk
The oxidation of milk is mainly counterbalanced by antioxidants like whey protein,

casein, vitamin C, vitamin E, enzymes like superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathi-
one peroxidase, etc. Casein is the major protein of bovine which inhibits
lipoxygenase-catalyzed lipid autooxidation. The primary structure of the casein
Table 8.7 Examples of natu- Examples of antioxidants

ral and synthetic antioxidants
Natural antioxidants Synthetic antioxidants
Whey protein Butylated hydroxyanisole
Casein Propyl gallate
Vitamins (C, E, D) Butylated hydroxytoluene
molecule acts as a scavenger for free radicals (Suetsuna et al. 2000). In sheep’s milk,
protein has been considered as the main antioxidant (Fardet and Rock 2017). It
acquires antioxidant capacity because of casein, beta-lactoglobulin, and alpha-
lactoalbumin (Fardet and Rock 2017). Vitamins A, C, and E, beta-carotene, and
coenzyme-Q are natural antioxidants present in human milk. They help in neutral-
izing the effect of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in milk (Khan et al. 2019).
Lipophilic antioxidants help in preventing oxidative stress by activating the defense
system in milk (Lindmark-Månsson and Akesson 2000). They have high level of
thermal stability and remain active in dairy products.
8.5.3.4 Antioxidants in Processed Cheese
Food products made up of cheese and unfermented dairy ingredients are mixed with
emulsifiers. Vegetable oils, salt, and sugar are some additional ingredients added to
increase the color, texture, and flavor of cheese. These are used in many dishes as
processed cheese does not separate when melted. It is a good source of protein, fat,
minerals, and vitamins in the diet that need to be preserved by antioxidants (Abdel-
Hameed et al. 2014). The antioxidant activity of peptide was checked in Mexican
cheese after 6 months and characterized by HPLC. It was observed that peptides with
antioxidant activity were produced during the ripening period of 6 months and the
cheese showed 98% radical scavenging activity with 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) (Hаug et al. 1987).
8.5.3.5 Antioxidants in Cream
Cream is the fatty part of nonhomogenized milk that floats on the top layer of milk.
Generally, cream contains 10–65% of milk fat used in various products like coffee,
pies, soups, etc. Cream is classified into several types based on its milk fat content,
including clotted cream (55% milk fat), heavy cream (>35% milk fat), whipping
cream (30–36% milk fat), light cream (18–25% milk fat), sour cream (18% milk fat),
and so on. Lipophilic antioxidants like phospholipid, coenzyme Q10, CLA (conju-
gated linoleic acid), etc. play a key role. The high use of emulsifiers increases the
demand for lipophilic antioxidants ten times (Niki 2014).
8.5.3.6 Antioxidants in Yogurt
Fermentation of milk with the help of bacteria leads to the formation of yogurt. It is
also spelled yoghurt and is made up of 81% water, 9% protein, 5% fat, and 4%
carbohydrates, including sugars. The bacteria used to make yogurt are also known as
“yogurt cultures.” Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-
picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) assay were used to check the antioxidant activity of
yogurt mixed with carrot, pumpkin, broccoli, and red sweet pepper with 10%
Table 8.8 Various antioxidants in dairy products

S. no. Dairy-based products Antioxidants
1 Milk Whey protein, casein, vitamin C, E, glutathione peroxidase,
superoxides dismutase, carotenoids, etc.
2 Processed cheese 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, peptide, carotenoids
3 Cream Phospholipid, coenzyme Q10, CLA (conjugated linoleic acid),
carotene
4 Yogurt 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, alpha-casein, beta-carotene,
vitamin C, and E
concentration of antioxidant and observed for 14 days. High antioxidant activity was
seen in yogurt with broccoli and red pepper. The antioxidant activity was decreased
by the 14th day (Najgebauer-Lejko et al. 2014). Studies have also been conducted to
check the antioxidant property of yogurt with vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene,
ascorbic acid, and even alpha-casein. A few examples of antioxidants in dairy
products are formulated in Table 8.8.
8.5.4 Flavoring Agents
Food becomes cherishing because of its flavor. Flavoring agents are the complex
mixture of large amounts of low-molecular-weight volatile compounds (<300 g/
mol) capable of stimulating the odor receptors in the nose (Parker et al. 2014).
Natural flavors are formed by the biosynthesis of aromatic chemicals during the
normal metabolic processes in plants and animals. The odor and taste of these
aromatic components represent the intrinsic flavor of food. Flavoring is
man-made. It is prepared by adding natural or synthetic aromatic substances that
may or may not be present in nature. The aim is to increase the acceptability of the
end product through the stimulation of the nose and the palate, by modifying a flavor
that is already present or masking some undesirable flavor.
8.5.4.1 Functions of Flavoring Agents
Flavoring agents have three major functions:
Economic
Some nutritional foods may have an undesirable taste and smell, e.g., vitamins and
soya. Flavors are used to modify the taste, so that nutritional food can become more
desirable and this ultimately helps in increasing the economic value of the food
product (Sinki and Gordon 2001). Flavoring agents can recompense the flavor losses
that occur during the processing and storage of food items in order to maintain their
freshness and shelf life.
Physiological
According to the taste and fat digestion study, there are some indications that
metabolic response is affected by the alteration in taste of a fatty meal. Research
studies on “taste and intestinal absorption of glucose” show that “oral stimulation
affects intestinal absorption.” These create a direct link between a physiological
condition and the flavoring agent.
Psychological
Flavoring provides the sensory pleasure. Proper flavor selection can be greatly
assisted by psychological analysis of pleasure. The concept of flavoring also
increases the variety of food in the market.
These three functions, i.e., economic, physiological, and psychological have
different degrees of application. For example, some applications are mainly for
pleasure, which comes under psychological function, or increasing the market
value by adding flavor to the milk is totally an economical concept. All these
compounds need a raw material for flavor formation, depending upon the require-
ments of the flavor.
8.5.4.2 Raw Materials for Flavoring Agents
Flavoring compounds require basic raw materials for their formation. This raw
material can be of natural or synthetic origin. The natural raw materials are further
divided into botanical and animal raw materials. Examples of botanical raw mate-
rials are fruits, vegetable juice, herbs, spices, nuts, etc. On the other hand, examples
of animal raw materials are plasma dripping, seafood by-products, enzyme-modified
cheese, meat extract, etc. whereas benzaldehyde and cinnamic alcohol are examples
of synthetic raw materials used for the production of the flavoring material (Mani-
Lopez et al. 2012). Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status and certification are
needed for the utilization of flavor in consumer products, which are further approved
for use in food and cosmetics industries (Smith et al. 2005b). Maillard reaction is the
basic mechanism performed for the production of flavoring compounds. It occurs
when amino groups interact with the sugars. For example, milk contains lactose
sugar, which participates in numerous Maillard reactions (Hwang et al. 2011). A
brown nitrogenous compound, or melanoidin, along with other polymers is formed
as an end product of Maillard reaction which has a specific flavor (Bastos et al.
2012).
8.5.4.3 Classification of Flavoring Agents
Based on the source of the material, flavoring agents can be divided into three broad
categories:
Natural Flavoring Agents
Natural flavoring agents are obtained from plant and animal sources. These can be
naturally made or produced in a lab by chemical reaction. The chemical formulae of
the parent and new compound are the same in natural agents. They need to be
isolated via distillation, extraction, etc. These are the processes where one particular
substance is isolated from the rest of the other substances based on their physical and
chemical properties. For example, vanillin, the main component of vanilla beans, can
be produced as a natural or a nature-identical flavoring substance. These substances
are made in the laboratory, but their chemical structure resembles the structure
present in natural products. A substance can only be named as nature-identical if it
naturally occurs in plant or animal raw materials. Different processes are applied for
the extraction of natural flavors:
Distillation: It is a process where the plant and animal source materials are brought
to a boiling point and the steam is collected via cooling.
Extraction: It is a process in which the compounds are mixed with a dissolving
agent like alcohol or supercritical carbon dioxide, etc. for the extraction of
flavoring compounds.
Biotechnological production: It is used in the case of source material where the
simple extraction is difficult to perform and the material to be extracted is in very
low quantity, or the material is highly complex for the extraction. It is an
expensive process to conduct.
Artificial/Synthetic Flavoring Agents
Artificial flavoring agents are produced by chemical methods. These agents have
different chemical formulae as compared to their substrate formulae. Chemical
methods or synthetic methods are used to isolate these flavoring agents. These are
obtained from different source material because the methods of production are
different for every other agent. Ethyl vanillin, well-known artificial flavoring
agent, is a substance that smells and tastes like vanillin.
Other Flavoring Techniques
(a) Essential oil flavoring: It involves a complex mixture with defined composition
like natural raw materials. Vegetable extracts, spices, and herb extracts are
examples of these substances. These are obtained from plant, animal, and
microbial sources by using physical and biotechnological production processes.
These are the main components of citrus, spice, and mint flavorings. It is helpful
in relishing the smell and taste of the components. These categories also include
oils obtained from clove and eucalyptus.
(b) Thermal process flavoring: This technique is used in industrial processes by
controlling several parameters like heat, temperature, pH, etc. which leads to the
development of intense flavors during these processes. For example: in the case
of roasting meat or baking bread, the thermal process leads to the formation of
these flavors. Amino acids and reducing sugars are the essential basic materials.
(c) Smoked flavoring: It is one of the ancient methods for the production of
seasonal food and preserving food. It not only is used for preserving but also
adds a unique smoked flavor to foods such as fish, meat products, sauces, and
chips. Burning of hardwood at a temperature of nearly 100 C is used to produce
the fresh smoke. Charcoal is the basic product and this is mostly formed in the
absence of air. Efforts have been made to reduce addiction to nicotine, which
leads to the risk of different physical health problems. It also simulates the
physical action of conventional cigarettes, but without using any of the nico-
tine products (Litt et al. 2016).
8.5.4.4 Applications of Flavoring Agents
A particular flavor can be added to give an additional taste and flavor to the food.
Flavoring agents can be exploited for their applications in different industries as
shown in Fig. 8.4.
Fig. 8.4 Application of

flavors
Food
Toy industry Beverages
Application of
flavoring agents
Oral hygiene Pharmaceutical

products
On the basis of applications of flavoring agents, food can be categorized as

follows:
(a) Flavor-dependent food includes the food items which cannot exist without the
application of flavors. For example, hard-boiled candy, non-juice drinks, gelatin
desserts, powdered milk, bread, and cakes.
(b) Flavor-independent food is a market product that does not use flavor or is not
dependent on flavor for its marketing. For example, milk, orange juice, and
butter.
8.5.4.5 Flavoring Agent Formation
Flavor helps in providing the artificial taste and smell. Some of these flavors are
diluted with carriers and solvents. These are of basically four types, i.e., liquid,
powder, paste, and emulsion (Fig. 8.5). These liquids are made from water, alcohol,
or oil-soluble compounds. Alcohol, propylene, glycol, triacetin, benzyl alcohol,
glycerin, syrup, etc. are the solvents and carriers for liquid-type flavoring agent.
The higher molecular weight of different mono- and disaccharides increases viscos-
ity, which improves beverage taste (Mussatto and Mancilha 2007). Another is a
powder-type flavoring agent that can be spray-dried, absorbed, or powder mixed.
These use gum acacia, starch hydrolysates, selective hydrocolloids, and simple
carbohydrates as solvents and carriers. Paste and emulsion can form an oil-in-
water type of solution (Tandjawa et al. 2017). The solvent and carrier of paste and
emulsion are the same as liquid, and powder-type flavoring agents.
Flavoring agent formed in dilution with carriers and solvents
The carriers and solvents are of 4 different types
Liquid Powder Paste Emulsion

Water, alcohol, Spray dried, Oil in water Oil in water
oil-soluble powder mixed mixture mixture
compounds
Fig. 8.5 Formation of flavoring agents by dilution

8.5.5 Thickeners and Gelling Agents
Thickeners are generally hydrocolloids in nature. The starch-hydrocolloid blending

has a specific application at industrial level as an emulsifier, gelling agent, thickener,
stabilizer, and for inhibiting the formation of sugar and ice crystals (Marta et al.
2020). Conformational disorder in polymer chains is the result of thickeners in the
solution. It acts by polymer-solvent interaction. Thickeners, such as modified starch
and xanthan gums, are primarily used in the food industry. Different types of
thickeners like cornstarch, pre-gelatinized starch, arrowroot, algin (sodium alginate),
agar-agar, gelatin, acacia, pectin, etc. are used in dairy-based food (Nilsen-Nygaard
et al. 2016).
Gels are intermediate between solid and liquid phases with some mechanical
rigidity. They work by forming an interlinking connection through a cross-linking
network between the liquid and solid phases. The major bond that plays a role in this
gel formation is hydrogen bonding, which increases the industrial application of
starch-based compounds (Mahmood et al. 2017). Hydrocolloid gels are also known
as physical gels as they are made up of covalent cross-linking of the polymer chain.
Hydrocolloids are nonstarch polysaccharides which are heterogeneous in nature
(Noisuwan et al. 2009). They are made up of long-chain polymers characterized
by the formation of viscous dispersions and/or gels when dispersed in water (Saha
and Bhattacharya 2010). The type of starch and hydrocolloids, concentration of
starch and hydrocolloids, level and type of interaction, preparation condition, etc.
decide the starch-hydrocolloid mixture properties (Varela et al. 2016). The interac-
tion of starch-hydrocolloids can alter food texture, structure, and viscosity, thereby
changing the accessibility of enzymes to starch granules. A few examples of gelling
agents and their applications in dairy products are discussed in Table 8.9.
Table 8.9 Various gelling agents and their applications

Gelling
S. no. agents Gel characteristics Applications
1 Modified Thermally irreversible opaque gels Dairy dessert
starch formed on cooling
2 Agar Thermoreversible gels on cooling Bakery products
3 K and I Thermoreversible gels on cooling Puddings, milkshakes, tofu
carrageenan
4 Low Thermoreversible gels on cooling at Jams, jellies, glazes, milk-based
methoxyl acidic pH desserts
pectin
5 Alginate Thermoirreversible gels do not melt Restructured foods, cold pre-
on heating pared bakery creams
8.5.6 Humectants
Humectants are hydroscopic substances added to food to increase the retention time
of moisture. Due to the low degree of humidity, the food tends to dry out because of
the counteracting effect of the wetting agent. For the formation of candied interme-
diate moisture fruits, sugar is the most common agent used as humectants whereas to
provide intermediate moisture to vegetables and fish, salt is used as a major agent
(Saha 2020). These humectants prevent the food from drying out. The basic function
of humectants is to control the level of water in the solution. For the immobilization
of water in food, solutes like salt and sugar are used as humectants. The drying
process removes free water and humectants from the food. These humectants are
made up of hydrophilic parts that form bonds with water in food. If water is
removed, it leads to lower water activity of the food product (Kaplow 1970).
These are used in gelatin products and cakes (Siburian et al. 2020). Some examples
of humectants used in the dairy industry are provided in Fig. 8.6.
8.5.6.1 Sorbitol
It is widely present in nature, and sorbitol syrup is used as a humectant. It has the
capacity to bind to a higher number of water molecules (Duan et al. 2019). It is
generally used in bakery products, mayonnaise, creams, sauces, etc.
Sorbitol
Xylitol Humectants in Glycerol

dairy industry
Erythritol
Fig. 8.6 Humectants in dairy industry

8.5.6.2 Glycerol
The hydrolysis of fat leads to the formation of glycerol. It can be readily obtained
from animal and vegetable fats. It is generally liquid at room temperature. The basic
function of glycerol as a humectant is to lock the food moisture and avoid the
formation of mold or bacterial growth. It also helps in maintaining the texture of the
food. It provides a burning sensation in the throat as a form of taste, which limits its
quantities. But still, it is widely used in the cake and cream industry.
8.5.6.3 Xylitol
Xylitol and sucrose have an equivalent sweetness; hence, xylitol is primarily used as
a sugar substitute in many food products (Ahuja et al. 2019). It is wood sugar that is
collected from xylan-rich hemicelluloses of a tree or a plant. It generally acts as a
sweetener but for nonfermentable bulk. Because of the high demand for xylitol in
food, nutraceuticals, pharma industry, and beverages, it is among the top 12 global
bio-products (Vishal et al. 2019). It is also used as an energy source in many
intravenous products. It is also used in dental products like toothpaste, mouthwash,
creams, etc. and it is well used in dairy products (Ahuja et al. 2020).
8.5.6.4 Erythritol
It belongs to the category of polyols generally used as a sweetener and a humectant.

Sometimes it also acts as a flavor enhancer, stabilizer, thickener, or sequestrant in the
food industry. The main products of erythritol are desserts, food supplements,
liqueurs, etc.
8.5.7 Emulsifying Agents
An additive that allows immiscible liquids like water and oil to form a stable mixture
is known as an emulsifier. When microscopic droplets of one immiscible liquid mix
with another immiscible liquid, it leads to the formation of a heterogeneous emulsion
(McClements 2015). An emulsion is a mixture of immiscible liquid. The boundary
between two nonhomogenous mixtures is known as interface. In the mixture, the
dispersed phase droplets tend to coalescence and agglomerate, which ultimately
leads to separation. Starch and soy protein are the solid and colloidal particles which
get absorbed at the interface and form the Pickering emulsion (Yang et al. 2017). The
emulsifier contains both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. The hydrophilic part
makes the bond with water or polar compounds, whereas the hydrophobic part gets
dissolved with oil or nonpolar compounds. The hydrophilic part makes the head and
tail, which is made by the hydrophobic part of the micelle (Berton-Carabin et al.
2018).
Glycerol, sorbitol, sucrose, propylene glycol, or polyglycerol forms the hydro-

philic part of commercial food emulsifiers whereas fatty acids derived from fats and
some oils like soyabean oil, rapeseed oil, coconut oil, etc. form the lipophilic part of
the emulsifier. The dispersion of fat droplets in water leads to the formation of an oil-
in-water emulsion, e.g., mayonnaise and milk. When water is in the dispersion phase
and fat acts as a continuous phase, such as in butter and vinaigrettes, the result is a
water-in-oil emulsion (Leal-Calderon et al. 2007).
8.5.7.1 Stability of an Emulsion
Stability of an emulsion is best described by its droplet size, viscosity, and density.
Droplet size: emulsion stability is increased by a smaller droplet size. Homog-
enization is the process that results in even and smaller droplet sizes.
Viscosity: Emulsion stability is facilitated by a higher viscosity. Thickening
agents, or hydrocolloids, are responsible for increasing the viscosity of the water
phase (Krstonosic et al. 2021).
Specific density of phases: An emulsion is more stable if the density difference
between the two phases is less.
Food emulsifiers have versatile applications in the food industry. The functions of
emulsions in dairy-based products are given in Table 8.10.
8.5.7.2 Properties of Emulsifier
An emulsifier should be readily absorbed into the interface, should have proper
hydrophilic and lipophilic parts so that a stable emulsion can be formed, should be
stable, should not have any odor, color, taste, etc., and should be nontoxic.
8.5.8 Antifoaming Agents
An antifoaming agent is also known as a deforming agent. It is a chemical that

hinders or reduces the formation of foam in industrial processed liquids. Detergents,
Table 8.10 Function of emulsions

S. no. Functions of emulsions Dairy-based foods
1 Improved solubility Instant drinks
2 Plasticizers Cake icing
3 Promotion of dryness Ice cream
4 Oil in water emulsion Mayonnaise
5 Stabilization and avoiding the formation of an oil layer Coffee whitener
6 Improve texture and taste Dairy desserts
Table 8.11 Some common antifoaming agents

S. no. Antifoaming agents Dairy-based function
1 Polyoxyethylene sorbitan Antifoaming agents in ice cream, frozen desserts, and
tristearate (polysorbate 65) cakes
2 Sodium, potassium salts of Yeast activity promoter and antifoaming agent in beet
fatty acids sugar
3 Acetic acid esters of fatty acids Antifoaming agents in jams, marmalades, and acetems
4 Sorbitan esters Antifoaming agent in production of beet sugar and
boiled sweets
5 Dimethylpolysiloxane Antifoaming agent in skim milk powder and wine
production
6 Propan-1,2-diol Anticaking agent, soft drink antifoaming agents
pharmaceutical, food, and processing industries require detergents as an antifoaming

agent. This foam is generally produced because of protein and fat in the food. To
completely suppress the foam, 10 ppm of antifoam is generally used. These com-
pounds are used in meat processing, dairy products, vegetable oil, alcoholic and
nonalcoholic beverages, soups, starches, pickles, etc. A few examples of
antifoaming agents with their dairy-based functions are provided in Table 8.11.
8.5.9 Stabilizers
Food additives, which help in preserving the structure of food products, are known
as stabilizers. It prevents the formation of large ice crystals in ice cream. It helps in
maintaining the physico-chemical state of the food product. It provides uniformity to
the product and increases the water holding capacity of the food. The amount of
stabilizers to be used varies with the properties of the food and percentage of solid
content in the food. Stabilizers are water-soluble compounds majorly used in dairy-
based foods like ice cream, processed milk, pasteurized milk, etc. On the other hand,
the addition of excessive amount of stabilizers results in soggy or heavy body and
high resistance to melting point in the final product.
Ideal characteristics of a stabilizer are shown in Fig. 8.7.
8.5.9.1 Different Stabilizers Used in Dairy Industry
Nowadays, the market contains a wide range of hydrocolloids derived from plants
and seaweed, as well as those produced by various microbes such as bacteria, fungi,
and molds. Hydrocolloids are made up of sugar backbones that contain protruding
substituent such as esters, sulfates, or added sugars. Available hydrocolloids for food
applications are either neutral or negatively charged. A few examples of stabilizers
used in the food market are depicted in Fig. 8.8.
Fig. 8.7 Ideal

characteristics of stabilizers
Nontoxic
Non
reactive Easy to mix
Ideal
characteristics
of Stabilizers
Stable
Economical composition
Easily
available
Fig. 8.8 Different

stabilizers used in dairy
industry
Gelatin
Galacto-
Starch
mannans
Gum
Pectin Stabilizer
Arabic
Cellulose Agar
Alginate
Gelatin
Animal connective tissues, mainly collagen, provide the proteinaceous material, i.e.,
gelatin. The raw materials for gelatin production are provided by beef, pork, poultry,
and fish. It provides a low viscosity solution when hydrated in hot or warm water,
which has good foaming and whipping properties (Siburia et al. 2020). Clear and
elastic gels are formed by the network of polypeptide chains in gelatin. It is a good
stabilizer but does not prevent heat shock. One more advantage of this stabilizer is
that it requires a long aging period. It does not cause wheying off and has good
dispersal activity. Gelatin is utilized in food industries with various applications like
gelling agents, thickeners, emulsifiers, foam makers, stabilizers, edible films, etc. It
is also widely used for the manufacturing of soft and hard capsules in the pharma-
ceutical industry (Park et al. 2008).
Galactomannans
Galactomannans belong to the category of naturally occurring biocompatible and

biodegradable molecules. These are nonionic polysaccharides made up of mannose
and galactose residues (Yadav and Maiti 2020). These are used in different dairy
products such as cheese, processed meats, bakery products, and frozen desserts. The
most widely used galactomannans are locust gum and guai gum. They are differen-
tiated based on solubility in cold water as well as gelling capability because of their
difference in distribution side and substitution degree (Yadav and Maiti 2020).
Gum Arabic
It is also known as Acacia gum, naturally obtained from acacia trees. The main
bonding in gum Arabic is of polysaccharide from (Wu et al. 2013a; Wang et al.
2015; Amin et al. 2013) (1–6)-linked β-D-galactopyranosyl units along with (1–6)-
linked β-D-glucopyranosyl uronic acid units. It has relatively low viscosity and high
water solubility compared to other exudate gums (Moneim and Sulieman 2018).
Agar
Agar is a linear polysaccharide obtained from red-purple algae of the Rhodophyceae

family. It is made up of disaccharide units of (1–3)-linked β-D-galactose and (1–4)-
linked 3,6-anhydrous-a-L-galactose residues (Mostafavi and Zaeim 2020). As a
result of its characteristics like gelling and stabilizing properties, it is widely used
as a valuable material in various applications (Park et al. 2020). Syneresis is the
strong gel formed by agar. It can form reversible gels simply by cooling and
providing heat (Motafavi and Zaeim 2020). The addition of salts can improve the
high melting point of agar.
Alginates
These are produced from brown seaweeds, i.e., Phaeophyceae. In the market, the salt
derivative of alginate is known as algin. These are unbranched copolymers of (1–4)-
linked β-D-mannuronic acid (M) and α-L-guluronic acid (G) residues. Alginate
dissolves in cold water and gels in the presence of calcium and acid. Acidified milk is
stabilized by using casein (Li and Zhong 2020).
Cellulose and Its Derivatives
When natural cellulose is treated with hydrochloric acid, it leads to the production of
microcrystalline cellulose, i.e., MCC which form the crystallite aggregates as an end
product. Carboxy-methyl cellulose (CMC) is an anionic, water-soluble polymer that
leads to the formation of various viscous solutions. Treating cellulose with alkali and
then with monochloroacetic acid forms CMC. It is a carboxy-methylated derivative
of cellulose, generally present as a sodium salt (Du et al. 2008). Sometimes it is also
known as “guar gum.” Sodium carboxy-methyl cellulose is a chemically modified
natural gum that is generally linear, water-soluble, long-chain, and anionic. The
degree of carboxy-methyl substitution of CMC as a food additive is around
0.6–0.95, which makes it negatively charged in acidic conditions. CMC can be
adsorbed onto the casein micelle surface (pH 3.0–5.2) to provide electrostatic
repulsions (Wu et al. 2013a, b). This blend is a tasteless, water-soluble, free-flowing,
cream-colored, and odorless powder.
Pectin
Some food industry by-products, such as apple pulp, citrus peels, and sugar beet
pulp, aid in the identification of commercial pectin. Pectin is a complex polysaccha-
ride present in plant cell wall. Pectin from citrus sources is rich in galacturonic acid
(GalA), and this GalA is present as a linear structure with the main structure of the
homogalacturonan (HG) domain, while the branched rhamnogalacturonan domains
(RG-I and RG-II) constitute only a small part and are interspersed in HG (Zhang
et al. 2018). Aggregation and sedimentation of casein in acidified milk drinks is
prevented by using pectin (Doesburg and De Vos 1959). Galacturonans and
rhamnogalacturonans are the two main families of pectin which are being used as
additives. The degree of esterification depends on the category of pectin. These are
divided into two categories: low methyl (LM) pectin that contains less than 50%
methyl esters and high methyl (HM) pectin with more than 50% methyl esters.
Starch and Modified Starches
Starch is a polysaccharide which consists of a large number of glucose units bonded

together with the help of glycosidic bonds. Starch is basically composed of amylose
and amylopectin, and these two polymers are packed into semi-crystalline granules
which are highly hydrophilic and characterized by swelling properties (Agoda-

Tandjawa et al. 2017). Starch has limited use in the food industry. Generally, starch
produces weak, cohesive, and rubbery pastes on heating, and undesirable gels are
produced. These properties are modified with the help of various modifications.
Some examples of modified starches are acid-treated starch, bleach starch,
alkaline-treated starch, oxidized starch, monostarch phosphate, distarch glycerol,
distarch phosphate esterified, etc. Water holding capacity and viscosity of starch can
be increased by embedding starch granules inside the casein matrix (Azim et al.
2010). The ratio of substituent groups is kept low in modified starch. Maltodextrin is
a part of starch with a low molecular weight. It is also known as dextrin or amylolytic
enzyme. Pre-gelatinization, or heat treatment, of starch is the general part of the
physical modification. It is sometimes used as a free thickener in cold water as well.
Chemical modification (viz. acid/alkaline treated, oxidized, etc.) has been considered
as mainstream of modified starch in the last century.
8.6 Disadvantages of Additive Manufacturing
Food additives are being used in beverages, desserts, jams, jellies, sauces, pickles,
cosmetics, toothpaste, etc. Despite their wide use, they can cause some issues in the
body. Artificial colorants can cause attention deficit disorder (ADD), inhibit the
immune system, and lead to hyperactivity and allergic reactions. The overuse of
colorants can also cause thyroid tumors, urticaria dermatitis, asthma, nasal conges-
tion, nausea, eczema, liver damage, kidney damage, digestive disorders like diarrhea
and colicky pains, and a wide range of cancers. Hives, itching, rashes, and swelling
are some of the skin disorders caused by additives.
8.7 The Legal Aspects of Food Additives
Due to the increasing use of food additives in day-to-day life, it is very important to
provide basic guidance on the maximum use of additives based on dietary pattern.
Joint Expert Committee on Food Additive and Contaminants (JECFA) is an inter-
national expert scientific committee that is administered jointly by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health
Organization (WHO) to evaluate the toxicological data on food additives and when
considered to be appropriate, the committee establishes acceptable daily intakes
(ADIs) on the food additive.
GRAS stands for “Generally Recognized as Safe.” It is a group that qualify food
products as safe to use. These food products are considered safe to use because they
have a long history and have not shown any harmful effects. Obtaining approval of a
substance like a food additive generally requires the safety of scientific procedures
that require the same quantity and quality of scientific evidence for
recognition (Smith et al. 2005a).
8.7.1 Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs)
These are the guidelines of provision and standards which are to be used under the
condition of good manufacturing practice. According to these guidelines, food
additives used in the manufacturing, processing, or packaging of food should have
Additive approval process
Application of food additives in a structured format.
Details of food additives used in prepared product.
Names of food additive categories.
Examine level and concentration of additive usage.
Technological justification of food additives.
JEFCA and other safety evaluations.
Approval by other food regulatory authorities.
Technical information such as chemical name, CAS number, chemical and structural formula, etc.
Physical and chemical properties of food additives.
Method of additive analysis.
Fig. 8.9 Process of additive approval

no physical, chemical, or technical side effects. The additive should be handled in

the same way as a food product is handled. The quantity of additives should be low.
In India, these guidelines are created and maintained by the FSSAI Act and rules.
Some of the basic food additive approval processes in India are given below in
Fig. 8.9.
8.8 Conclusion
Maintaining and increasing the shelf life of food for industrial applications by using
additives is a reasonable approach. Some chemical additives which are widely used
in different dairy products like milk, cream, yogurt, cheese, custard, casein,
fermented soured milk, etc. are natural and others are synthetic, Not only this,
additives are also widely used in different traditional dishes like ymer, villi, mursik,
kumis, etc. Natural preservatives and antimicrobial agents like acetic acid, lactic
acid, lysozyme, natamycin, nutella, etc. are widely used to control bacteria, molds,
fungus, etc. Natural and synthetic colorants are used in fermented drinks and
flavored milk. Aside from this, antioxidants reduce the oxidation of food by free
radical mechanism. Flavors widely play a vital role in economic, physiological, and
psychological factors. Currently their application is even extended to toy industries.
Thickeners are hydrocolloids which are used in emulsifier, gelling agent, thickener,
stabilizer, and for inhibiting the formation of sugar and ice crystals. Emulsifying
agents, stabilizers, and antifoaming agents are used in batch and continuous fermen-
ters at the industrial level. Despite this tremendous potential, these additives still
have limitations because of their toxicity. Many agencies like ADI, GRAS, and
FSSAI regulate industrial use and provide guidelines from time to time for the better
use of additives. But still, there is a high need for natural substitutes as additives for
long-term use.
References
Abdel-Hameed E-SS, Nagaty MA, Salman MS, Bazaid SA (2014) Phytochemicals, nutritionals and
antioxidant properties of two prickly pear cactus cultivars (Opuntia ficus indica Mill.) growing
in Taif KSA. Food Chem 160:31–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.03.060.
S0308814614004518
Agoda-Tandjawa G, Le Garnec C, Boulenguer P, Gilles M, Langendorff V (2017) Rheological
behavior of starch/carrageenan/milk proteins mixed systems: role of each biopolymer type and
chemical characteristics. Food Hydrocoll 73:300–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.
07.012. S0268005X1730632X
Ahuja V, Sharma A, Rathour RK, Sharma V, Rana N, Bhatt AK (2019) In-vitro and in-silico
characterization of xylose reductase from Emericella nidulans. Curr Chem Biol 13(2):159–170.
https://doi.org/10.2174/2212796812666180622103906
Ahuja V, Macho M, Ewe D, Singh M, Saha S, Kumar S (2020) Biological and pharmacological
potential of xylitol: a molecular insight of unique metabolism. Foods 9(11):1592. https://doi.
org/10.3390/foods9111592
Amin L, Azad M, Samian A (2013) Factor influencing risk perception of food additives. J Food
Agric Environ 11:66–72
Amiri S, Aghamirzaei ZM, Mostashari P, Sarbazi M, Tizchang S, Madahi H (2020) The impact of
biotechnology on dairy industry. In: Microbial biotechnology in food and health, vol 33.
Academic, New York, pp 53–79
Azim Z, Alexander M, Koxholt M (2010) Influence of cross-linked waxy maize starch on the
aggregation behavior of casein micelles during acid-induced gelation. Food Biophys 5:227–237
Bacak A (2017) Acidity regulators, preservative, and antioxidants. Wiley Online Library. https://
doi.org/10.1002/9781118906460.ch1g
Bastos DM, Monaro É, Siguemoto É, Séfora M (2012) Maillard reaction products in
processed food: pros and cons. In: Food industrial processes—methods and equipment.
IntechOpen, London
Benucci I, Lombardelli C, Mazzocchi C, Esti C (2022) Natural colorants from vegetable food
waste: recovery, regulatory aspect, and stability—a review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf
21(3):2715–2737. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12951
Berton-Carabin CC, Sagis L, Schroën K (2018) Formation, structure, and functionality of interfacial
layers in food emulsions. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 9:551–587
Brennan CS (2005) Dietary fibre, glycaemic response, and diabetes. Mol Nutr Food 49(6):560–570
Cai W, Liu J (2014) The improvement of the risk communication mechanism in food additives
under the perspective of consumers’ right to know. J Food Saf 5:167–172
Carmen S (2007) Natural pigments as food colorants, chemical and functional properties of food
components. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420009286
Chen J, Han F (2009) Interpretation of highlights in the Chinese food safety law from a scientific
perspective. Chin J Prev Med 43:470–474
Chen S, Wu H, Lu X, Zhong K, Xie X, Li X, Luo X, Guo L (2015) The public’s risk perception on
food additives and the influence factors. J Chin Inst Food Sci Technol 15:151–157
Christensen T, Mørkbak M, Jensen S, Evald J (2011) Danish consumers’ perceptions of food
additives and other technologies. Inst Food Resour Econ 4:23–35
Codex Alimentarius Commission (2017) General standard for food additives: codex stan 192–1995.
International Food Standards
Cortez R, Luna-Vital DA, Margulis D, Gonzalez de Mejia E (2017) Natural pigments: stabilization
methods of anthocyanins for food applications. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 16(1):180–198
Dangles ON, Fenger JAN (2018) The chemical reactivity of anthocyanins and its consequences in
food science and nutrition. Molecules 23(8):1970
Davidson PM, Branen AL (2005) Food antimicrobial an introduction. Food Sci Technol. https://doi.
org/10.1201/9781420028737.ch1
Davidson M, Juneja V, Branen J (2001) Antimicrobial agents, food science and technology. https://
doi.org/10.1201/9781420028737.ch1
de Souza LM, Martins M, Pisani LP, Ventura SP, de Rosso VV (2021) Insights on the use of
alternative solvents and technologies to recover bio-based food pigments. Compr Rev Food Sci
Food Saf 20(1):787–818
Deroco PB, Medeiros RA, Rocha-Filho RC, Fatibello-Filho O (2018) Selective and simultaneous
determination of indigo carmine and allura red in candy samples at the nano-concentration range
by flow injection analysis with multiple pulse amperometric detection. Food Chem 247:66–72
Doesburg JJ, De Vos L (1959) Pasteurized mixtures of fruit jus and milk, with long shelf life. V Int
Fruit Jus Congr 20:32–37
Du B, Li J, Zhang H, Chen P, Huang L, Zhou J (2008) The stabilization mechanism of acidified
milk drinks induced by carboxymethylcellulose. Lait 87(4–5):287–300. https://doi.org/10.1051/
lait:2007021
Duan C, Meng X, Meng J, Khan MIH, Dai L, Khan A, An X, Zhang J, Huq T, Ni Y (2019) Chitosan
as a preservative for fruits and vegetables: a review on chemistry and antimicrobial properties. J
Bioresour Bioprod 4:11–21
FAO (2021) Riboflavins. Compendium of food additive specifications. In: 67th meeting 2006. FAO
JECFA monographs 1. http://www.fao.org. Accessed 8 Jul 2021
Fardet A, Rock E (2017) In vitro and in vivo antioxidant potential of milks, yoghurts, fermented
milks and cheeses: a narrative review of evidence. Nutr Res Rev 31:52–70
Gonelimali FD, Lin J, Miao W, Xuan J, Charles F, Chen M et al (2018) Antimicrobial properties
and mechanism of action of some plant extracts against food pathogens and spoilage microor-
ganisms. Front Microbiol 9:1639. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01639
Hаug M, Laubach C, Burke M, Harzer G (1987) Vitamin E in human milk from mothers of preterm
and term infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 6(4):605–609
Hwang IG, Kim HY, Woo KS, Lee J, Jeong HS (2011) Biological activities of Maillard reaction
products (MRPs) in a sugar-amino acid model system. Food Chem 126:221–227
Jeszka W, Jadwiga (2006) Food colorants, chemical and functional properties of food components.
CRC Press, Boca Raton. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420009613
Kaplow M (1970) Commercial development of intermediate moisture foods. Food Technol 24:53–
57
Khan IT, Nadeem M, Imran M, Ullah R, Ajmal M, Jaspal MH (2019) Antioxidant properties of
milk and dairy products: a comprehensive review of the current knowledge. Lipids Health Dis
18(1):41. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12944-019-0969-8
Krstonosic V, Jovicic-Bata J, Maravic N, Nikolic I, Dokic LJ (2021) Rheology, structure, and
sensory perception of hydrocolloids. In: Food structure and functionality. Academic, New York,
pp 23–47
Kumar N, Singh A, Sharma DK, Kishore K (2019) Toxicity of food additives. In: Food safety and
human health. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 67–98
Leal-Calderon F, Schmitt V, Bibette J (2007) Emulsion science: basic principles, vol 3. Springer,
New York, pp 173–199
Li N, Zhong Q (2020) Stable casein micelle dispersions at pH 4.5 enabled by propylene glycol
alginate following a pH-cycle treatment. Carbohydr Polym 233:115834. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.carbpol.2020.115834
Lindmark-Månsson H, Åkesson B (2000) Antioxidative factors in milk. Br J Nutr 84:103–110
Litt MD, Duffy V, Oncken C (2016) Cigarette smoking and electronic cigarette vaping patterns as a
function of e-cigarette flavourings. Tob Control 25:67–72
Mahmood K, Kamilah H, Shang PL, Sulaiman S, Ariffin F, Alias AK (2017) A review: interaction
of starch/non-starch hydrocolloid blending and the recent food applications. Food Biosci 19:
110–120
Mahmud J, Khan RA (2018) Characterization of natural antimicrobials in food system. J Adv
Microbial 8:11–894
Mani-Lopez E, Garcia HS, Lopez-Malo A (2012) Organic acids as antimicrobial to control
Salmonella in meat and poultry products. Int Food Res J 45:713–721
Marta H, Cahyana Y, Djali M (2020) The effect of starch-hydrocolloid interaction on starch
digestibility, pasting and physicochemical properties: a review. Earth Environ Sci 443(1):
012084. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/443/1/012084
McClements DJ (2015) Food emulsions principles, practices, and techniques, 3rd edn. CRC Press,
Boca Raton, pp 314–407
Meenakshi S, Manicka DG, Tamil SM, Arumugam M, Balasubramanian T (2009) Total flavanoid
and in vitro antioxidant activity of two seaweeds of Rameshwaram coast. Global J Pharmacol
3(2):59–62
Miranda PHS, dos Santos AC, de Freitas BCB, de Souza Martins GA, Boas EVDBV, Damiani C
(2021) A scientific approach to extraction methods and stability of pigments from Amazonian
fruits. Trends Food Sci Technol 113:335–345
Moneim A, Sulieman EH (2018) Gum arabic as thickener and stabilizing agents in dairy
products. In: Gum arabic. Academic, New York. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
812002-6.00013-0
Mostafavi FS, Zaeim D (2020) Agar-based edible films for food packaging applications - a review.
Int J Biol Macromol 159:1165–1176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.05.123.
S0141813020332785
Motafavi FS, Zaeim D (2020) Agar-based edible films for food packaging applications—a review.
Int J Biolog Macromol 159:1165–1176
Mussatto SI, Mancilha IM (2007) Non-digestible oligosaccharides: a review. Carbohydr Polym 68:
587–597
Najgebauer-Lejko D, Grega T, Tabaszewsa M (2014) Yoghurts with addition of selected vegeta-
bles: acidity, antioxidant properties and sensory quality. Acta Sci Pol Technol Aliment 13:35–
42
Niki E (2014) Role of vitamin E as a lipid-soluble peroxyl radical scavenger: in vitro and in vivo
evidence. Free Radic Biol Med 66:3–12
Nilsen-Nygaard J, Hattrem MN, Draget KI (2016) Propylene glycol alginate (PGA) gelled foams: a
systematic study of surface activity and gelling properties as a function of degree of esterifica-
tion. Food Hydrocolloids 57:80–91
Noisuwan A, Hemar Y, Wilkinson B, Bronlund JE (2009) Dynamic rheological and microstructural
properties of normal and waxy rice starch gels containing milk protein ingredients. Starch-
Starke 61:214–227
Park JW, Whiteside WS, Cho SY (2008) Mechanical and water vapor barrier properties of extruded
and heat-pressed gelatin films. LWT Food Sci Technol 41(4):692–700. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.lwt.2007.04.015. S0023643807001752
Park SH, Lee CR et al (2020) Implications of agar and agarase in industrial applications of
sustainable marine biomass. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 104:2815–2832
Parker JK, Elmore S, Methven L (2014) Biosensors for food analysis. In: Parker JK, Elmore S,
Methven L (eds) Flavour development, analysis and perception in food and beverages. Elsevier,
pp 213–260
Peira G, Bollani L, Giachino C, Bonadonna A (2018) The management of unsold food in outdoor
market areas: food operators’ behaviour and attitudes. Sustainability 10(4):1180
Rai M, Pandit R, Gaikwad S, Kövics G (2016) Antimicrobial peptides as natural bio-preservative to
enhance the shelf-life of food. J Food Sci Technol 53(9):3381–3394
Rehman A, Tong Q, Jafari SM, Assadpour E, Shehzad Q, Aadil RM, Iqbal MW, Rashed MM,
Mushtaq BS, Ashraf W (2020) Carotenoid-loaded nanocarriers: a comprehensive review. Adv
Colloid Interface Sci 275:102048
Rodriguez-Amaya DB (2015) Food carotenoids: chemistry, biology and technology. John Wiley
& Sons
Rodriguez-Amaya DB (2016) Natural food pigments and colorants. Curr Opin Food Sci 7:20–26
Saha S (2020) To enhance the shelf-life of food. Int j Rec Trends Sci Technol 6(10):103–108
Saha D, Bhattacharya S (2010) Hydrocolloids as thickening and gelling agents in food: a critical
review. J Food Sci Technol 47(6):587–597
Shan B, Cai YZ, Brooks JD, Corke H (2007) Antibacterial properties and major bioactive
components of cinnamon stick (Cinnamomum burmannii): activity against foodborne patho-
genic bacteria. J Agric Food Chem 55(14):5484–5490
Sharma M, Usmani Z, Gupta VK, Bhat R (2021) Valorization of fruits and vegetable wastes and
by-products to produce natural pigments. Crit Rev Biotechnol 41:1–42
Siburian WZ, Rochima E, Andriani Y, Praseptiangga D (2020) Fish gelatin (definition, manufac-
ture, analysis of quality characteristics, and application): a review. Int J Fish Aquat 8(4):90–95.
E-ISSN: 2347-5129 P-ISSN: 2394-0506 (ICV-Poland)
Sigurdson GT, Tang P, Giusti MM (2017) Natural colorants: food colorants from natural sources.
Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 8:261–280
Sinki G, Gordon R (2001) Flavoring agents. Food Sci Technol 13:47–51
Smith RL et al (2005a) GRAS flavoring substances 22. Food Technol 59:24–62

Smith RL, Cohen SM, Doull J, Feron VJ, Goodman JI, Marnett LJ, Portoghese PS, Waddell WJ,
Wagner BM, Hall RL, Higley NA, Lucas-Gavin C, Adams TB (2005b) A procedure for the
safety evaluation of natural flavor complexes used as ingredients in food: essential oils. Food
Chem Toxicol 43(3):345–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2004.11.007. S0278691504003333
Song BJ, Jouni ZE, Ferruzzi MG (2013) Assessment of phytochemical content in human milk
during different stages of lactation. Nutrition 29:195–120
Souza Mesquita LM, Martins M, Pisani LP, Ventura SPM, Rosso VV (2021) Insights on the use of
alternative solvents and technologies to recover bio-based food pigments. Compr Rev Food Sci
Food Saf 20(1):787–818. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12685
Suetsuna K, Ukeda H, Ochi H (2000) Isolation and characterization of free radical scavenging
activities peptides derived from casein. J Nutr Biochem 11:128–131
Tandjawa GA, Garnec CL, Boulenguer P, Gilles M, Langendorff V (2017) Rheological behavior of
starch/carrageenan/milk proteins mixed systems: role of each biopolymer type and chemical
characteristics. Food Hydrocolloids 73:300–312
Teigiserova DA, Hamelin L, Thomsen M (2020) Towards transparent valorization of food surplus,
waste and loss: clarifying definitions, food waste hierarchy, and role in the circular economy. Sci
Total Environ 706:136033
Tumbarski Y, Petkova N, Todorova M, Ivanov I, Deseva I, Mihaylova D, Ibrahim SA (2020)
Effects of pectin-based edible coatings containing a bacteriocin of Bacillus methylotrophicus
BM47 on the quality and storage life of fresh blackberries. Ital J Food Sci 32(2). https://doi.org/
10.14674/IJFS-1663
Unsal YE, Soylak M, Tuzen M (2015) Ultrasound-assisted ionic liquid-based dispersive liquid–
liquid microextraction for preconcentration of patent blue V and its determination in food
samples by UV–visible spectrophotometry. Environ Monit Assess 187(4):1–8
Varela MS, Navarro AS, Yamul DK (2016) Effect of hydrocolloids on the properties of wheat/
potato starch mixtures. Starch-Stärke 68:753–761
Vermeulen A, Nielsen DS, Marving CL, Daelman J (2015) Strategies to increase the stability of
intermediate moisture foods towards Zygosaccharomyces rouxii: the effect of temperature,
ethanol, pH and water activity, with or without the influence of organic acids. Food Microbiol
45:119–125
Vishal A, Aashima S, Kumari R, Vaishali S, Nidhi R, Bhatt AK (2019) In-vitro and in-silico
characterization of xylose reductase from Emericella nidulans. Curr Chem Biol 13:159–170
Wang C, Wu J, Gao X (2015) Basic attributives, functions and characteristics of food additives.
China Food Additiv 10:154–158
Wu L, Zhang Q, Shan L, Chen Z (2013a) Identifying critical factors influencing the use of additives
by food: enterprises in China. Food Control 31:425–432
Wu J, Liu J, Dai Q, Zhang H (2013b) The stabilisation of acidified whole milk drinks by
carboxymethylcellulose. Int Dairy J 28(1):40–42
Xing Y, Xu Q, Li X, Che Z, Yun J (2012) Antifungal activities of clove oil against Rhizopus
nigricans, Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium citrinum in vitro and in wounded fruit test. J Food
Saf 32(1):84–93
Yadav H, Maiti S (2020) Research progress in galactomannan-based nanomaterials: synthesis and
application. Int J Biol Macromol 163:2113–2126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.09.
062. S0141813020344226
Yang Y, Fang Z, Chen X et al (2017) An overview of pickering emulsions: solid particle materials,
classification, morphology, and applications. Front Pharmacol 8:287. https://doi.org/10.3389/
fphar.2017.00287
Zeb A (2020) Concept, mechanism, and applications of phenolic antioxidants in foods. J Food
Biochem 44(9):e13394. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13394
Zhang H, Chen J, Li J, Yan L, Li S, Ye X, Liu D, Ding T, Linhardt RJ, Orfila C et al (2018)
Extraction and characterization of RG-I enriched pectic polysaccharides from mandarin citrus
peel. Food Hydrocolloids 79:579–586
View publication stats

AdditivesinDairy BasedFood

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AdditivesinDairy BasedFood

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AdditivesinDairy BasedFood

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Additives in Dairy-Based Food

Chapter · January 2023

Gaytri Mahajan Manpreet Kaur

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Ashok Kumar Nadda

Harshika Sharma, Gaytri Mahajan, Manpreet Kaur, and Reena Gupta

Keywords Additive · Preservative · Antimicrobial · Antioxidant · Thickener ·

H. Sharma · G. Mahajan · M. Kaur · R. Gupta (*)

8.3 Types of Additives

8.3.1 Natural Additives

of impurities. These compounds are also puriﬁed in order to remove accompanying

8.3.2 Synthetic Additives

8.4 Uses of Additives

8.5 Classiﬁcation of Additives

Crystallization Uses of Flavor

Softening and Nutritional

Fig. 8.1 Uses of additives

8.5.1.1 Characteristics of Food Preservatives

8.5.1.2 Selection of Food Preservatives

Table 8.1 Classiﬁcation of preservatives

8.5.1.3 Antimicrobial Agents

Table 8.2 Various antimicrobial compounds present in food products

light, temperature, moisture, or improper storage conditions, which can be restored

Fig. 8.3 Categories of colorants

Table 8.3 Some common S. no. Natural colorants Color produced

Table 8.4 Categories of caramel

It is a pigment extracted from “the pericarp of the seed of Bixa Orellana.” It is a

8.5.2.4 Annatto Butter Color

An extract of annatto in solution, suspension, or oil is prepared by extracting the

8.5.2.5 Annatto Cheese Color

8.5.2.6 Paprika Oleoresin

It is a water-soluble extract from sweet red pepper. It is orange-red in color.

It is a water-soluble pigment. It contains some components like crocin,

8.5.2.8 Carrot Extracts

Anthocyanin being a dominant pigment in a number of fruits and ﬂowers is

8.5.2.11 Beetroot Red

Riboﬂavin is a bitter in taste, orange-yellow crystalline powder which shows green-

pigments is rapidly expanding, necessitating more sustainable production. Vegetable

8.5.2.13 Synthetic Colorants

8.5.2.14 Preparation of Food Color Solutions

The homogeneous solution can be prepared by dissolving the powder or granules in

Table 8.5 Examples of synthetic colorants

the manufacturer. It is important to select a suitable organic solvent which depends

8.5.2.15 Dairy Products Using Natural Colorants

Dairy-based companies are producing beverages using ﬂavored and anthocyanin-

Table 8.6 Various colorants used in dairy food products

8.5.3.1 Primary and Secondary Antioxidants

8.5.3.2 Natural and Synthetic Antioxidants

8.5.3.3 Antioxidants in Milk

The oxidation of milk is mainly counterbalanced by antioxidants like whey protein,

Table 8.7 Examples of natu- Examples of antioxidants

8.5.3.4 Antioxidants in Processed Cheese

8.5.3.5 Antioxidants in Cream

8.5.3.6 Antioxidants in Yogurt

Table 8.8 Various antioxidants in dairy products

8.5.4 Flavoring Agents

8.5.4.1 Functions of Flavoring Agents