Crimen YJusticia Social

Dee Cook’s new book is important, innovative and
invigorating. Cook makes a powerful case for the

inter-connectedness of penal policy and social policy,
bringing together concepts such as social exclusion,
citizenship and human rights. This book will make it
much more difficult for students, policy-makers and
CRIMINAL AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

criminal justice practitioners to ignore the social
context in which penal policy evolves and is
implemented.
Barbara Hudson, Professor of Law,
University of Central Lancashire
This is an accessible and lively critical account of the

inter-relationship between social and criminal justice
CRIMINAL
in New Labour Britain. It should engage students on a
range of programmes, particularly social policy,
criminology and sociology.
Ruth Lister, Professor of Social Policy,
Loughborough University
A cogent demonstration that criminal justice cannot

be achieved in the absence of social justice. Let’s hope
the carefully reasoned but impassioned arguments
about how to get really tough on the causes of crime
and injustice get the attention they deserve.
AND SOCIAL
JUSTICE
Robert Reiner, Professor of Criminology,
London School of Economics
In Criminal and Social Justice, Dee Cook examines the

relationship between social inequality, crime and
criminalization, both in theory and practice. Current
social, economic, political and cultural considerations
are brought to bear, and contemporary examples are
used throughout to help the student to consider this
relationship.
This fascinating and engaging book will appeal to

students and academics alike, in the field of
Dee Cook
criminology, criminal justice and social policy.
Dee Cook is Director of the Policy Research Institute,

COOK
University of Wolverhampton.
Cover design by Design Deluxe
London • Thousand Oaks • New Delhi

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Criminal and Social Justice

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Criminal and Social Justice
Dee Cook
SAGE Publications
London ● Thousand Oaks ● New Delhi
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© Dee Cook 2006
First published 2006
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For Glyn, with love.

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•• Contents
Acknowledgements viii
Introduction 1
1 Justice as a Two-Way Street 4
2 Constants and Dissonants in the Study of Criminal and Social Justice 33
3 Signs, Posts and the Third Way 61
4 ‘What Works’ and Criminal and Social Justice 94
5 The ‘Upside Down Duck’: Participation and Engagement

for Criminal and Social Justice 120
6 Locating Middle-England: ‘Otherness’ and Criminal and Social Justice 151
7 Reconciling Criminal and Social Justice 171
References 190
Index 204
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•• Acknowledgements
This book has been a very long time coming – three and a half years to be precise.
I am very grateful to Caroline Porter and all at Sage for their patience and their support
throughout this very unhealthy time for me! More than thanks are due to my col-
leagues at the Policy Research Institute at the University of Wolverhampton – Martin
Roche, Paramjit Singh, Angela Morgan, Kully Thandi, Derek Bunce, Chris Lyle and
Christine Vallely who have all stepped in for me whenever needed, and have always
been responsive to my need for help, advice, a coffee, a chat and a laugh. (Particular
thanks to Martin for his support and good humour throughout, and to Pram, Kully
and Ian for helping me edit and prepare the manuscript.) Mentions and thanks too
for: Marigold, Jane, Sam, Amanda and Mandy for being such good friends to me; to
Adrian Sinfield for his advice and inspiration; and to two wonderful GPs – Peter
Coventry and Chris Brown – and to the late Osman Shouli who all helped me to
mend. Thanks to my son Haydn and daughter-in-law Katrina for giving me a beauti-
ful granddaughter, Harriet, who has brought so much joy and laughter into my life.
Most of all, I want to acknowledge the constant love, care and support of my partner
(not a good enough word for him), Glyn, who has seen me through the bad times –
and now for the good…
Dee Cook
July 2005
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•• Introduction
Justice is a concept which many of us take for granted: its meaning and its existence
are assumed to be the foundation of the ‘British way of life’ and integral to the soci-
ety in which we live. Justice is often assumed to be that which is automatically pro-
duced through the workings of the police, courts, judiciary and related criminal
justice agencies. When prefixed with the word ‘social’, justice takes on different mean-
ings, conveying ideas about citizenship, public services and social equality. Criminal
justice and social justice may therefore seem, at first, to occupy different spheres of
policy and social relations. In the past this separation applied to study, research and
policy in these areas, but the last decade has witnessed significant changes (described
in Chapters 3–4). At the same time, the central argument of this book is that criminal
and social justice are not (and never have been) in separate spheres, but they are insep-
arable – you cannot really talk about one without the other.
To take criminal justice first: the concept is rooted in the exercise of (legitimate)
power in particular contexts – spatial, cultural, historical, political, economic and
social – and this includes societies that are stratified along lines of class, income and
wealth, status, gender, religion, ‘race’ and ethnicity, and so on. Criminal justice is
therefore not a free-floating or abstract concept that is devoid of social context and
so, inevitably, this raises the question How do we ensure criminal justice in a society
which is basically unjust? Many critics argue this is a question we continue to face in
contemporary Britain.
Turning the question the other way around, we could ask How can we work towards
social justice in a society in which criminal justice and equal treatment before the law cannot
be guaranteed? Whichever way around we pose this question, it is fundamentally about
asking How do we start to reconcile criminal and social justice? This book attempts to
explore this question, and to offer some positive ways forward.
One key concern of this book is therefore to illustrate the ways in which criminal
justice and social justice are interconnected and interdependent concepts, in theory
and in the day-to-day realities of our lives. The focus of the analysis throughout will
be Britain, although there are two riders here: firstly, as the legal systems of Scotland
and of England and Wales differ in key respects, I will at times refer to them sepa-
rately. Secondly, although European and North American politics and research will
be drawn upon here (as will historical themes), the primary scope of this book is
• • • Criminal and Social Justice • • •
Any book with such a broad title as Criminal and Social Justice is bound to disappoint
and to be seen by some as ‘thin’ or inadequate in its analyses. This may well be the case,
as a high degree of selection is inevitable in the choice of key issues raised, literature
surveyed, questions posed and in the comprehensiveness of policy proposals put for-
ward. In all of these respects – mea culpa. In addition, this book is somewhat of a hybrid:
it seeks to cover some important theoretical ground for readers who are new to the
fields of criminal justice, or social justice, or indeed both. At the same time, it attempts
to critically engage with some of the key contemporary issues in both spheres and so
must be, in this sense, selective. It draws on published research and ‘grey’ literature in
both fields, in addition to new or unpublished research conducted by the Policy
Research Institute at the University of Wolverhampton. In this way the book is three
things: partly text book; partly a critical review of policy and practice in criminal and
social justice; and partly a discussion of original empirical research.
The book is structured as follows: the first chapter attempts to examine and unpack
the different (and competing) understandings of the concepts of criminal and social
justice. This chapter then goes on to gather a range of research evidence in order to
assess the current state of justice – criminal and social – in contemporary Britain. The
second chapter reflects back on the historical themes that underpin this state of
affairs and that run through representations of criminal and social justice issues. It
will analyse those elements which are constant over time (and place) in these dis-
courses, and also the dissonants – the ‘new’ issues, representations and themes – that
have emerged as the twentieth century drew to a close. The chapter will then apply
these themes – old and new – to a case study of criminal and social justice: the differ-
ential treatment of tax and welfare benefit fraud.
The next two chapters (Chapters 3 and 4) address issues of theory, research and
policy more explicitly. The third chapter (while drawing on the constants and disso-
nants that emerged from Chapter 2), brings us into the twenty-first century. It aims
to equip readers with the ‘signs and posts’ they may need to navigate their way
through, and beyond, the criminal justice and social policy space, which is the ‘Third
Way’. This will include discussion of issues including globalisation, postmodernism,
the vexed issue of trust, social capital and ‘criminalising the social’. Chapter 4 takes
forward the issues of policy-making and implementation in the criminal and social
justice fields by addressing the issues of evidence-based policy (EBP) and the ‘what
works’ paradigm. Having promised to ‘back anyone’ who could deliver ‘what works’,
the New Labour government’s efforts in this direction, since it took office in 1997,
are critically assessed. The uses, misuses and implications of this paradigm – for policy,
for research and for governance – are also highlighted.
Chapters 5 and 6 critically examine the delivery and the outcomes of criminal jus-
tice and social policies, to date, under New Labour governments. Chapter 5 takes the
analogy of an upside down duck to visually indicate the panic and flailing at local
levels which the plethora of national policy initiatives (and their requirements for
consultation) have given rise to. The chapter examines community participation and
engagement for criminal and social justice and, in particular, looks at consultation
(in theory, and in practice on the ground) and at the diverse impacts of policies
•2•
• • • Introduction • • •
geared to reducing crime through social inclusion. Chapter 6 examines the ways in
which social justice and criminal justice issues are allegedly perceived by the ‘middle
Englanders’ identified by pollsters and politicians. It focuses on the construction of
mythological ‘Others’ who are cast outwith the bonds of social inclusion, and against
which middle Englanders may unite (and vote!). In so doing, this analysis uses the
three themes of area, asylum and anti-social behaviour.
Finally, Chapter 7 attempts to bring together the themes that have emerged from
the preceding chapters and examines and critiques the ways in which, over the past
eight years, policy initiatives within and across the two spheres of criminal and social
justice have often led to contradictory and mutually defeating outcomes. The chapter
starts with a personal reflection on the May 2005 general election and also sketches
out the implications of the terrorists attacks in London in July 2005 for progressive
criminal justice and welfare futures. Finally, the book ends with the identification
of ten ‘good-enough’ (Williams, 2000) principles which could usefully inform ways
forward to reconciling criminal and social justice.
•3•
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•one • Justice as a
Two-Way Street
Introduction
At its most symbolic level justice is portrayed, in a classical sculptured form, as a

woman holding the scales of justice in one hand and the sword of truth in the other.
She is often blindfolded to signify the impartiality of justice, which is ‘balanced’ and
equally applied to all, irrespective of place, gender, sexual preference, age, (dis)ability,
ethnicity, ‘race’, religious belief, wealth or status. But this abstraction becomes
problematic when it is applied in the ‘real world’ of twenty-first century Britain.1 This
chapter will raise questions about the diverse experiences of criminal justice for a range
of groups – the advantaged and the disadvantaged; the successful and the vulnerable;
old and young; men and women; and white people and those from minority ethnic
groups. In so doing it will also question to what extent struggles for criminal justice
collide with manifestations of social inequality which characterise the wider society
within which the law is (re)produced and operates. The chapter will start by examining
competing understandings of the concepts of social and criminal justice: although
both terms are laden with ‘common-sense’ meanings, they present challenges when
they are unpackaged and subject to deeper scrutiny. Secondly, this chapter will go on
to analyse evidence on the state of justice – criminal and social – in contemporary
Britain. Finally, it will begin to explore the complex linkages between these two
concepts, to pave the way for later chapters which explore ways in which criminal and
social justice may be more effectively reconciled – in theory and in practice.
1. Justice, Citizens and the Two-Way Street
According to the North American writer Jeffrey Reiman (1990), criminal and social
justice are inseparable and, in a just society, should be part of the same ‘two-way
1
‘Britain’ will be used in this volume, except where the differing legal systems of Scotland and
of England and Wales are being discussed.
• • • Justice as a Two-Way Street • • •
street’ along which citizens navigate their way, attending to the rules of the highway,
which everyone is obliged to follow. However, in his book, aptly titled The Rich Get
Richer and the Poor Get Prison, Reiman argues that while justice should be a two-way
street, criminal justice effectively only goes ‘one way’:
Individuals owe obligations to their fellow citizens because fellow citizens owe
obligations to them. Criminal justice focuses on the first but looks away from
the second. (1990:124)
Criminal justice, he argues, focuses upon the obligations that the state owes to us
rather than the obligations that we owe to others. In this way, the social contract,
which we enter into with the state and with our fellow citizens, is not one that strikes
an equal balance between criminal and social justice – they are not part of the same
two-way street. In order to flesh out this proposition and to better understand the
relationship between criminal and social justice, we first need to explore the roots of
this contract. This entails examining what is meant by citizenship – the rights it
confers and the obligations with which it is endowed.
The seminal academic work in the field is that of T.H. Marshall (1950) who, writing
in the late 1940s, identified three essential elements of citizenship: the civil, the political
and the social. The first is associated with the rule of law and includes freedom of speech
and the right to ‘justice’. The second concerns the ability to participate in politics,
whether by voting or standing for office. The third – social citizenship – includes:
… the whole range from the right to a modicum of economic welfare and
security to the right to share in the full social heritage and to live the life of a
civilised being according to the standards prevailing in the society. (1981:10)
Here citizenship is a relative concept as it uses the ‘standards prevailing in… society’
as benchmarks for fully social citizenship: this remains a problem to assess in
practice. Also problematic are some of the ‘clashes’ that occur between the rights and
autonomy of the individual on the one hand, and the duties of citizenship on the
other. Dwyer (2004) suggests that the components of Marshall’s theory that refer to
‘duty’ are less developed than those concerned with ‘rights’. And so, for example, the
duties to obey the law and pay taxes may seem straightforward yet they can pose
dilemmas – as we will see in Chapter 2, the dividing line between illegal tax evasion
and (legal) avoidance is a fine one, and may be crossed by seemingly the most
‘responsible’ of citizens.
Marshall’s theory has many critics, some of whom doubt that social rights can be
seen as ‘rights’ at all, as they are far from universally experienced or accessed:
Barbalet (1988) sees them as, at best, ‘conditional opportunities’, which depend on
professional and bureaucratic structures and, crucially, are underpinned by politics
and the constraints of fiscal policy (Dwyer, 2004:43). As we will see in Chapter 3, the
politics of New Labour and the Third Way challenges the concept of a welfare state
predicated on universal rights of citizenship, instead stressing the primacy of
opportunity (in work and education) in the context of a ‘social investment state’
•5•
(Giddens, 1998). Leaving these challenges aside for the moment, the framework
provided by Marshall offers a useful starting point for a discussion of what might
constitute full citizenship, offering an insight into the links between citizenship and
social exclusion, and between criminal and social justice.
Figure 1.1 summarises the key elements of citizenship as identified by Marshall, to
which the dimensions of environmental and human rights have also been added. In
relation to the former, it is not surprising that the late twentieth and early twenty-first
century have been characterised by increased concerns over the environmental risks of
late modernity – global warming, pollution, genetic modification – and the threats
they pose for biodiversity, the physical environment and both human and animal
health (Beck, 1992; Giddens, 2000). While many of these risks apply to rich and poor
alike, others disproportionately affect those poorer individuals and groups who are
likely to have fewer life choices and to live in the most blighted environments – locally,
nationally and globally (Foley, 2004; Lister, 2004). Ways of forging synergies between
environmental sustainability and social justice at the level of policy are at a relatively
early stage of discussion and development (see Julie Foley’s 2004 edition for a fuller
discussion of issues around sustainability and social justice).
The concept of human rights emerged from the Holocaust of the Second World
War. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was signed in 1948 by members of
what was later to become the United Nations, although no nation came to the table
to sign it ‘with clean hands’ in the aftermath of war (Kennedy, 2004:309). It
attempted to lay the foundations for rules that were universal, binding and would
ensure the humanity and dignity of all. Subsequently, in 1950, members of the
Council of Europe signed the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), to be
safeguarded by the European Commission of Human Rights (1954) and the Court of
Human Rights in Strasbourg (1959) to which any individual could take a grievance
or ‘petition’ as a victim of an alleged breach of the convention. In this way the ECHR
goes beyond boundaries of nation states and their legal jurisdictions.
More broadly, the very language of human rights offers a way of discussing relations
with one another, and with the wider world: it transcends national boundaries and
engages with the personal, community, national and global dimensions of human
existence. In this sense there is no issue of conditionality – human rights are universal
and indivisible. One of the core elements of the United Nations system for the
protection of human rights is the International Covenant on Economic Social and
Cultural Rights (ICESCR): the Covenant gives legal force to the civil and political rights
enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, namely:
• Equality between men and women

• The right to work
• The right to fair conditions of employment
• The right to join and form trade unions
• The right to social security
• The right to protection of the family
•6•
Elements of Citizenship Undermining Citizenship
Civil and Political Rights

Freedom of speech and Limitations/conflicts over public order, political protest and
association. civil liberties.
Freedom from discrimination. Harassment and discrimination: along lines of ‘race’, gender,
Protection from the law sexual preference, age, religion and (dis)ability.
(for self and property). Institutional racism.
Political participation. Differential patterns of criminal (and repeated) victimisation.
Erosion of legal rights (to legal advice, the right to silence,
the right to jury trial).
Increasingly limited political participation.
Lack of trust.
Disempowerment and disengagement.
Social and Economic Rights

Education. Inequalities in the provision and quality of: education, health
Housing. and social care, housing, transport and social amenities.
Health care. Inequalities in health (mental and physical), unemployment,
To own (property). under-employment and low pay.
To consume (goods and Erosion of levels of welfare benefits.
services). Asset and pension inequalities.
Work and participation in Benefit sanctions and restrictions.
economic life. Welfare policing of, and for, ‘the family’.
To an income (welfare rights).
Environmental Rights
To the benefits, in amenity Lack of basic amenities – water, housing/shelter.
and health, of a safe and Air, water and soil pollution: urban, rural and global.
clean environment. Poverty, sickness, mortality and disease.
Genetically modified crops and food.
Threats to biodiversity.
Human Rightsa
Respect for the dignity of all Poverty.
members of the human family.b Lack of voice/powerlessness.
Economic, social, cultural Political repression.
rights which ensure Denial of a ‘fair trial’.
that dignity. Conditionality of citizenship rights, e.g.:
Freedom from fear and from • Social security withdrawal and sanctions for those who
want. will not work/train/comply
Interdependence (and • Anti-social behaviour legislation for those whose
indivisibility) of all these behaviour is deemed ‘unacceptable’
aspects of human rights. • Criminal justice conditional upon admission of guilt.
a
See Faulkner (2001:143–4) and Lister (2004:158–65).
b
OHCHR (2002:42).
Figure 1.1 Undermining Citizenship

(Source: adapted from Cook, 1997b:30).
•7•
• The right to an adequate standard of living (including the right to food, clothing and
housing)
• The right to health
• The right to education
• The right to culture.
(Source: House of Lords Paper HL183, 2004:7)
Although compliance with the Covenant forms part of the UK’s international human
rights obligations, the UK has been slow to pick up the challenge of incorporating
human rights into domestic law: it was not until 1998 that the law enshrined the
principles of the ECHR in the Human Rights Act (HRA) 1988. Critics argue that
the Blair government’s approach to human rights is deeply problematic for several
reasons, most of which centre on the issue of ‘universal rights’. The rights which are
endowed to the UK citizen are still regarded as, in many ways, ‘conditional’ on the
citizen’s responsibilities: if citizens are seen to fail in discharging their responsibilities
to the state, or to behave in ways which are inappropriate, then such rights are not
ensured (Faulkner, 2001:143). To expand on this point further, David Faulkner
persuasively argues that key government policy themes (most notably evident in the
Crime and Disorder Act, passed in 1988, the same year as the HRA) display a clear
tension between the concept of rights and the notion of responsibilities – as in many
policy areas only the latter can guarantee the former. This clearly runs counter to the
universality and indivisibility of the concept of human rights itself. Consequently,
he and others identify a ‘retreat from human rights’ and a profound gap between
the promise of human rights and the lived reality within which legal and social-
economic rights are effectively denied (Faulkner, 2001; Kennedy, 2004). These
contradictions run through a range of criminal justice and social policy areas.
Examples cited by Faulkner include: the imposition of anti-social behaviour orders
(ASBOs, to be discussed more fully in Chapter 6) and criminal penalties for their
breach, where the behaviour for which the order may have been imposed was not in
itself criminal; benefit sanctions for offenders who breach community sentences
(thereby making the payment of welfare benefits conditional on ‘responsible’
behaviour and not on individual rights and entitlement); and the benefits which the
criminal justice system offers those who admit their guilt (and in so doing speed up
the wheels of the criminal justice system): the possibility of getting a ‘discounted’
sentence for pleading guilty effectively means that denial of guilt becomes an
‘aggravating factor’ in sentencing, rather than a way of asserting the right of any
suspect to challenge the prosecution. This serves to penalise those who insist they are
innocent and so runs counter to the spirit of human rights (Faulkner, 2001:143–4).
Lister (2004) traces the relations between human rights and poverty, arguing that
being poor by definition involves a lack of power, voice and citizenship which denies
human rights (issues of ‘voice’ and empowerment will be discussed further in
Chapter 5). The Vienna Declaration on Human Rights (1993) was important in
formally affirming ‘the equation of extreme poverty with denial of human rights’.
(Lister, 2004:159). Nevertheless, more than a decade on, there remains a gap between
•8•
the global/universal promise of human rights and the local/domestic reality of

poverty. In this sense, poverty (in the UK as elsewhere), powerlessness, lack of voice
and the conditionality of many rights of citizenship all serve to subvert the full
realisation of human rights.
2. Unequal Citizens
The framework in Figure 1.1 (see page 7) begins to illustrate some of the ways in
which fully social citizenship may be undermined and denied through a multiplicity
of inequalities, which can be legal, civil, political, social, economic and environmental
in character. Poverty denies human rights and ‘corrodes citizenship’ (Lister, 1990)
because the poor are more likely to suffer from criminal victimisation, illness (mental
and physical), unemployment and low pay, and live in the midst of ‘geographies
of despair’. If we initially select health and housing as examples of how this corrosion
is manifested, the extent and multiplicity of inequities becomes apparent (see the
selected data presented in Figure 1.2). The indicators brought together here
demonstrate the multiple nature of disadvantages suffered by those poorer groups
who inhabit the most deprived areas of the UK. These include: poor quality
accommodation; rent arrears; enhanced risks of disability and serious illness
(including stroke, heart disease and cancer); reduced life expectancy; and mental
health problems.
Poverty is not the only condition or social relation which may lead to exclusion
from the rights and benefits of citizenship. For instance, many British citizens are
excluded from full civil, political and social participation because of their religion,
culture, ‘race’ or ethnicity (Cook, 1993; Collins, 2002; Lea, 2003). The increasing
incidence of racial harassment and attacks – particularly in the wake of the events of
11 September 20013 in the United States – shows that, for many black and Asian
subjects in particular, even the basic right to walk the streets in Britain freely, without
fear or harassment, is illusory. Between 2002/3 and 2003/4 racist incidents4 officially
recorded by the police rose by 7% from 49,078 to 54,694. But this was clearly ‘the tip
3
On the morning of 11 September 2001, terrorist attacks were mounted on the United States
by hi-jackers from the militant Islamic group, Al Q’aeda. Two planes ploughed into the World
Trade Centre’s Twin Towers, another into the Pentagon and a fourth (aimed at a Washington
target) was forced down by passengers. A total of almost 3000 people died (9/11 Commission,
2004).
4
The most often used definition of racial incident is that used by the Metropolitan Police and
accepted by the Association of Chief Police Officers. It is: ‘Any incident in which it appears
to the reporting or investigating officer that the complaint involves an element of racial
motivation; OR any incident which includes an allegation of racial motivation made by any
person.’ Most racist incidents involve damage to property or verbal harassment. Racially or
religiously aggravated offences most often involve harassment (59%), criminal damage (14%),
‘other’ wounding (14%) and common assault (11%). ‘Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice
System 2004’. (Home Office, 2005a:8–11). See also http://www.racialharrassment.org/about.htm
•9•
One third of all dwellings in England in 2001 were ‘non-decent’ (in terms of good repair,
heating etc.) and over 4% were ‘unfit’
Lone parents and people from minority ethnic communities are more likely to live in poor
quality, non-decent accommodation
33% of tenants of social housing/housing associations were in rent arrears in 2001
compared with 8% of homeowners in mortgage arrears
Experience of multiple housing deprivations increases the risk of severe ill-health or
disability across the life course by an average of 25%
Life expectancy differences between social classes one and five are 7 years in men and
5.5 years in women
People on lower incomes are significantly more at risk from diet-related diseases such as
heart attacks, cancers and strokes
The death rate from coronary heart disease is three times higher in unskilled manual
workers than among professional men
35% of lone parents on income support (principally women) suffer from a longstanding
illness
Fewer GPs are working in deprived areas
A survey conducted in 2003 found that one-third of people on low incomes reported
suffering from stress, isolation and loneliness. 36% were ‘anxious or depressed’
Suicide rates among young men in Manchester (with 27 of its 33 wards among the 10%
most deprived in England) are twice the national average
Between 36,000 and 52,000 young people aged 15–24 were ‘found homeless’ by local
authorities in England in 2003 (this estimate does not include the ‘hidden homeless’).
Of these, an estimated 13% may have had recent experience of rough sleeping
Figure 1.2 Poverty, Housing and Health

(Sources: Flaherty et al., 2004:119–27; Pleace and Fitzpatrick, 2004:4)
of the iceberg’ as racial incidents are grossly under-reported to the police: estimates
derived from the British Crime Survey suggest that around 204,000 such incidents
may have taken place (Home Office, 2005a:8). At the same time, racially aggravated
offences recorded by the police in 2003–4 (35,022) showed a 13% increase on the
previous year.
Citizenship is also undermined by the experience, and the effects, of institutional
racism. The McPherson Report (1999) into the death of the black teenager Stephen
Lawrence stated that ‘institutional racism… exists both in the Metropolitan Police
Service and in other Police Services and other institutions countrywide’ (McPherson,
1999:6.39). The recommendations of McPherson and the subsequent passing of the
Race Relations (Amendment) Act (2000) were both watersheds which opened up the
possibilities for positive challenges and for change. The Act placed a ‘general duty’
on all public authorities to ‘eliminate unlawful discrimination’ and ‘to promote
equality of opportunity and good relations between persons of different racial
groups’. But disappointingly, so far, there is little evidence of the ‘culture change’
necessary to make these duties real in enhancing the experiences of minority ethnic
communities in Britain (Collins, 2002). In an interview marking the fifth anniversary
of the McPherson enquiry, the Head of the Metropolitan police’s Black Police
Association (Chief Inspector Leroy Logan) acknowledged that:
• 10 •
the well meaning soundbites from the senior management do not get rolled out
at a lower level… The force has failed to change the structures that underpin the
culture of institutional racism. (Quoted in the Guardian, 24 February 2004)
Further, he argued that the force was failing to address racism within its own ranks
and, consequently, ‘If you cannot treat a diverse workforce right, you can’t treat a
diverse public right’. Clearly both claims exemplify the gap between the promise and
the reality of citizenship for minority ethnic communities in contemporary Britain.
The lived experience of social citizenship – civil, political, economic and social – is
also a gendered experience. In terms of civil and political rights, although women
constituted just over half of the UK population in the 2001 Census, they comprised
only 18% of Members of Parliament (compared with, for instance, 45% in Sweden)
and 24% of Members of the European Parliament (compared with an EU average of
30% and 58% in Sweden) (ONS, 2002; EOC, 2005). In 2002/3 women constituted
around 45% of the British labour force, yet women working full-time earned only
81 pence an hour for each £1 earned by their male counterparts. Moreover, data for
2004 indicates the ‘gender gap’ between the pay of women working part-time and
men working full-time was wider still at 40% (ONS, 2004). Women from minority
ethnic groups suffer a double disadvantage: Pakistani and Bangladeshi women earn
on average 84% of the hourly rate of white women (Fawcett Society Briefing, 2004).
If, to experience poverty is to experience a denial of fully social citizenship, then women
(particularly minority ethnic women and lone mothers) suffer disproportionately.
Around 90% of the 1.5 million lone-parent households in the UK are headed by
women, who have the highest risk of income poverty of any social group (at 53%),
which far exceeds the risk of pensioner poverty (at 22%) (Flaherty et al., 2004; Lister,
2004). Where citizenship is seen in terms of civic rights and criminal justice, gender
also plays a significant part. For example, where gendered experiences of criminal
victimisation are concerned, it is significant that the British Crime Survey estimated
that there were 635,000 incidents of domestic violence in England and Wales in
2001/2 (with 81% of the victims being women), although less than 35% of such
incidents were reported to the police (Mghill and Allen, 2002). Rates of repeat
victimisation are higher for domestic violence than for any other crime at an
estimated 57%. Taken together, all the data above serve to indicate that political,
economic rights and civil rights (in terms of safety and protection under the law) are
differentially experienced by men and women in contemporary Britain.
In general terms, citizenship is often regarded as a matter of ‘give and take’: if
individuals wish to take advantage of the rights and benefits citizenship offers, they
must give, by exercising the duties and responsibilities that accompany it. The
responsibilities include working, saving, paying taxes and being a dutiful and active
citizen. Do these same rules apply equally to the poor and to the relatively rich?
Giddens thinks not, suggesting that:
The civic concerns of elites are plainly not separate from questions of taxation;
avoiding taxes, or pulling out all the stops to pay as little tax as possible, are at
• 11 •
the same time evasions of civic duty. However, obligations and commitments
go well beyond fiscal responsibilities. Those moralists who make extensive civic
demands of welfare recipients would do well to make them also of business
leaders and other elite groups. A social contract of mutual obligations… must
stretch from bottom to top. (2000:119)
The rich therefore benefit in three ways: they often pay less than they ought to into the
citizenship deal; less is demanded of them than is demanded of poorer groups (who are
perceived as ‘takers’); and they do not attract the moral censure that is reserved for the
poor when they fail to meet their citizenship obligations. In terms of fiscal and welfare
policy (as we will see in Chapters 2 and 3), I will argue that public and political attention
focuses disproportionately on the duties and responsibilities at the ‘bottom end’ of
society while neglecting those at the ‘top end’ who fail to meet their obligations.
The ‘rights’, which are so valorised in criminal justice discourses, are therefore not
the universal rights of full social citizenship, but the rights of active and law-abiding
(and usually older) citizens, as Hudson notes:
When asked about the rights of people not to be filmed by CCTV cameras; the
rights of young people not to be excluded from certain public spaces and leisure
venues; the rights of young people not to be subject to curfews and similar
restrictions in the absence of criminal conviction, the response has been that it is
the rights of ‘law abiding’ and ‘fearful’ citizens that are important. This zero-sum
approach to rights is the antithesis of the positive rights agenda. (2001:110)
Where young people are concerned, rights to counsel – including those under
human rights legislation – may not be acknowledged or implemented (Brookman
and Pierpoint, 2003). The gap between policy and practice in this respect means that
‘a right is an empty right unless people are provided with the means to claim it’
(ibid.:466). And so, regardless of formal, universal rights, the fearful citizen and the
discourse of risk (risky places and risky people) dominates and comes to serve as a
mechanism of exclusion. This is antithetical to the concepts of citizenship and justice
which centre on the discourse of rights and are inclusive in character, as ‘no-one is
outside the constituency of justice’ (Hudson, 2001:112).
3. Justice and the Law
In order to more fully understand the current gap between the promise and the
reality of civil and political citizenship, we can usefully examine the historical and
legal origins of both our rights and our obligations to others in society. While these
are often couched in terms of a ‘social contract’, ultimately both our ‘rights’ and our
obligations arise from what historian E.P. Thompson termed the ‘rule of law’. In
essence, the law should guarantee and protect our personal rights and freedoms,
while enshrining our obligations to obey the law and not to impinge on the rights
and freedoms of others. Thompson considered that:
• 12 •
… the rule of law itself, the imposing of effective inhibitions upon power and
the defence of the citizen from power’s all-intrusive claims, seems to me to be
an unqualified human good. (1975:266)
But while the law was seen to protect citizens from the worst excesses of state
power, it was nonetheless shaped by the emerging logic of capitalism. Consequently,
much of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century English law was effectively law designed
to protect private property and to enable profitable trade and commerce to flourish.
For example, in relation to agriculture, the Enclosure Acts extinguished many former
agrarian and collective ‘rights’ to land which were:
simply converted into crimes, some of which were punishable by death. When
they protested against these usurpations, the dispossessed were not viewed as
rights-holders defending their property but were branded as criminals
interfering with the property rights of others. (Cole, 2001:180)
Although the law can be seen as an instrument and a product of elite or class power,
it was and is not merely this: the law can and does open up the space for struggle and
change, as laws perceived to be ‘unjust’ may – in theory at least – be challenged. The
difficulty remains that the law may be both written and used instrumentally to serve
certain established, powerful interests over the interests of citizens. Moreover (as
subsequent chapters will discuss), there are significant inequities in access to the law,
which favour the powerful and, at the same time, prevent the powerless from using
it as an effective means of challenge and redress.
The growth of the nation state in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries concentrated
powers of policing and punishment in the new institutions of criminal justice. The
policing, prosecution and punishment of offenders was now administered by
increasingly specialised authorities in the name of ‘the public’ not of the individual. This
‘modernisation’ of crime control and justice was characterised by ‘statization,
bureaucratisation and professionalization’ (Garland, 2001). Consequently, Garland
argues, ‘“law and order” came to be viewed not as a hostile and threatening power, but
as a contractual obligation owed by a democratic government to its law-abiding citizens’
(ibid:30).
But, once again, this contract was one that was not equally entered into nor
equally honoured. For example, there are important critiques which relate to gender
inequalities and the law: it is argued that the law focuses predominantly on what is
termed the public sphere, which is constituted differently from the private sphere.
Women are less likely to be represented than men in the former (which includes the
spheres of politics, work and public places) and do not inhabit the latter (the home)
on an equal basis to men: in terms of financial and physical power, men dominate
the private sphere, which laws designed predominantly for the regulation of the
public sphere have failed to effectively penetrate (Hudson, B., 2003). As noted already,
the scale of domestic violence in England and Wales in 2001/2 and increasing
incidences of child abuse, are testimony to the extent of violent crime that takes
• 13 •
place within the private sphere and which the law has, historically, been very slow to
address. The notion of the rule of law centres on preventing the unjust exercise of
power and restricting the powers of the state and the liberty of citizens only in order to
prevent harm to others. However, it implicitly assumes that such harms are done ‘in
public’ and not by partners, intimates or family members within the private sphere.
Nonetheless, the notion of the ‘rule of law’ remains both powerful and symbolic:
it is largely seen as a necessary (though not a sufficient) condition for a ‘just society’.
The law alone is insufficient because while its processes and structures may well
impose certain constraints on the exercise of arbitrary power, few (or no) constraints
are placed upon the content of laws themselves. As Chapters 2 and 6 will go on to
discuss more fully, the content and the application of new legislation regulating
a range of individuals and behaviours deemed ‘problems’ – such as welfare
dependency, asylum seeking and ‘anti-social behaviour’ – reflect very specific notions
of how idleness, threat and deviance are constituted: as such they are all historically
and politically (re)produced. Finally, above and beyond debates around the content
of laws, there remains the problem that laws themselves are selectively and
differentially applied, with worrying consequences for criminal justice.
4. What Is Criminal Justice?
At a very simplistic level, criminal justice can be said to be produced by the political,
social, organisational and judicial processes through which the criminal law is
applied in (post)modern societies. As we have seen, the law itself is not a neutral
construct: it is produced within particular historical, political, economic, social and
material conditions, all of which are themselves shaped by relations of power. But
beyond the letter of the law itself (the law ‘in books’ ), there are additional layers of
disparity which are then produced by the ways in which the law is applied (the law
‘in action’) by the differing agencies which constitute ‘the criminal justice system’.
Criminal justice is about more than the law and its implementation, at a more
sociological level, has been described by Sanders and Young as:
[a] complex social institution which regulates potential, alleged and actual
criminal activity within procedural limits supposed to protect citizens from
wrongful treatment and wrongful conviction. (Quoted in Rutherford, 2001:7)
This definition is more useful as it begins to unpack some of the issues and problems
that surround the way that the agencies of the criminal justice system operate, in
practice, to perform their key functions, here seen in terms of:
• Regulating criminal, and potentially criminal, behaviour

• Applying procedural rules to protect citizens who come into contact with criminal
justice agencies
• Ensuring that these rules and safeguards prevent wrongful treatment and wrongful
convictions (miscarriages of justice).
• 14 •
What precisely do we mean by ‘the criminal justice system’? In the context of

England and Wales5, the criminal justice system (CJS) formally consists of:
• The Police Service: comprising 43 police forces

• The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)
• The Courts Service: Magistrates’ Courts, Crown Courts and Appeal Courts
• The Prison Service and National Probation Service which, from June 2004, comprised
the new National Offender Management Service
• The Serious Fraud Office
• The Criminal Defence Service
• The Criminal Injuries Compensation Authority
• Victim and witness care services.
A further important question to raise is, of course, What is the criminal justice system
for? This question is complex as its answer is shaped by our choices, values and
politics – the role of criminal justice (like the law) can be seen as essentially
ideological. One answer has been offered by Sanders and Young (see above) but the
official purpose, as stated by the government in its Strategic Plan for Criminal Justice
is as follows:
The purpose of the Criminal Justice System (CJS) is to deliver justice for all, by
convicting and punishing the guilty and helping them to stop offending, while
protecting the innocent. (Cm. 6288, 2004:12)
The extent to which the CJS is able to deliver ‘justice for all’ is, however, limited by the
broader structural and social inequalities of the society in which the system operates.
These inequalities include poverty, poor housing and education, ill-health,
unemployment and environmental decay, all of which are associated with the effective
denial of fully social citizenship. But, at the same time, it is important to recognise that
such inequalities have also been associated with high crime rates and the likelihood of
being a victim of crime. This has resulted in crime being seen as both an indicator and
a cause of many of these negative social features: in this way crimes such as burglary,
thefts, criminal damage and drug abuse are seen to indicate poverty, social exclusion
and a limited ‘quality of life’ in many poorer neighbourhoods while, at the same time,
they are also seen as part of the cause of those neighbourhoods’ decline. Such areas thus
become a key target for the interventions of both criminal justice and social policies (as
we will see in Chapters 2 and 6).
In such social and spatial contexts, the aim of the CJS in dispensing justice fairly
for all is also problematic because of the ways in which a range of decisions are taken
about who, and where, is policed and the consequences this has in terms of
5
The Scottish CJS differs fundamentally from that of England and Wales, reflecting historical
and legal differences, and so what follows will relate to the CJS in England and Wales only.
• 15 •
differential patterns of criminalisation6. These patterns are to some extent attributed

to the working practices of CJS agencies themselves who, both directly and indirectly,
tend to employ stereotypes of crime-prone individuals, families, localities and ethnic
groups which may lead to their adopting patterns of policing and punishment that
are perceived as ‘unjust’ by local communities. For example, the proportion of black
people who felt that the CJS was effective in bringing people to justice fell from 54%
in 2001/2 to 46% in 2002/3, and the proportion feeling that the CJS met the needs
of victims fell from 45% to just 39% over the same period (Home Office, 2004a:3).
When policing resources are targeted on individuals, groups and localities that are
defined by the police as ‘a problem’, it is not surprising that arrests result, leading to
a self-fulfilling prophecy which drives future targeting. But arrests may also have
resulted from targeting resources on other less likely suspects within alternative
groups, organisations or localities, as we will explore further in discussing the treat-
ment of some of the crimes of the relatively rich in Chapter 2. Those individuals and
communities who are targeted may feel alienated and tend to lack confidence in the
CJS as a consequence: thus the aim of ‘dispensing justice fairly, thereby enhancing
confidence in the rule of law’ may be subverted by the routine working assumptions
of CJS agencies about who and where is crime-prone, and where the deployment of
their resources can yield what are seen to be the best ‘results’. If we envisage the CJS
as a system of filters located at various stages of the process (from decisions to police,
arrest, prosecute, sentencing choice and ultimately to the ‘hard end’ of
imprisonment), then the ways in which it operates can be seen to filter in certain
individuals and groups, while it filters out others.
5. Equal Before the Law?
Leonard Woodley, the first black Queens Counsel, was sitting as a judge at Wood
Green Crown Court when he slid out at lunchtime to go to the bank. He wrapped
a scarf around the neck of his overcoat to cover his judicial collar and white bands.
When he presented his plastic bank card and chequebook at the bank counter,
the teller was immediately suspicious, signalled to some male colleagues and he
was detained. The court sitting had to wait because the bank could not believe
that a black man bore the initials QC after his name. (Kennedy, 2004:186–7)
This is not an isolated example of insidious racial stereotyping: Kennedy goes on to

describe the case of a Birmingham caterer who was stopped by the police 34 times
in two years despite having a clean driving licence and no criminal record. Such
examples illustrate the ways in which racial discrimination, racial harassment and
practices of institutional racism served to undermine the realisation of fully social
6
The term ‘criminalisation’ is used here to refer to a range of social and criminal justice
processes (including policing, prosecution, punishment, penalisation, stigmatisation and
blame) through which an individual or group is accorded the ‘label’ of criminal.
• 16 •
ETHNICITY (%)
Not known/
White Black Asian Other not recorded TOTAL
POPULATION
(aged 10 + at
2001 Census) 91.3 2.8 4.7 1.2 0 100
STAGE OF
THE CJS PROCESS
Stops and searches 74.3 14.7 7.3 1.5 2.3

Arrests 84.3 8.8 4.8 1.4 0.7
Cautions 84.2 6.7 4.7 1.2 3.2
Youth offences 83.5 6.3 3.1 2.9 4.3
Prison receptions 80.5 9.7 4.8 2.9 2.1
Prison population 77.1 15.5 3.1 4.1 0.1
Figure 1.3 Representation of Ethnic Groups at Different Stages of the Criminal

Justice Process 2003/4
(Source: Home Office, 2005a:ix)
citizenship for many individuals from black and minority ethnic groups in
Taking the analysis a stage further, Figure 1.3 goes on to examine the operation of
the CJS and summarises the representation of minority ethnic groups7 at varying
stages of the process (these figures are also fleshed out in the narrative summary in
Figure 1.4). Taken together, this evidence shows that the criminal justice processes
engaged in by a range of agencies – from stop and search, caution, arrest, charge,
prosecution, pleas and sentence – serve to filter black people into the hard end of the
CJS and, ultimately, into prison (while white counterparts are filtered out).
Where the relationship between ethnicity and imprisonment is concerned, the
data show worrying disparities. In February 2003, ethnic minorities accounted for
24% of the male prison population (with 16% black, 3% Asian and 5% other) and a
staggering 31% of the female prison population (with 25% black, 1% Asian and 5%
other). But these figures included foreign nationals who are not normally resident
in England and Wales, and so this skews comparisons between the prison and
the ‘general’ populations. Consequently, the data presented in Figure 1.3 refers to
‘British nationals’ in prison and so may be compared with their representation in
the overall population of England and Wales. From these figures it is clear that, in
2004, ‘black’ Britons were more than five times over-represented in the prison
population than in the general population, while ‘white’ Britons were statistically
7
See Home Office 2005a for details of the ethnic classifications used in the 2001 Census and
by criminal justice agencies.
• 17 •
ο Asian (Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi) people in 2004 faced a higher level of
victimisation (31%) with people of mixed race suffering the highest risks at 39%
(compared with 26% for black and for white people)
ο People from minority ethnic communities are significantly more likely to be victims of racist
incidents
ο Ethnic minority victims are less likely to be satisfied with police responses
ο People from minority ethnic groups are more likely to be stopped and searched by the
police
ο People from minority ethnic groups are more likely to be arrested
ο Black people are less likely to receive a caution than Asian or white people
ο People from minority ethnic communities are more likely to be remanded in custody
ο People from minority ethnic communities are more likely to plead not guilty
ο People from minority ethnic communities are also more likely to be acquitted
ο Black people are less likely to be sentenced to fines or a discharge and more likely to
receive a community penalty
ο Partly as a result of the above (proceeding through the possible/available sentences more
quickly than their white counterparts), black people represent a disproportionate proportion
of the prison population
ο For violent offences, the rate of custody is higher for black and Asian offenders
ο Minority ethnic prisoners are less likely to be released on parole
ο But minority ethnic prisoners have lower re-conviction rates than their white
counterparts.
Figure 1.4 ‘Race’ and the Criminal Justice System

(Source: Home Office, 2003a:2–10; Home Office, 2005b:7)
under-represented. This disparity cannot merely be explained by different offending

patterns of the groups concerned, and the implications of this were acknowledged by
the Home Office in its assertion that
[a] modern, fair effective criminal justice system is not possible whilst significant
sections of the population perceive it as discriminatory and lack confidence in
it delivering justice… We need to get behind the numbers to understand the
process through which discrimination may be occurring in the CJS. (Forword to
Race and the Criminal Justice System, Home Office, 2003a).
As already indicated, when we do get ‘behind the numbers’ we find a notable

reduction in the confidence of minority ethnic groups in the criminal justice system
(particularly in the police), which is in part due to negative experiences of contact
with the police, notably their perceptions of police responses to racial harassment
(which are often seen as inadequate), and to stop and searches (which are often seen
as too frequent and intrusive). The latter view is borne out by the data presented in
Figure 1.3 (see page 17). In 2003/4 there were a total of 738,016 stop and searches
recorded by the police in England and Wales under a range of legislation (including
PACE – the Police and Criminal Evidence Act, 1984). Of these, 15% were black
people, 7% Asian and 1% of people where of ‘other’ non-white origin (Home Office,
2005a:13–14). In effect, then, black people are 6.4 times more likely than their white
• 18 •
counterparts to be stopped and searched in England and Wales. This situation has
been even more acute in the capital where the number of recorded stop and searches
in the London Metropolitan area rose by 8% for white people between 2000/1 and
2001/2, but increased by 30% for black people and 40% for Asians. Moreover, recent
research shows that, once in police custody, individuals from black and minority
ethnic communities (particularly those of African Caribbean heritage) are dis-
proportionately likely to be subject to strip searches (Newburn et al., 2004). This
research once again raises the ‘spectre of police racism’ (ibid:693).
Moving beyond the importance of the criminal justice system for citizenship, we
also need to address the effect of wider social and political factors on the lived reality
of citizenship and sense of ‘justice’ in the UK. In these respects it is clear that issues
of ‘race’, culture, religious belief and justice have been fore grounded since
the events of 11 September 2001 (9/11), and in the wake of the subsequent political
and discursive dominance of the ‘war on terror’ and the military interventions (or
invasions) in Afghanistan and Iraq. In Britain, the impact of 9/11 on media, public
and political culture and on manifestations of racism has been dramatic.
Commenting on the post-9/11 targeting of Britain’s 1.6 million Muslim community,
the leading civil liberties lawyer, Gareth Pierce, argued that they now faced a ‘dark
age of injustice’ and commented:
I have never known such venom and such hatred and such constant unchecked
fascistic expression of daily, often appalling, often fabricated, always imagined,
always exaggerated verbiage as there has been against the Muslim community.
(Quoted in the Guardian, 1 April 2004)
But expressions of hatred and racism have not been confined to words alone: for
instance, following the release of three British Guantanamo Bay detainees and their
return to their West Midlands home town of Tipton, an effigy of a detainee, clad in
an orange boiler suit, was hung from a lamppost in the town and then set alight
(Birmingham Mail, 10 March 2004).
The ‘war on terror’ is being waged in Britain where, according to the Home Office,
at 31 December 2004, a total of 702 people in England and Wales had been arrested
under the 2000 Terrorism Act. But it is significant that of these 702, only 119 were
charged with offences under the Act and only 17 (just 2% of all arrestees) were
convicted (Home Office, 2005b). Nevertheless, the political triumph and dramatic
publicity surrounding arrests is not matched by explanation and equal publicity on
the release of the vast majority of suspects. At the same time, asylum seekers, refugees
and settled migrants are subsumed within the war on terror discourse, all are
assumed to be ‘suspect’ and so increasingly suffer from the corrosive effects of racism:
for example, the Scottish housing charity Positive Action in Housing (PAIH) reported
in 2004 that 28% of its clients had suffered racial harassment, an increase of 75% on
the levels reported in 2003. The organisational cultures and operational logic of
criminal justice agencies, together with the racialised British political and cultural
• 19 •
context post-9/118, provide a poison mix. Under such conditions, it is unlikely that
members of minority ethnic communities in contemporary Britain will feel that, for
them, ‘justice’ is being done.
6. What Is Social Justice?
Moving towards defining the concept of ‘social justice’ we can usefully return to
Marshall who provides a useful starting point, as one way of defining social justice is
in terms of everyone enjoying the rights and duties of full citizenship. But, as we
have seen, citizenship rights may prove illusory for women, for minority ethnic
groups and for many of the poor in contemporary Britain, which (in turn) clearly
raises concerns for claims of social justice.
Where issues of ‘justice’ (criminal or social) are concerned, the discourses used –
and those eschewed – are crucial. For example, so far I have used the words ‘poverty’
and ‘the poor’ in a fairly simple and uncritical way. Competing views and theoretical
struggles around the discourses of poverty, social exclusion and citizenship are
examined in more depth in Chapter 3. For the time being, suffice it to say that
poverty can be considered as, at the same time, a concept, a condition and a
measurement (Lister, 2004). As a concept, poverty entails powerlessness, lack of
participation and voice as well as the material elements of the condition arising from
a ‘lack of disposable income’. The often-used ‘definition’ of poverty (60% of median
income) is actually a measurement that seeks to operationalise a particular
definition. The term social exclusion is seen as a more dynamic and multi-faceted
process which is related to that of citizenship in that it involves a ‘breakdown of the
major social systems... that should guarantee full citizenship’ (Berghman, 1995:20).
But, as Chapter 3 will contend, it is highly significant that the ‘hard’ word (poverty)
has over recent years been replaced in the British political and policy lexicon with
the rather ‘softer’ term (social exclusion). This has led to a displacement of concerns
about socio-economic rights and at the same time has perhaps blurred what we mean
by social justice. For example, when Prime Minister Tony Blair dedicated the second
‘New’ Labour government to ‘delivery, delivery, delivery’, most notably in the field
of public services, he went on record stating that ‘public services are social justice
made real’. But this is clearly a limited view of what constitutes social justice;
focusing, as it does, on a single element of social citizenship – and on that element
solely through the lens of public service provision.
For many, social justice is far more than this – it is also about notions of ‘fairness’.
Rawls’ (1971) perspective on social justice proposed the idea of ‘justice as fairness’,
which could be represented by deciding on how to divide up a cake without knowing
how big a slice you would get yourself. But the problem remained of how Rawls’
8
And, we could now add, post-‘7/7’ following terrorist attacks on the London transport
system on 7 July 2005.
• 20 •
• ‘The foundation of a free society is the equal worth of all citizens

• All citizens are entitled, as a right of citizenship, to be able to meet their basic needs – for
income, food, shelter, education and health
• Self-respect and personal autonomy are inherent in the idea of equal worth, but their
fulfilment depends on the widest possible spread of opportunities and life-chances
• Inequalities are not necessarily unjust – but those which are should be reduced and where
possible eliminated.’
Figure 1.5 Principles of Social Justice

(Source: Commission on Social Justice, 1993:(i))
principles of fairness could practically be translated into policy-making. To take forward

this challenge, more than two decades later, the independent Commission on Social
Justice was established (under the auspices of the Institute for Public Policy Research –
IPPR), to document the extent of social inequality in Britain and to set out a vision of
social justice. The Commission acknowledged that the term itself involved ideas about
‘equality, need, entitlement, merit and desert’, and that although most people said
that they believed in social justice, their ideas were ‘complex and indeterminate’
(Commission on Social Justice (CSJ), 1993). It went on to outline some basic principles,
which help to flesh out what social justice would actually mean at the levels of both the
individual and wider society. These principles are summarised in Figure 1.5.
For many, these principles also underpin the condition and the existence of
democracy itself. For example, in a series of contributions to the Madrid newspaper
Diario 16, King Juan Carlos implicitly drew upon these principles in his analysis of
Spain’s transition to democracy:
So long as poverty remains, so long as people who want to work are denied the
opportunity to do so, so long as the development of some people means the
smothering of others, so long as a single woman or man amongst us is not
accorded the dignity that each and every human being needs and deserves, our
transition to democracy has not been completed. (King Juan Carlos of Spain,
quoted in Cook, 1997c)
Returning to the core aims of the CJS (outlined above), they too depend on similar
foundations – the twin concepts of citizenship and legitimacy. Confidence in the CJS
relies on citizens feeling that they are of equal worth and are treated as such, with
dignity and respect: they need to trust that the law, and its implementation, is both
just and legitimate. At the same time, equality before the law is a cornerstone of
(civil) citizenship: if the law is perceived as unjust – either in its content or in the
unequal ways in which it is applied (to some and not to others) – then both
citizenship and legitimacy are threatened. In terms of the components identified in
Figure 1.5, it is clear that both inequalities before the law and wider social inequalities
serve to undermine social justice.
If a society cannot guarantee ‘the equal worth of all citizens’, mutual and self-respect
and the meeting of basic needs, it cannot expect that all citizens will feel they have an
• 21 •
equal stake in abiding by the law, and it cannot dispense justice fairly and enhance
confidence in the law. In these respects, criminal and social justice are inseparable.
One issue crucial to the sense of equal worth essential to citizenship is recognition,
especially for those who suffer from identity-based forms of discrimination arising from
a ‘mis-recognition’ of, for example, their sexuality, gender or ‘race’. For the purpose of
this book, the work of Nancy Fraser (2000), in attempting to engage with the politics
of recognition without de-coupling identity-based issues from broader socio-economic
ones, is important (and will be discussed further in Chapter 7).
Returning to the inseparability of criminal and social justice, there are differing
views about precisely where to start in terms of working to reconcile these two
spheres of justice. Rose (1996) focuses on criminal justice as the primary objective of
policy in arguing that it offered a unique and, at the time of his writing9, a timely
point of intervention:
The door is open to a new settlement between the State and the citizen. The
institutions of policing, the courts and the prisons will never be a means of
restoring an equitable society. But, at the same time, in the absence of criminal
justice, social justice will be an impossible goal. (1996:336)
Conversely, Hudson (1987) focuses instead on social justice and recognises ‘the
impossibility of just legal punishments in an unjust society’. Nonetheless, she argues,
‘we should scale down the level of our infliction of punishment rather than our search
for justice’ and strive for social justice whilst immediately concentrating on doing ‘less
harm’ through the criminal justice and penal systems (Hudson, 1987:184). Of course,
it is possible to envisage a response to reconciling criminal and social justice which
would emanate from both ends of this two-way street.
7. Social Justice and ‘Opportunities for All’
How is social justice being constructed in contemporary Britain? While the CSJ
suggested that the principles of social justice rested on the foundations of ‘the equal
worth of all citizens’, the primary thrust of British social policies since 1997 have
interpreted that ‘worth’ in very specific ways. Increasingly an individual’s worth has
been seen in terms of their engagement in paid work. Citizenship has been seen as
conditional upon the duty to be productive and economically active. A series of
welfare benefit regimes and sanctions have therefore sought to ‘restore work
incentives’, provide ‘opportunities’ and to put the poor to work (see Chapter 2 for a
discussion of the historical themes underpinning such policies and Chapter 3 for an
analysis of recent ‘Third Way’ politics). The discourse of responsibility has replaced
that of citizenship rights and, in so doing, ‘opportunity’ has replaced ‘justice’.
9
With a general election looming in 1997.
• 22 •
In the political sphere much is said about ‘opportunities for all’ and this infinitely
flexible phrase has not only formed the title of successive Annual Reports on the
government’s social inclusion strategy (SEU, 1999; DWP (Department for Work and
Pensions), 2003), but is also associated with policy initiatives in a wide range of areas
including: access to higher education; effective student learning in schools; and
Department of Trade and Industry policy on ‘enterprise, skills and innovation’ (DTI,
2001). The meanings of this phrase – or mantra – are fluid, and shift according to its
political contexts and imperatives. For example, in 2001 the then Secretary of State for
Social Security, Alistair Darling, redefined opportunity in terms of making sure ‘that
everyone has the opportunity to contribute to building wealth, as well as sharing the
benefits’ (DSS Press Release, November 2001). This view is doubly problematic: firstly,
it assumes that producing wealth is central to producing ‘opportunity’ and social
justice, and secondly, that wealth is itself then ‘shared’. Firstly, the equation of ‘worth’
with ‘work’ underlies Darling’s statement: many would disagree, arguing that the goal
of social justice and ‘opportunity’ entails far more than compulsion or incentives to
paid work in order to generate personal and national wealth. Secondly, ‘sharing the
benefits’ through a progressive and redistributive taxation system is, for the New
Labour government, ‘off message’. Not only does the UK have the most regressive
personal tax regime in Europe, but it has a Prime Minister who is, at best, equivocal
about the goal of redistribution and, at worst, dismissive of its implications. For
example, when asked about the issue of higher rate taxation in an interview
immediately before the 2001 election, Tony Blair stated that ‘it is not a burning issue
for me to make David Beckham earn less money’. Had he been serious about
challenging inequality and promoting social justice, this is exactly what would be
required – in both symbolic and fiscal terms. Two years on, when responding to the
suggestion made (in June 2003), by his cabinet colleague Peter Hain, that tax rates
(notably at the upper end of the scale) may need to be reviewed, the Prime Minister
reiterated that his concern was not to take money from high earners. As the 2005
election campaign mounted, Blair responded to Liberal Democrat proposals for an
increase in the top rate of income tax to 50% for those earning above £100,000 by
dismissing them as ‘economically wrong’ (BBC News, 14 April 2005).
Tony Blair’s approach to social justice and taxation is best understood in the
context of his political critique of what he saw as the old left politics which he
contended had:
too readily downplayed its duty to promote a wide range of opportunities for
individuals to advance themselves and their families. At worst, it has stifled
opportunity in the name of abstract equality. (Tony Blair, 1998, quoted in
Jackson and Segal, 2004:24)
The ‘rubbishing’ of egalitarianism had been an essential element in new right

thinking since the 1970s and was central to the Thatcher governments’ valorisation
of individualism and wealth creation. It is not surprising that the famous ‘tax
giveaway’ Budget of 1988 which saw the top rates of income tax reduced from 60%
• 23 •
to 40% was seen by Thatcher as ‘the epitaph for socialism’ (Hall, 1988). Tony Blair
seems to share this perspective and with it, the view that the benefits of wealth are
best shared through a ‘trickledown’ from the rich at the top to those at the base of
the social pyramid.
While Blair rejects what he terms ‘abstract equality’, he privileges opportunity as a
means of social mobility and sees this as preferable to pursuing greater ‘equality of
condition’ between social classes and groups. But Richard Tawney’s approach to
egalitarian social justice (1931) had persuasively argued that material inequalities
needed to be tackled because they prevented the realisation of equality of
opportunity:
… it is only the presence of a high degree of practical equality which can diffuse
and generalise the opportunities to rise. Their existence in fact, and not merely in
form, depends, not only upon an open road, but upon an equal start. (1930:143)
Recent research supports this long-held contention that poverty is in itself a barrier
to opportunity and mobility (Delorenzi et al., 2005). The pressing need not only for
an open road (opportunity) but for an ‘equal start’ (practical equality) was nowhere
more passionately articulated than in the 1987 speech by the then Labour Party
leader, Neil Kinnock, who posed the question ‘Why was I the first Kinnock in a
thousand generations to be able to get to university?’ His answer lay in the unfairness
of Conservative policies which had denied generation after generation ‘a platform
upon which they could stand’ (quoted in Jackson and Segal, 2004).
8. The State of Inequality
If, as Tawney in the 1930s, Kinnock and ‘Old Labour’ in the 1980s and the CSJ in the
1990s all suggested, social justice depends upon the elimination of unjustified
material inequalities, then we need to examine the nature and extent of inequality
in the UK today to assess the state of contemporary social justice. One striking
feature of the period from 1980 to the early 1990s (the Thatcher/Major years) was a
widening of income inequality in Britain and a deepening of poverty, and so it is
important to see to what extent this has changed since the election in 1997 of a
government committed to opportunity and, in theory, to enhancing social justice.
The most commonly used threshold of low income (often used to measure ‘the
poverty line’) is 60% of median income. To put this into real terms, in 2003/4, this
measure equated to:
• £200 per week before housing costs (BHC) for a couple with no children
• £118 for a single person
• £283 for a couple with two children
• £207 for a lone parent with two children.
(Source: Households Below Average Income, 2005)
• 24 •
If this is taken as the low income or poverty line, in 2003/4, 12.4 million people –
21% of the total population – were living on incomes below this threshold. This
included 3.6 million children and 50% of all people in social housing, compared
with one in six of those in other housing tenures. It is worth emphasising that figures
monitoring poverty and social exclusion have shown some improvement in key
indicators over the past two years (Palmer et al., 2003; JRF, 2004; Brewer et al., 2005),
although the data do need to be set in the context of the 13% of the population who
were on low incomes at the end of the Labour Callaghan administration and start of
the first Thatcher government in 1979 (see Chapters 5 and 7).
There is still a long way to go if the Labour government is to fulfil the aims of its
anti-poverty strategy, not least its ambitious 1999 pledge to eliminate child poverty
‘within a generation’. The main drivers of this strategy are policies that focus not
only on children themselves, but also encourage ‘welfare to work’ for their parent(s).
The 2005 New Labour election manifesto continued to assert that ‘work is the best
anti-poverty strategy’, although paid work is no guarantee of an escape from poverty:
in 2004, two-fifths of people in low-income (working age) households had someone in
paid work (JRF, 2004). While the establishment of a national minimum wage
in 1998 (at the level of £3.60 per hour) did mark an important move in the
government’s drive to reduce poverty, many still slip through the net. In 2002 an
estimated half a million young adults (aged 18–21) and one and a quarter million
adults (aged 22 to retirement) were paid less than the then minimum wage of £4.50
per hour. In addition to reviewing the impact of the national minimum wage, the Low
Pay Commission (LPC, 2005) also reports on relative pay levels and its most recent
data reported that in 2003 a third of working women over 22 years and a sixth of
working men were paid less than £6.50 per hour (with the national minimum wage
from October 2004 standing at £4.85). In addition, more than three times as many
people were in receipt of means-tested tax credits to supplement their wages in 2004
as had been in receipt of Family Credit a decade earlier. On the one hand, the latter
can be seen as a positive development in that it shows take-up of means–tested
benefits designed to support families living on low wages, but on the other hand it
also signals the extent and persistence of the problem of low wages which is a major
factor contributing to poverty. The latter view is supported by comparative research
demonstrating that, despite the introduction of the minimum wage, Britain’s
competitive advantage in the EU is based on low wages within a de-regulated and
flexible labour market (Daguerre, 2004:53). Moreover, to sustain such low wages,
welfare benefit levels must be kept yet lower (as the discussion of the principle of less
eligibility in the next chapter will show).
To summarise what we know of the state of inequality in contemporary Britain, we
can draw on a wide range of research: for example, recent research by the Institute
for Fiscal Studies (IFS) analysed income and expenditure inequality in the 1990s and
2000s (Goodman and Oldfield, 2004) and further IFS work offers a snapshot of
poverty and inequality in Britain in 2004 (Brewer et al., 2004, 2005). An IPPR report
on The State of the Nation provided an ‘audit of injustice in the UK’ ten years on from
the Social Justice Commission (Paxton and Dixon, 2004). Taken together, the
• 25 •
principle findings from these three pieces of research are summarised in Figure 1.6
(see page 27). This does not present an entirely positive picture of changes in patterns
of poverty, income and wealth over the past decade.
Income inequality in 2002/3 stood at an historic 40 year high. Although New
Labour’s tax and social security policies had slowed down the rate of increase in
income inequality, they had at that stage failed to either halt it or to reverse it. The
richest 10% of earners held 28% of the total income share in 2002/3, while the
poorest 10% held just 2.8%. Moreover, the top 1% of income earners massively
increased their share of total income from 3.8% in 1980 to 5.8% in 2000.
Inequalities in the distribution of wealth are even more stark and have similarly
widened, with the richest 10% owning 47% of wealth in 1980, but this had increased
to 54% by 2000. By 2002, the wealthiest 1% of the population (around 500,000
people) owned 23% of the UK’s marketable wealth, compared with 18% in 1990
(Social Trends, 2005). The results are even more skewed when the value of dwellings
is excluded from the calculations, with the top 1% owning 35% of marketable wealth
excluding housing in 2002: this contrasts very sharply with just 2% of marketable
wealth (other than homes) owned by the least wealthy 50% of the population (ibid).
Ten years after the CSJ reported, research indicated that Britain remained divided on
income lines from bottom to top in a society split of ‘10-89-1’, with the gap between the
income of the bottom 10% and the top 1% increasing (Paxton and Dixon, 2004). By
2005 it was reported, in time for the May 2005 general election, that income inequality
was being ‘nudged down’ as the tax and national insurance rises announced in the 2002
Budget (effective from April 2003) began to bite (IFS Press Release, 30 March 2005).
These Budget measures included a 1% increase in national insurance contributions and
a freeze on personal income tax allowances, bringing more people into the income tax
‘net’, and they led to the first drop in average take-home household income since the
economic recession of the early 1990s (Brewer et al., 2005). While the 2003/4 figures do
suggest a slight reduction in income inequality (as measured by the Gini co-efficient), it
still remains marginally higher than the level which Labour inherited when it came to
office in 1997. At the same time, the data indicates that some of the government’s
ambitious child poverty targets for 2004/5 may be missed.
Where poverty is concerned, the data summarised in Figure 1.6 may need
explanation. Measurements of the percentages of a population in poverty may be
expressed either before or after housing costs have been taken into account and this
distinction is important, having different implications for different social groups. For
example, where addressing child poverty is concerned, lone mothers and other
poorer families often face uniquely high and variable housing costs which measure-
ments of child poverty before housing costs (21%) fail to take into consideration. This
effectively masks the extent of child poverty after housing costs are taken into
account (28%), which is markedly higher. As Brewer notes, as significantly fewer
children are poor under the BHC measure, this may reduce the cost to the
government of meeting its child poverty target because ‘a given percentage fall
in poverty will require a smaller number of children to move out of poverty.’ (Brewer
et al., 2004:43).
• 26 •
• Income inequality (as measured by the Gini co-efficient) was higher in 2002/3 than it was in
1996/7 and stood at an historic 40 year high
• The top 1% of income earners (around half a million people) held a 3.5% share of total
income in 1980; by 1990 their share had increased to 5.8%; and by the start of the 2000s
the share of the top 1% had increased to 8%
• The richest 10% of the population held 28% of total income in 2002/3
• By contrast, the share of the bottom 10% decreased to just 2.8% of total income share
• Wealth distribution is more unequal than income distribution and is worsening: between
1990 and 2001 the percentage of wealth owned by the wealthiest 10% of the population had
increased from 47% to 54%. Over the same period, the percentage of wealth owned by the
wealthiest 1% of the population increased from 18% to 22%
• Between 1996/7 and 2000/1 the percentage of young people aged 16–24 with no savings
remained constant at 56%
• In 2002/3, 12.4 million individuals (21.6% of the population) lived in households with
incomes below 60% of the median wage (after housing costs) – often referred to as ‘the
poverty line’. In 2003/4 this decreased to 21%
• In 2002/3, child poverty stood at 3.6 million (after housing costs), which meant that around
28% of all children in the UK were in poverty. While 2003/4 saw a slight reduction of
100,000 this was not statistically significant
• Pensioner poverty, if measured before housing costs, remained unchanged from 1997 to
2002/3, but if measured after housing costs, fell by a quarter
• Poverty rates among the populations of working age without children (40% of all individuals)
were higher in 2003/4 than when New Labour came to power
• Regional inequalities remain large: in the South East 17% of the population are in the
poorest fifth of the population, compared with 26% of people in the North East
• Entry into higher education has increased from 19% in 1990 to 31% in 2000, but this has
benefited the better off rather than the poor: in 2002, 40% of teenagers from higher
professional backgrounds went to university compared with 11% from the lowest social class.
Figure 1.6 The State of Poverty and Inequality in the UK

(Sources: Brewer et al., 2004; Goodman and Oldfield, 2004; Paxton and Dixon, 2004;
Brewer et al., 2005)
Where older people are concerned the data reflects the positive impact of the means-
tested minimum income guarantee (MIG), leading to a marked reduction in
pensioner poverty after housing costs since 1997, although poverty as measured
before housing costs showed almost no change by 2002/3 (Brewer et al., 2004). Such
disparities in before and after housing cost figures have led commentators and
campaigning groups to argue for the retention of both measurements of poverty. But
the government is moving towards the BHC measure, which will certainly smooth
the way towards meeting its ambitious child poverty targets (Ambrose, 2004).
For older people, the introduction of the more generous pension credit (which
replaced MIG in October 2003) should lead to further reductions in pensioner
poverty in the coming years. However, the problem of enhancing benefit take-up is
crucial if positive change is to take place: in 2002/3 it is estimated that pensioners
failed to claim means-tested benefits worth £2.25 billion, half of that amount being
attributable to non-take-up of MIG, with Council Tax Benefit also massively under-
claimed (see http://www.poverty.org.uk). If anti-poverty strategies are to be successful,
• 27 •
the problem of take-up must be addressed: latest figures indicate that for the main
five income-related benefits paid by the Department of Work and Pensions (Income
Support, MIG, Housing Benefit, Council Tax Benefit and Job Seekers Allowance),
between 18% and 20% of those eligible for these benefits fail to claim them. Official
estimates show that between £3300 million and £6260 million was left unclaimed in
2002/3 (DWP, 2005a).
Moving on from the data summarised in Figure 1.6, it is important to recall once
again that poverty is a gendered experience (as Chapters 2 and 3 will go on to discuss)
and that ethnic minority communities, too, continue to suffer disproportionately. For
instance, three-quarters of Bangladeshi children were living in families in the bottom
fifth of the income distribution at the turn of the new millennium (Platt, 2002).
Nonetheless, the analysis presented by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon
Brown, in successive Budgets, has suggested that Britain currently basks in the glow of
economic prosperity. Not all UK citizens feel the warmth of this glow, and those who
do may not feel it in equal measure. IPPR research has confirmed the growing income
and wealth divide between people living in the North of England and those living in
the South East, and between the homeowning majority and those who rent. They
argue that the increase in the ‘equity divide’ has been the single greatest cause of
inequality over the past 30 years: the value of the net equity of personally owned
housing increased from £36 billion in 1970 to £1525 billion in 2001. While these
figures of equity seem staggering, so do data relating to levels of personal debt, which
send a chill wind of warning in indicating the following:
• In July 2004, personal debt in the UK broke through the £1 trillion barrier
(£1,000,000,000,000) and is increasing at the rate of £1 million every four minutes
• In February 2005, total secured lending on homes was £887.8 billion
• In April 2005, the average household debt (excluding mortgages) was £7563
• Mortgage equality withdrawal (secured borrowing on homes that is not invested in
the housing market) remained at less than 1% of post-tax income until 1999, but by
the end of 2003 it accounted for 8.4% of total income
• By 2004, personal debt had grown twice as fast as income since the election of the
first New Labour government in 1997
• Datamonitor figures show that consumer borrowing by UK adults (via credit cards,
motor and retail finance, overdrafts and unsecured loans) has increased by 45% since
2000
• The amount of debt being chased by Britain’s bailiffs increased by 70% over the two
years from 2001–3, reaching £5 billion
• In 2001/2, 28% of households in the UK reported having no savings – working age,
lone parent households were most likely to have none (67%)
• 12 million people are not saving enough towards their pensions and, of these, 60%
are not contributing to a private pension at all
• One in six households in the UK with two children and one in three with four or more
children are in credit arrears (with those renting twice as likely as homeowners to be
in arrears).
(Sources: Credit Action, 2004, 2005; Social Trends, 2005)
• 28 •
The success of the British economy featured prominently as a theme in New

Labour’s 2005 election campaign, yet the data presented above shows that there is a
potential personal debt ‘time bomb’ which threatens to shatter the UK’s ‘economic
miracle’ of the past eight years.
For the Chancellor, economic growth and prosperity fundamentally rests on the
foundations of fiscal ‘prudence’ and a dynamic, flexible economy with (up)skilled
workers. Much stress is placed on the role of education and training in creating
‘opportunity for all’. To what extent does this hold true? Firstly, 12% of 16 year olds
still obtain fewer than five GCSEs and 6% obtain no GCSEs at all – both of these
figures are unchanged since 1998/9 (JRF, 2004). A quarter of young people at the ages
of 11, 16 and 19 are still not reaching basic levels of educational attainment. Yet the
consequences for poorer children who are seen to ‘fail’ are stark, with ever-narrowing
options and life chances: people without qualifications are three times less likely to
receive job-related training compared with those with some formal qualification
(Palmer et al., 2003).
But qualifications are not equally vital for all: the founding father of British
research on patterns of social mobility, John Goldthorpe, recently stressed the
persistence of the advantages enjoyed by the relatively rich middle classes, despite
their educational achievement (or lack of it). The ‘soft skills’ they acquire, such as
sophisticated verbal and interpersonal skills and greater self-esteem at an earlier age,
contribute to social and cultural capital which clearly ‘pays off’ for them:
‘Tim nice but dim’ and his sister ‘Hattie sweet but scatty’ who do not do very
well at school rarely end up on the factory floor… instead one would expect to
find them in upmarket hotels, restaurants and boutiques. (Goldthorpe, 2003)
Once again, it is clear that the relatively rich are able to benefit from opportunities
that are denied to their poorer (and, particularly, minority ethnic) counterparts.
Besides, there are few ‘factory floors’ remaining for less qualified young people to
work on. Around half a million (10% of) young adults aged 16–24 were unemployed
in 2003. Although numbers have halved since a decade ago, young adult
unemployment rates remain two-and-a-half times higher than those for older
workers. In addition, two-fifths of all those who did get a job in 2002/3 were out-of-
work again within six months, raising doubts about the quality and sustainability of
the work opportunities available (Palmer et al., 2003).
9. Just Talking
The final part of this chapter will move on from outlining conceptions of criminal
and social justice and their ‘state’ in contemporary Britain, towards signalling some
of the issues raised for those seeking to understand the relations between them. Some
of the challenges and dilemmas for policy-makers seeking to reconcile criminal and
social justice are signalled in this quotation from Andrew Rutherford:
• 29 •
Considerations regarding criminal policy closely intersect with broader ideas

about citizenship (and the culture of rights and responsibilities), and the
shaping of criminal justice arrangements should have the purpose of fostering
social inclusion by, wherever possible, encouraging a rewarding and sustained
membership within the wider community. Given the inherent tendencies of
criminal justice towards social exclusion, this presents a daunting challenge to
policy makers and practitioners. (2001:8, emphasis added)
For Rutherford, achieving criminal justice should foster social inclusion in the wider
community but, at the same time, the CJS has deeply exclusionary tendencies. Criminal
justice policies may therefore run counter to social policies that are seeking to promote
social inclusion. To expand on this point, criminal justice can be seen as excluding in at
least four ways: firstly, it casts the deviant as ‘other’ and thereby discursively sets them
aside from ‘normal’ law-abiding citizens; secondly, many anti-social behaviours
which fall short of ‘crime’ are increasingly leading to excluding consequences for the
(predominantly) young people who engage in them (see Chapters 3 and 6 for discussion
of Anti-Social Behaviour Orders); thirdly, the end point of the criminal justice system is
imprisonment, which is by its very definition excluding; yet, fourthly, this is not the end
of the excluding consequences of punishment as they extend beyond the prison walls
(see Chapter 6). Having a criminal record does not only make it difficult to get a job, but
also makes it difficult to open bank accounts, get a mortgage, credit and even home
contents insurance (IPPR, 2002). As the Chief Executive of the National Association
for the Care and Resettlement of Offenders (NACRO) stated, ‘… there is something
fundamental about the need for a system which is claiming to be a system of justice to
operate justly itself’. But not only is injustice evident in the operation of the CJS (as we
have already seen), but in the ‘double or triple punishment’ inflicted on offenders after
their sentence has been served (2002:20).
Given such excluding consequences, it is a paradox that policies to tackle crime and its
(alleged) causes are frequently cited as those which are, at the same time, also promoting
social inclusion. This is made particularly explicit in Figure 1.7, which is taken from a
strategic policy document Criminal Justice: The Way Ahead (Home Office, 2001). Setting
out New Labour’s criminal justice policy for its second term, the policy ‘wheel’ in the
diagram exemplifies the government’s strategic, ‘joined-up’ approach to criminal and
social justice. Here policies to tackle the alleged causes of crime (at the top half of the
policy ‘wheel’) encompass policies in a range of ‘social’ fields including:
• The New Deal (employment and training)

• Surestart (education, childcare, health and development of young children)
• OfSTED (school inspection and education quality)
• The National Strategy for Neighbourhood Renewal
• The Anti-drugs Co-ordination Unit (headed by the Drugs Tzar).
At the same time, policies relating to the effective operation of the key components
of the criminal justice system (in the lower half of the ‘wheel’) seek to be ‘tough on
crime’. These include:
• 30 •
Figure 1.7 The Way Ahead?

(Source: ‘Criminal Justice: The Way Ahead’ (Home Office, 2001))
• Catching and convicting criminals (new Police technology)

• Prosecution and the rules of evidence (Crown Prosecution Service and the Police)
• Review of the Criminal Courts (Magistrates’ and Crown Courts)
• What works (the prison service and probation service, now joined in the National
Offender Management Service – NOMS)
• A better deal for victims and witnesses (The Court Service and Victim Support).
At the interface between addressing crime and its causes, and addressing both, lie the
Youth Justice Board and Home Office Crime Reduction Programme.
The strategic overview represented in the diagram conveys a very particular,
deterministic and managerialist view of policies and the relationships between them
which, in turn, poses important questions about how criminal and social justice are
(or are not) seen to be related here. We will return to the issue of managerialism, the
politics of crime reduction and social inclusion in later chapters. But, at this point, it
is essential to recognise that it is politics which shapes both the language and the
visualisation of the links between criminal and social justice in The Way Ahead as it
does in subsequent policy documents. Where this visualisation is concerned, the
• 31 •
word ‘justice’ is conspicuous by its absence (except save for its coupling with
‘criminal’ in a website address). The desirability, the efficacy and the ‘joining up’
of all these spheres of policy is unquestioned (even the assumption that prison
‘works’!), and the lexicon revealed in the diagram is one of ‘deals’, rules, inspection,
co-ordination, efficiency and the technological fix to problems of policing. There is
no real space for ‘justice’ here.
With the exception of Neighbourhood Renewal, all policies seeking to address
the causes of crime that lie at the level of the individual and individual choices
(Neighbourhood Renewal was and is an area-based programme). Nowhere are
economic and structural factors incorporated into this analysis of the potential
causes of crime, and consequently they do not figure in its solutions. The inequalities
of income, wealth, housing, health, education and of ‘race’, age and gender described
in this chapter do not factor in this strategy: while on the face of it, social and
criminal justice are inter-linked in the wheel, fundamental problems for social justice
are effectively de-coupled here.
This chapter has attempted to explore differing conceptions both of criminal and
social justice and signal some of the possible relationship between them. But in order
to better understand the ways in which criminal and social justice may be
conceptualised (in theory) and reconciled (in theory, policy and practice) in the
future, it is first necessary to address the legacy of the past – the continuities and
the shifts that have shaped how we imagine criminal and social justice. This is the
subject of the next chapter.
• 32 •
•two • Constants and

Dissonants in the Study
of Criminal and Social
Justice
Introduction
There is a saying that ‘history repeats itself – it has to, because no-one listens’. We
can certainly learn a great deal about contemporary attitudes towards criminal and
social justice by examining our past. This chapter will identify those historical
themes that continue to shape policies and discourses around criminal and social jus-
tice, even though they may have roots in past social, economic and material contexts
and use different registers for their expression. But, in addition to analysing power-
ful historical themes, it is important to identify ‘what’s new’ in terms of criminal and
social justice, both in theory and in practice. This chapter therefore analyses both the
continuities and shifts – the constants and the dissonants – which together con-
tribute to our understanding of the relationships between criminal and social justice
in twenty-first-century Britain. It will then go on to explore these understandings
through a case study, which draws on issues of both criminal and social justice – the
differential treatment of tax and benefit fraud.
1. The Deserving and the Undeserving Poor – the Legacy
Contemporary images and assumptions about poverty and crime, and about crimi-
nal and social justice, tap into a rich historical vein. From the ‘dangerous classes’ of
the nineteenth century to the ‘underclass’ of the late twentieth, the poor have been
portrayed as in essence criminogenic, posing a threat to both law and the social order
(Williams, 1981). In this sense the discourses of poverty, pauperism, dishonesty and
crime have long been interconnected. But, historically, the term ‘poverty’ did not
possess a unified or clearly defined status and it’s features were not economic alone:
the factors that distinguished groups living in poverty were often moral ones. And so
the ‘dangerous’ and ‘dishonest’ poor were seen almost as a ‘race apart’ from the
respectable working poor. The former were not only distinguished by their economic
dependency, but by the degrading lifestyle that was believed to accompany that
dependency – a lifestyle that promoted habitual offending. According to Victorian
social commentators such as Henry Mayhew the dishonest poor (man) was:
distinguished from the civilised man by his repugnance to regular and continu-
ous labour – by his want of providence in laying up a store for the future – by his
inability to perceive consequences ever so slightly removed from immediate
apprehensions – by his passion for stupefying herbs and roots and, where possi-
ble, for intoxicating fermented liquors. (Quoted in Murray, 1996:23)
More than a century later these themes resurfaced in the writings of the American
guru of the ‘underclass’ Charles Murray as, for example, he spoke of his childhood in
Iowa:
There were two kinds of poor people. One class of people was never even called
‘poor’. I came to understand that they simply lived on low incomes, as my own
parents had done when they were young. There was another set of people, just
a handful of them. These poor people didn’t just lack money. They were defined
by their behaviour. Their homes were littered and unkempt. The men in the family
were unable to hold a job for more than a few weeks at a time. Drunkenness was
common. The children grew up ill-schooled and ill-behaved and contributed a
disproportionate share of the local juvenile delinquents. (1990:1)
For Murray the problem of poverty was not lack of (or low) income and the ‘deserving’
poor were therefore those whose behaviour remained respectable in the face of their
adversity: the working poor, the elderly, the sick and children. By contrast, the ‘unde-
serving’ poor – primarily the ‘able-bodied’ who did not work – languished in a cul-
ture of dependency. As many nineteenth-century commentators had done before
him, Murray characterised this culture as one of drunkenness, promiscuity, vices
(such as prostitution and gambling) and crime.
In Britain, distinctions between deserving and undeserving poor had historically
been sharpened in the Royal Commission on the Poor Law whose nineteenth-
century architects believed that ‘every penny bestowed upon the poor is a bounty on
indolence and vice’ (Fraser, 1973). They argued that the former Elizabethan system
of supplementing the income of lowly paid men with families (known as ‘outdoor’
relief, financed by local parish rates) acted as an incentive to idleness and was a bur-
den to the rate-payer. Consequently, for many social commentators, ‘the problem’,
which they and society faced, was not defined in terms of poverty itself, but as
pauperism, which was poverty’s visible form, and was regarded as both willful and
sinful (Stedman-Jones, 1981).
• 34 •
• • • Constants and Dissonants • • •
In order to challenge and to deter pauperism, the ‘New Poor Law’ of 1834 was
based on the twin principles of less eligibility and the workhouse test. The first
ensured that incentives to paid work were maintained by setting levels of payment
(relief) to the poor at levels below that of the lowest paid worker. This was put into
practice through the ‘workhouse test’ as payment was only made to those living
within the walls of the workhouse itself. Conditions here were so appalling that only
the most desperate would enter, and yet those who were forced to enter included the
old, infirm, women and children in addition to the able-bodied unemployed. The
theory and the practical operation of less eligibility and the workhouse test therefore
meant that Poor Law assistance was conditional not just on unemployment but on
individual destitution (King, 1995).
As David Garland observed, the workhouse and the prison (the poor law and
penality) framed a repressive disciplinary axis in mid-Victorian Britain which:
attempted to dismantle the culture of immorality, intemperance and promiscu-

ity which they recognized in the lower classes and to install in its place the val-
ues of self-help, sobriety, respectability and hard work. (1985:48)
This disciplinary axis still underpins in the workings of the criminal justice and welfare
institutions, and notions of morality, less eligibility and work incentives continue
to permeate welfare policy in twenty-first-century Britain. As we have seen, ‘work’ is
largely equated with the ‘worth’ of citizens, for whom work is seen to have a moral as
well as an economic imperative. In turn, ‘work’ is largely equated with full-time paid
employment (Hirsch, 2002). The mantra which launched the New Labour government’s
welfare reform Green Paper in 1998 was ‘work for those who can, security for those
who cannot’. Although this statement has subsequently been ‘watered down with the
term “support” replacing “security” as the government’s side of the bargain’, it still
forms the basis of current welfare policy (Walker, 2003:50). What remains beyond
doubt is the centrality of the principle of work for those who can.
However, the demands of the global economy and flexible labour markets render
the concept of ‘work’ as the basis for the welfare bargain far from straightforward.
Work may be poorly paid, temporary, part time or causal and ‘flexibility’ itself does
not make for individual or family stability. Engaging in paid work cannot (as we saw
in Chapter 1) be assumed to offer financial security and keep families out of poverty.
At the same time, the political messages about the priority and meaning of ‘work’ can
seem paradoxical. For example, on the one hand the government seeks to enable and
encourage lone parents, young people, disabled people, the long-term unemployed
and the over 50s to enter and to stay in work. On the other hand, policies also stress
the desirability of a ‘work–life balance’, the importance of meeting the needs
of children and families and the value of being a ‘carer’ or a volunteer within the
community.
So exactly who is regarded as a working, productive and deserving citizen, and who
is seen as ‘undeserving’ of security and support, and why? The answer to these ques-
tions is a matter of degree and also relates to the issue of dependency: there are two
• 35 •
key features of welfare policy that formally underpin the dichotomy between the sta-
tus of working and not working. Firstly, the ‘16 hour rule’, and secondly, the concept
of availability for work (a ‘work test’). If an individual works more than 16 hours they
are considered part of the employment system and they can therefore claim benefits
to top-up their wages through New Tax Credits.1 But if they work less than 16 hours,
they are considered part of the benefit system and are subject to its disciplinary reg-
ulations, and this includes the requirement to be demonstrably seeking paid employ-
ment (unless claimants are lone parents of small children, or exempted from seeking
work through sickness or disability).
Welfare claimants may work part time (for less than 16 hours) to supplement their
benefits. But for those who do work, all of their earnings above the threshold of a
small amount of ‘disregarded’ earnings are deducted pound-for-pound from welfare
benefits paid (Hirsch, 2003). Here the concept of incentives has perverse effects,
which appear to penalise those constituted within the benefit system (working under
the arbitrary 16 hours) while rewarding those who work more than 16 hours in the
employment system by ‘making work pay’ (HM Treasury, 2000). This paradox reflects
the legacy of the deserving–undeserving dichotomy as some individuals (in the
employment system) are constituted as givers to and others (in the benefit system)
takers from to the state. The ways in which work serves as a means of classifying and
(re)constituting citizens as workers or claimants within such a restricted and inflex-
ible welfare paradigm has profound implications for their lives and life chances (as
we will see below). In many respects, therefore, the discursive schism between the
deserving and undeserving poor remains as sharp in the twenty-first century as it was
in the nineteenth.
2. The Deserving and the Undeserving

Poor – New Deals, New Subjects?
So ‘what’s new’ in the construction of twenty-first-century British welfare? It is clearly

not new that the principles of less eligibility underpin a social security system that is
(still) being used as an incentive to full-time paid work – or at least to work amounting
to over 16 hours per week. The first thing which is new is that the disciplinary mech-
anisms of the government’s welfare to work strategy supporting this incentivisation
are now being applied to people who would not previously have been regarded
as ‘undeserving’ – such as disabled people and parents with childcare responsibilities.
1
The New Tax Credits consist of: The Child Tax Credit introduced in 2003, which brought
together the child elements of the Working Families Tax Credit (WFTC), Disabled Persons Tax
Credit (DPTC), Income Support and income-based Job Seekers Allowance; the Working Tax
Credit introduced at the same time which brought together the adult elements of WFTC, DPTC
and Employment Credit which is part of the New Deal for those aged 50+ (Inland Revenue Cm
5706, 2003).
• 36 •
The government’s flagship ‘New Deal’ policies for lone parents and disabled people
were piloted in 1998 and launched in 2001 with the emphasis on one-to-one advisor
support, which could be taken up voluntarily, and enhanced opportunities in terms of
subsidised employment and/or education and training for these key groups.
But official data and evidence from a series of New Deal evaluations are far from
positive. The statistical data produced by the Department for Work and Pensions
(DWP) shows that around 52% of the lone parents and 40% of the disabled people
taking up New Deal interviews subsequently left income support for employment –
in other words, for almost half of lone parents and 60% of disabled people the New
Deal did not lead to getting a job. Moreover, the numbers of those who did gain
employment still includes those who, though working over 16 hours per week (often
in unskilled poorly paid jobs), may still be claiming in-work benefits such as Working
Tax Credit (Flaherty et al., 2004). The New Deal thus demonstrates a very particular
(and paradoxical) conception of what constitutes benefit ‘dependency’, particularly
for lone parents: for this (overwhelmingly female) group, their dependency on Tax
Credits is apparently politically acceptable and desirable, even though they may be
effectively undertaking state subsidised employment and leaving their children in
state subsidised childcare. However, those lone parents who work less than 16 hours
and/or look after their children at home while living on benefits are not accorded the
same positive status (Grover and Stewart, 2000:248) as they are primarily regarded
not as workers but as claimants depending on state benefits.
The success of New Deal for Lone Parents (NDLP) itself depends on the availabil-
ity of appropriate and affordable childcare for all those parents who wish to work,
but the delivery of the government’s childcare vision is proving problematic. In
terms of affordability, the Childcare Tax Credit covered only a quarter or less of typ-
ical childcare costs, ignored informal arrangements and, unsurprisingly, had a take-
up rate of only 13% in 2002. Where availability is concerned the number of day
nursery places per 1000 children in England in 2002 was 95, and was only 62.4 in
Northern Ireland. Here, Horgan (2005) argues, high unemployment and low wages
mean that welfare to work policies will almost certainly fail to eliminate child
poverty. But the issue of appropriateness is also important: even if affordable child-
care were to be available UK-wide, it would not be a sufficient condition for the suc-
cess of the welfare to work strategy because, according to Duncan et al. (2003), the
governments ‘vision’ for childcare makes what they call ‘the rationality mistake’.
Like Horgan, they see the strategy as labour-market driven, assuming that parents are
driven primarily by economic rationales when making decisions around work and
childcare. This fails to come to terms with the fact that there are those mothers who
do not wish to, or cannot enter the workforce, or need extensive support to be able
to, (Horgan, 2005). It also fails to acknowledge the wider social, moral and emotional
factors around parenting and childcare, which may shape parents decisions and their
preferences for informal childcare, by friends and family (Wheelock and Jones, 2002;
Sipilä and Kröger, 2005). As is the case elsewhere in Europe, the UK welfare reform
agenda in these respects fails to fully understand ‘the difficulties described by fami-
lies actually engaged in reconciling work and care’ (Baldock and Hadlow, 2005:718).
• 37 •
The first New Deal initiative launched as part of the government’s ‘welfare to work’
strategy was the New Deal for Young People (NDYP). Launched in 1998 it focused
on those aged 18–24 years who had been unemployed for more than six months.
As both ‘able-bodied’ and unemployed, this group would, historically, have fallen
within the category of ‘undeserving poor’. The success or otherwise of the NDYP has,
however, proved difficult to measure with any precision: research evaluating its first
18 months of operation (Wilkinson, 2003) concluded that six months after qualify-
ing for entry into the NDYP there was a reduction in unemployment of NDYP
entrants of 30,000 to 40,000, although this reduction coincided with their moving
from the initial six month ‘gateway’ phase to dedicated New Deal ‘options’ when
their claims to benefits also ceased. But even this reduction in unemployment was
eroded as time progressed: after one year the reduction in unemployment was more
than halved. Moreover, most NDYP exits from unemployment were to undertake
government supported training rather than to take on jobs.
A further problem for NDYP evaluations is that separating out the effects of NDYP
and other ‘employment effects’ remains problematic: for instance, some of the
young people entering new jobs may have done so even if the New Deal were not in
place (these are termed ‘deadweight’ effects) and so these cannot be attributable to
the success of the initiative. Looking back to the 1990s, the then ‘Workstart’ pilots
experienced similar deadweight effects, which were estimated to account for 70% of
job starts; meaning that only 30% of those jobs were net gains for the unemployed
that resulted from the policy (Hasluck, 1999). A decade later the same may well hold
for New Deal jobs. In addition, doubts also remain about the longer-term employ-
ment benefits of the NDYP which, it is suggested, are not sustainable over longer
time periods (Wilkinson, 2003).
To briefly return to the imagery of the deserving and undeserving poor which
opened this chapter, it could be argued that healthy, young people readily fit the car-
icature of the ‘able-bodied’ unemployed, and so could be constituted as undeserving
of state support. The recent emphasis on the lone mother as a potential target
for welfare to work intervention signals both an extension and a significant
re-packaging of the discourse of the undeserving poor for the twentieth and twenty-
first centuries. A crucial element of this re-packaging centres on the role of the lone
mother as producer and reproducer of families that are seen to pose a problem for
both the moral and social order.
3. ‘Problem’ Families
The notion of the problem family has long historical roots and has come to embody
a worrying fusion of disparate discourses around morality, dependency and crime.
There is a discursive continuum, of sorts, which runs from ‘social problems’ at one
end to ‘crime’ at the other, and along which the boundaries between the two become
blurred; causation is wrongly attributed, so that it is assumed these ‘social problems’
• 38 •
cause crime. Firstly, such assumptions completely fail to take into account that the
most successful criminals (in terms of both the relative rewards of their crimes and
their ability to escape punishment) are not the poor, but the rich: yet despite the
divorce, lone parenthood, drunkenness and idleness of some of the ‘rich’, these
attributes are not regarded as a ‘social problem’, a cause of crime or a predictor of
their re-offending. So the ‘problem family’ is not rich, it is poor and, as such, is more
likely to be headed by a female (Flaherty et al., 2004).
The essential ingredients of the stereotype are summarised in the following
description of the ‘underclass’ by Charles Murray:
Illegitimacy in the lower classes will continue to rise and, inevitably, life in lower
class communities will continue to de-generate – more crime, more widespread
drug and alcohol addiction, fewer marriages, more drop-out from work, more
homelessness, more child neglect, fewer young people pulling themselves out
of the slums, more young people tumbling in. (1994:18)
Murray’s discussion of the characteristics and consequences of what he termed the

‘New Rabble’, echo the views expressed 20 years earlier in a speech by the then
Secretary of State for Social Services, Sir Keith Joseph, whose call for ‘the re-moralisation
of public life’ was uncomfortably dressed in the language of eugenics:
The balance of our population, our human stock is threatened … a high and rising
proportion of children are being born to mothers least fitted to bring children into
the world. Many of these girls [from social classes 4 and 5] are unmarried, many
are deserted or divorced or soon will be… They are producing problem children,
the future unmarried mothers, delinquents, denizens of our borstals, sub-normal
educational establishments, prisons, hostels for drifters. (19 October 1974)
Again, the poor are portrayed as a ‘race apart’, and they are responsible for breeding,
quite literally, a plethora of social problems. At the forefront of these problems is
crime, which is constituted as a core aspect of the lives of the poor: it is a problem
that they are seen to reproduce, from one generation to the next, primarily through
the medium of single-parent families. Not only do such discourses blame the poor
for their own poverty, and thus for their own criminality, but in so doing they also
effectively deny any structural or redistributive policy solutions to crime and its
causes. There is no need to re-balance society or change the status quo if the fault lies
within incorrigible individuals. At the same time, these individualised and ‘victim-
blaming’ perspectives which allege causal links between poverty, morality and crime,
fail to address the crimes of the rich and the powerful.
Discourses on crime, its causes and its perpetuation therefore frequently centre
on the stereotype of the criminogenic nature of the female headed lone-parent family.
The stigma associated with bearing children outside marriage has a long history
in Britain, and these rich reservoirs were tapped in powerful discourses around lone
mothers which (re)surfaced with a vengeance in the early 1990s. But not all lone moth-
ers were seen to pose a problem: widows and divorcees whose husbands maintained
• 39 •
them were not at issue because they were seen as deserving and posing no threat to the
moral order. But at the 1992 Conservative Party Conference, the then Secretary of State
for Social Security, Peter Lilley, drew laughter and much applause from the audience
with his rhyming ‘Little List’ of benefit offenders who included:
Young ladies who get pregnant just to join the housing list And Dad’s who won’t
support the kids of ladies they have … Kissed. (Daily Mirror, 8 October 1992)
The rhetorical and policy onslaught against young, never-married lone mothers
gathered pace as the following year the aspiring party leader and the then Welsh
Secretary, John Redwood, recalled a visit to the St Mellons Estate in Cardiff and railed
against the mothers who were ‘married to the state’. In so doing he made the link
with crime explicit declaring that ‘six in ten children belong to unmarried mothers
and crime is rife’ (Sunday Times, 11 July 1993). It is not insignificant that cuts in lone-
parent benefits followed in the later days of the Conservative government, and they
were not immediately restored by the New Labour Chancellor, Gordon Brown on
taking office in 1997.
Moving beyond the stereotypes, the evidential basis for associating female lone
parenthood with criminal activity among their children remains questionable.
Firstly, it is far more likely that it is the poverty disproportionately suffered by lone-
parent families that is associated (though not necessarily causally) with crime, rather
than the type of family formation in itself. Secondly, research does not support the
simplistic causality of the lone parent family/crime link. But, as a note of caution, it
is worth stressing that the kinds of positivistic research which test and allege causal
links between various elements of individual and family pathology are highly con-
tested. Constructivist criminologists, and others, would reject over-simplified expla-
nations such as these in favour of more dynamic approaches that stress the
complexities and contradictions of social phenomena – including crime. Nonetheless,
research on crime and family formation (for what it is worth), has indicated that lone-
parent families are not, by definition, more liable to produce habitual criminals than
other forms of family arrangement. One recent longitudinal study of ‘disrupted fam-
ilies’ concluded that the impact of family forms and relations on crime and deviance
is far from simple:
Some kinds of disrupted families are criminogenic (e.g. those where the boy does
not remain with the mother), just as some kinds of intact families are criminogenic
(e.g. those characterised by high parental conflict). Equally, some kinds of dis-
rupted families (e.g. those where the boy remains with a lone mother) are no more
criminogenic than intact harmonious families. (Juby and Farrington, 2001:37)
More recently, a similar study (Haas et al., 2004) concludes that ‘the simple dichotomy
of disrupted and intact families’ is insufficient to account for the wide range of par-
enting practices, forms of living arrangement, quality of relations between (each) par-
ent and child, and factors such as being looked after in local authority care, all of
• 40 •
which may have differing effects upon ‘risks of delinquency’. There is, then, no
straightforward positivistic relationship between crime and family formation itself,
although lone parents (particularly mothers) continue to be constituted as a key ele-
ment within the lexis and imagery of the criminogenic ‘problem family’.
The ‘problem family’ is not only imagined – it is a product of distinct political and
economic conditions and of welfare practices that have their origins in the emer-
gence of modern industrial societies. Donzelot (1980) indicates the ways in which
changes in the regulation of family affairs since the eighteenth century transformed
the formerly private domain of the family into a space for public surveillance and
intervention. A plethora of social practices and ‘professional’ discourses – such as
philanthropy, social work, medicine, mass education and psychiatry – combined to
effect the moralisation and normalisation of families.
Moralisation was not only achieved through the efforts of religious and charitable
organisations, but was also effected by financial regulation as poor relief, and later
‘welfare’, sought to incentivise the poor to become honest, productive and thus
deserving. Families were also liable to processes of normalisation as the particular
forms of family living were disseminated through education and a range of welfare
professionals. The ‘scientific’ knowledge to which these professions laid claim, and
their increasing incorporation into the institutions of the state in the twentieth cen-
tury, gave rise to their power to ‘police’ families (and they also gave rise to the ‘new’
science of criminology). Where processes of moralisation and normalisation did not
achieve the desired results, Donzelot uses the notion of tutelage to describe the
processes through which coercive and preventative actions could be taken to change
families’ behaviour and ways of living. However, such practices were both gendered
and shaped by class relations, as philanthropists and state professionals alike related
to middle-class and working-class mothers in very different ways (Donzelot, 1980;
Swain, 1999).
Garland (1985) traced the transformations in both the penal and social realms
from the onset of the twentieth century and goes on to describe the new strategies
of regulation which emerged:
The repressive language of oral distinction, ‘desert’ and ‘worth’, and the odious
testing of the destitute were replaced by an administrative machinery and dis-
course quite separate from those of the hated poor law. Pensions were to be dis-
tributed through the Post Office; school meals, health care and insurance
benefits provided without disenfranchisement; and if the worker was still forced
to be responsible, regular and stable, then this force was discreetly contained in
the automatic administrative decisions, not revealed in the mouths of ‘philan-
thropists’ and poor law officials. (1985:245)
But, as we have already seen, the repressive discourse of work and ‘worth’ is back again,
with an added spin under New Labour and, as we will see in Chapter 3, the benign Post
Office has been replaced by electronic methods of payment, which are themselves
imbued with regulatory and disciplinary mechanisms. However, as Garland does go
• 41 •
on to add, the new ideological revision which he describes (in the quotation above)
was still predicated on the old notions of individual responsibility, thrift, self-help
and the contractual nature of individual rights or entitlements. In this way, the appa-
ratus and ‘mode of address’ in regulating the poor and poor families may have
changed over the past century, but the overall aim remains the same – the effective
regulation of an economically efficient and responsible population – and this starts
with, and in, the family.
In the last quarter of the twentieth century, the family – whether ‘problem’ or not –
has undergone changes in both its structure, and the nature and longevity of its rela-
tionships. These changes are regarded by some as positive, displaying diversity and
increasing choice, particularly for women, while others grudgingly acknowledge the
plurality in family forms, yet hark back to a mythical ‘golden age’ of the nuclear
family (Halsey, 1992; Dennis and Erdos, 1993). But it is important to go beyond sim-
plistic assertions of whether such changes are for ‘better’ or ‘worse’. Alternatively, it is
useful to emphasise the consequences of these changes in terms of the public–private
dichotomy and the differential positions of men and women within the spheres of
family, work and the state. These perspectives enable us to see that women are both
gendered and racialised welfare and criminal justice subjects (Worrall, 1990; Lister,
2000). Where families are constituted as ‘problems’, the consequences for women
may be dire as they are most often held to blame and may have most to lose in the
wake of preventative or ‘policing’ interventions to restore what are seen as ‘normal’
family forms and behaviours.
What is relatively new here is that these interventions now also involve a wide
range of non-state organisations who are increasingly engaged with families around
issues including: health, parenting, training, skills and employment (of both parents
and young people), offending and anti-social behaviour. At the same time, the ‘polic-
ing’ of and for the family is now often constituted in terms of interpersonal violence
both within and outwith the family itself. Families are, at one and the same time,
perpetrators and victims of violence.
The complexity and the extent of abuse (sexual, physical and emotional) of
children and adults within families, has received greater recognition and policy
attention in the past 20 years, yet the family is simultaneously idealised and
demonised in contemporary criminal justice discourse. In relation to the latter, not
only is the family a site of the victimisation of its own members but, at the same
time, families are themselves targeted as the villains of the peace, as place-centred
and media-fuelled myths around anti-social behaviour and ‘neighbours from hell’
raise the penal stakes ever higher. But, as recent research aptly notes, the conse-
quences of ‘tough’ responses (such as Anti-Social Behaviour Orders – ASBOs) are that
lone mothers disproportionately suffer the consequences – often eviction from their
homes – when they find it impossible to control the behaviour of their teenage sons
or their boyfriends (Hunter and Nixon, 2001). ‘Problematising women’ can also serve
to transform the nature of the problem being addressed, according to Campbell,
from the problem of a ‘masculine response to an economic crisis, to the failure of
mothers to manage the men’ (1993:303).
• 42 •
In summary, the discourse of the ‘problem families’, which dominated both welfare
and penal interventions in the 1970s, may often have invoked an assistantial
response through the work of ‘welfare’ state professionals. Such responses were often
disciplinary in nature and served to pathologise the family, but on the surface they
aimed to understand and to ‘help’ (for example, through state sponsored social
work). In New Labour’s Britain, assistantialism has given way to a neo-conservative
policy response with the concept of individual responsibility – or blame – unashamedly
at its core. In these respects Blair’s policies have echoed the perspectives of his
Conservative predecessor and the current (at the time of writing) Conservative Party
leader Michael Howard has stated in various speeches:
You can argue forever about the causes of crime. My approach is based on some
simple principles. That children – at home and at school – must be taught the dif-
ference between right and wrong. That criminals, and no one else – must be held
responsible for their actions. (Then Conservative Home Secretary, October 1993)
Families are the core of our society. They should teach right from wrong. They
should be the first defence against anti-social behaviour. (Tony Blair, Labour
Opposition Leader, April 1997)
Moreover, when as Prime Minister, in July 2004, Blair announced ‘the end of the
1960s liberal consensus on law and order’, he stole the very undergarments of his
Conservative opposition as he blamed ‘the sixties’ for the law and order problems of
twenty-first-century Britain (Guardian, 19 July 2004).
To sum up, where the twenty-first-century family is concerned, a range of dis-
courses are available – both old and new – which may serve either to valorise or to
penalise them. There is no one simple ‘state’ response to families – liberal, assistantial or
otherwise – but a tapestry of overlapping, contradicting policy responses and modes
of governance, which variously seek to modify, normalise, socialise and regulate not
just families, but ultimately the (fragmented and diverse) places, spaces and com-
munities within which they live their lives.
4. ‘Problem’ Places
The concept of the ‘problem area’ is a further historical theme that pervades con-
temporary understandings about poverty, crime, social and criminal justice and the
relations between them. Latter twentieth-century British exposés of inner city depri-
vation (and depravity) retained many of the hallmarks of Mayhew’s description of
nineteenth-century Britain’s criminal areas, the rookeries, which comprised squalid
housing, overcrowding, gambling, vice (notably prostitution), drunkenness, petty
theft and hardened criminals, together with a powerful sense of ‘danger’.
But by the end of the twentieth century the lexicon of the problem area had
dramatically shifted following the riots which occurred in several British cities in
• 43 •
1981, 1985 and 1991. One crucial dimension of the change in the conceptualisation
of the criminal areas was the racialisation of the ‘urban crisis’. Although keenly
aware of the complexities involved in understanding the concepts of both ‘race’ and
the ‘city’, Keith described the ways in which ‘race’ was systematically used ‘to con-
jure up the urban crisis’. In general terms:
Blackness… has come to play a cautionary role’ which may be likened to the
nineteenth century fears of the crowd and the dangerous classes. (Keith and
Cross, 1993:10)
A prime example of this was evident in a speech made by the then Metropolitan
Police Commissioner, Sir Kenneth Newman, in the wake of the 1981 inner city
‘riots’, where he coined the term symbolic location to describe what in essence were
the (racialised) features of ‘problem’ areas:
Throughout London there are locations where unemployed youth – often black
youths – congregate; where the sale and purchase of drugs, the exchange of
stolen property and illegal drinking and gaming is not uncommon. The youths
regard these locations as their territory. Police are viewed as intruders, the symbol
of authority – largely white authority – in a society that is responsible for all their
grievances about unemployment, prejudice and discrimination. They equate
closely with criminal ‘rookeries’ of Dickensian London… If allowed to continue,
locations with these characteristics assume symbolic importance and negative
symbolism of the inability of the police to maintain order. Their existence encour-
ages law-breaking elsewhere, affects public perceptions of police effectiveness,
heightens fear of crime and reinforces a phenomenon of urban decay. (Quoted in
Gilroy and Sim, 1985)
The policy response of the then Secretary of State for the Environment, Michael
Heseltine, to these ‘riots’ (or uprisings, depending on your perspective) in the
Toxteth area of Liverpool, was to host a garden festival in the city. For many, this con-
firmed a political intention to address the outward manifestations of urban decline
without addressing its root causes.
Two decades after Newman’s infamous pronouncement on race, territoriality and
disorder, his views still resonate in popular and political discourses, and all despite
the fact that it had become apparent, in 1991, that ‘race’ could not explain why riots
erupted in predominantly white and/or ‘suburban’ localities such as Blackbird Leys,
Oxford and Scotswood, Meadowell Tyneside (Campbell, 1993). As Campbell indi-
cated, the problem of the architecture and the residents who inhabited ‘problem
areas’ was becoming inseparable:
The theory of the underclass entered the vernacular together with the image of
the estate. The two became synonymous in Britain. (1993:314)
She goes on to summarise how the spatialisation of crime had changed by the 1990s:
• 44 •
The collective gaze was directed at localities rather than, for example, the
grandiose corporate frauds which vexed, and ultimately exhausted, the judicial
system… the ‘symbolic locations’ shifted from… the inner city… to the edge
of the city… These were places that were part of a mass landscape in Britain,
estates were everywhere. But in the Nineties, estates came to mean crime.
(ibid:317, original emphasis)
Crime was now conceived as a ‘mass’ phenomenon, not confined to the inner city,
but in estates everywhere and anywhere. Paradoxically, though, the flight of people
and of capital out of certain localities has intensified the spatial divisions between
rich and poor. The term ‘fortress Britain’ has become a description for a landscape
where the well-off live separately from their poorer counterparts, surrounded by high
walls, private CCTV and security systems which, at the same time, fuel their anxieties
(and those of ‘middle England’ in general) about their security and the ‘otherness’ of
the problem neighbourhoods that often surround them.
This spatial bifurcation has been compounded and complicated by the ways in
which the ‘racialisation of the urban crisis’ took on a very different form with the
events in Bradford, Burnley and Oldham in 2001 (see further discussion in Chapter 6).
These events signified a range of concerns – on the part of the ‘rioters’ and middle
England – over the meanings of ‘Britishness’, cultural identities, racism, housing pol-
icy, poverty and inequality. Following 9/11, the nature and objects of racialisation
shifted dramatically once again: the racialisation of the urban crisis has given way to
more complex and insidious forms of discrimination and oppression based not on
place and visibility but on religious difference. The burgeoning phenomenon of
Islamophobia exists independently of ‘race’, skin colour, place of birth, citizenship
status, residence and place. Nonetheless, the places where Muslims live, meet, work
and worship are, in the post-9/11 siege mentality, defined as ‘problematic’ for law,
order and security.
Despite historical shifts and seismic shocks, contemporary criminal justice and
social policy still remains focused on the ‘problem neighbourhood’. What is new is
that both policies deploy the language of social inclusion and neighbourhood
renewal as key means of addressing crime – notably through the allegedly ‘joined-
up’ work of community safety strategies and the Neighbourhood Renewal Unit. As
we have seen, the soft vocabulary of ‘social exclusion’ has replaced the hard ‘p’ word –
poverty – where, under New Labour, its usage is almost entirely confined to child and
pensioner poverty. At the same time, the lexicon of crime now encompasses a range
of (non-criminal) activities under the umbrella of anti-social behaviour (to be dis-
cussed in more depth in Chapter 6). The blurring of boundaries between the crimi-
nal and the social has implications for how crime is to be addressed. While criminal
justice and social policies have been ‘shackled’ together, it is notable that a higher
degree of influence is accorded ‘to crime prevention – as opposed to poverty preven-
tion’ (Crawford, 1998:121). It is within such problematic contexts – social, cultural,
political and spatial – that we need to examine the interface between criminal and
social justice in contemporary Britain.
• 45 •
5. Responses to Tax and Benefit

Fraud – A Case of Rich Law, Poor Law?
So far, this chapter has looked at the ways in which, historically, certain individuals,
groups, spaces, behaviours and lifestyles have come to be regarded as ‘a problem’ in
terms of crime and/or a threat to the social order. While there are some distinctive
continuities, there are also historical shifts and breaks in the discourses and practices
through which such ‘problems’ are articulated and constructed. This section will take
the analysis a stage further by applying it in more depth to one issue – the concept
of the ‘undeserving poor’ – and examine how this has shaped the regulation and
criminalisation of the relatively poor who commit (or are suspected of) benefit fraud.
In order to assess the implications this holds for social justice, the experience of the
relatively rich who similarly defraud the public purse (through tax evasion) will pro-
vide an initial and comparative basis for the analysis. By examining attitudes towards
these frauds and the policies and practices used to regulate them it is possible to offer
an answer to the question: When it comes to fiddling the state, is there one law for
the (relatively) rich and another for the poor in contemporary Britain?
Death and taxes
In Chapter 1 it was suggested that the rich benefited more from the ‘citizenship deal’
than the poor in three key respects: firstly, by paying less into this ‘deal’; secondly,
by having less demanded of them in terms of their active citizenship; and thirdly, by
attracting less censure and moral approbation when they breach the law or their cit-
izenship obligations. This section will explore how these three propositions have
historically been interconnected around the issue of social, political, legal and pub-
lic responses to tax and social security fraud. In Britain, taxation has historically
been regarded as an ‘intolerable inquisition’ upon hard pressed taxpayers. The US
statesman and father of the US constitution – Benjamin Franklin – famously com-
mented in 1789 that ‘in this world nothing can be said to be certain, except death
and taxes’, an observation which also typifies the British traditional hatred of paying
personal taxes.
In twentieth-century Britain a ‘new’ approach to the role of taxation became evident
after the First World War as Lloyd George’s ‘Peoples Budget’ introduced Land Duty,
Capital Gains Tax, death duties and progressive personal taxes. In so doing he clearly
signalled that this was ‘a War Budget… for raising money to wage implacable warfare
against poverty and squalidness’ (quoted in Fraser, 1973). The progressive and gal-
vanising effect of war on social and fiscal policy, epitomised by the slogan ‘we’re all in
it together’, was once again evident after the Second World War as the Pay As You Earn
(PAYE) means of tax collection was introduced. The Wilson Labour governments of the
1960s and 1970s briefly returned to highly progressive rates of taxation which, in the
words of its Labour Chancellor, Denis Healey, would ‘squeeze the rich until the pips
squeak’, although the government of the day was reviled for doing so.
• 46 •
Taxation has long been represented in political and popular discourse as stifling
enterprise and a disincentive to effort – a view that was particularly evident follow-
ing the relatively high progressive rates of tax under Harold Wilson’s Labour
governments of the 1960s and 1970s. In the 1980s, the Conservative ‘new right’ gov-
ernment of Margaret Thatcher sought to ‘roll back’ the frontiers of the state, and that
meant rolling back taxes. She embraced the values of the enterprise culture, which
allegedly depended on the financial incentives that high taxes were seen to stifle. At
the same time she denounced the evils of the dependency culture, which was seen
to be associated with the unemployed and undeserving poor languishing at the tax-
payers expense. But when enterprising folk broke the law by evading taxes, Thatcher
was far from censorious about their actions: in an infamous comment on the ‘black’
(or hidden) economy, she proclaimed that it was ‘big, flourishing, thriving’ and evi-
denced that ‘the enterprise is still there’ (ITV Weekend World, 17 November 1985).
But, as we will see below, the same political enthusiasm for ‘enterprise’ was not evi-
dent when this involved the poor engaging in the ‘thriving’ hidden economy while
claiming welfare benefits from the state.
The taxpayer has historically been valorised as a law-abiding and productive citi-
zen, and a giver of revenue for state services, including welfare. By contrast, the wel-
fare claimant is a taker from the state (and thus from the honest taxpayer). In this
way, the taxpayer and the benefit claimant represent both elements of the twentieth-
century mythological ‘Robin Hood’ state in action – taking from the rich and giving
to the poor (Cook, 1989:173). The ways in which taxpayers have been constituted as
givers and benefit claimants as takers from the state, serve to shape very different
social, political, judicial and public responses to the (relatively) rich and the poor
when they breach citizenship ‘rules’ and/or the law.
Responses to tax offences
To take tax evasion first, it is important at the outset to define precisely what the
term means. According to Kirschler et al. (2002) evasion is one of at least three ways
of reducing the taxes an individual or business pays:
1. Tax avoidance – which attempts to reduce payments by legal means (such as exploit-
ing loopholes)
2. Tax flight – which involves the relocation of business to save taxes (for instance to off-
shore tax havens)
3. Tax evasion – which involves the illegal reduction in taxes paid by under-reporting
income or over-stating allowable reductions.
All these activities have the same negative effects on revenue yields, but only the
third – evasion – is illegal. But legal actions can have damaging consequences: for
example, tax flight and the use of off-shore havens threatens both democracy and
economic development as states compete with each other to offer tax exemptions to
capital. As a result:
• 47 •
tax havens grow more numerous, the world’s richest financial centres get even
richer, taxes paid by large corporations fall, and ordinary citizens bear the cost.
(Tax Justice Network, 2003)
Where (illegal) tax evasion is concerned, the primary means of evading taxes is by
under-reporting income and this often involves engaging in activity within the ‘hid-
den economy’. The hidden, or informal, economy was defined in an influential
report by Lord Grabiner in the following way:
[it] is usually taken to mean any undeclared economic activity. It covers tax eva-
sion of all kinds, ranging from casual moonlighting and work paid cash-in-hand
through to organised crime. Some of the informal economy is truly ‘hidden’ (for
example firms that are not registered with any government agency); much of
it, though, consists of undeclared profits from known businesses. (2000:1.1)
This makes it clear, then, that tax evasion is also committed by known, legitimate busi-
nesses and this muddies the waters where the imposition of censure and punishment
are concerned (as we will see later). It is notable that the word ‘crime’ is rarely associ-
ated with tax evasion. Rather, it is couched in terms of its polar opposite – compliance
with the law. Thus, by discursive sleight of hand, illegality is transformed into a mere
failure to comply with tax law (but the same linguistic tricks are not available to cloak
the crimes of the poor). It is significant that recent research (Ortivska and Hudson,
2002) indicates that an individual’s income level is negatively correlated with their
compliance with tax laws – in other words, the higher an individual’s income, the less
likely they are to comply with tax law (and more likely to engage in illegal evasion).
Even when the better off do comply with the law, their compliance may involve ‘cre-
ative’ practices (McBarnett, 2001) whereby they find ways to comply with the letter of
the law while undermining its spirit and the policy behind its words.
The scale of the problem of tax evasion is immense, although it is inevitably hid-
den and immeasurable. Lord Grabiner’s report avoided providing any estimate, but
instead concluded that the hidden economy was ‘a major problem involving billions
of pounds’ (2000:3). Looking beyond the UK and to the UK for comparisons, tax eva-
sion is widespread: in 1998 it was estimated that over 25% of taxpayers in the US
underpaid their taxes by $1500 or more. Tax evasion in ‘developed’ countries is often
estimated at about 20% of revenue yielded, with the problem worsening in ‘less
developed’ nations, such as the Philippines, where the loss is estimated at 50% of
revenue (Ortivska and Hudson, 2002).
Where the UK is concerned, research findings have resonance for issues of citizen-
ship and social as well as criminal justice. Firstly, Ortivska and Hudson found that
tax evasion declines with age: this could be result of ‘ageing’ itself, or it may indicate
longer-term generational differences in attitudes, which could have damaging effects
on revenue collection and good government in the UK in future, as the young are less
likely to pay their taxes fully than the generations before them. Secondly, education
is also a significant factor: not only do the most educated disapprove least of evasion,
but a ‘greater level of education tends to reduce law abidance’ and is associated with
• 48 •
Activity or scenario Seeing it as ‘wrong’ (%) Seeing it as ‘seriously wrong’ (%)
VAT evasion 32.8 7.7
Tax evasion 44.1 8.8
Benefit fraud 51.2 23.5
Figure 2.1 Public Perceptions of Revenue and Benefit Fraud

(Source: Ortivska and Hudson, 2002)
tax evasion. Thirdly, the research indicated that the more educated signalled their
commitment to civic duty (in terms of believing that everyone should do voluntary
work), but while they may ‘talk the talk’ on civic duty, they are least law-abiding
when it comes to paying their taxes. Fourthly, there were significant differences in
public perceptions of various ‘scenarios’ involving VAT evasion, tax evasion and ben-
efit fraud: as indicated in Figure 2.1, VAT evasion was seen as ‘wrong’ by 32.8%
of respondents and ‘seriously wrong’ by only 7.7%. Evading tax was regarded as
wrong by 44.1% and seriously wrong by 8.8%. By contrast, benefit fraud was
regarded far more negatively with 51.2% of respondents seeing it as wrong and
23.5% as seriously wrong.
A more recent survey has suggested even harsher attitudes towards benefit fraud
with 94% of respondents regarding ‘stopping benefit cheats’ as extremely or very
important (DWP Press Release, 15 June 2004).
Taken together, these findings signal that the better-off and the educated are the
groups most likely to break the law by evading taxes, but that public attitudes to dif-
ferent types of fraud can underpin very unequal strategies for addressing tax and ben-
efit fraud. The subsequent differential prosecution and criminalisation of social security
and tax fraud has long been an issue of concern for social policy commentators and
campaigners. For instance, in 1984 the National Association for the Care and
Resettlement of Offenders (NACRO) stated that the ratio of prosecutions brought by
the Inland Revenue in 1984 for tax fraud, and the Department of Health and Social
Security (DHSS) for benefit fraud was 1:30 (1986:70). As Figures 2.2 and 2.3 indicate
(overleaf and page 56), 20 years on, this ratio has dramatically increased to around one
Revenue prosecution for every 215 by the Department for Work and Pensions (and this
for income support and JSA fraud only – not including Council Tax and Housing
Benefit Fraud). Such a disparity is worrying for all those concerned with social and
criminal justice. But the story does not end here.
Compliance and costs
In recent years, ‘what’s new’ in relation to responses to tax fraud is not only a plum-
meting in the number of prosecutions mounted by the Inland Revenue, but also a
decrease in the cash yield arising from their tax investigation and compliance work.
• 49 •
03-Cook-3376(Ch02).qxd
2/15/2006
YEAR 1993/4 1994/5 1995/6 1996/7 1997/8 1998/9 1999/2000 2000/1 2001/2 2002/3 2003/4
11:29 AM
Tax prosecutionsa 216 (17) 356 (25) 177 (11) 167 (13) 116 (17) 32 (2) 37 (10) 54 (7) 30 (5) 43 (4) 43 (5)
WFTC prosecutions – – – – – – – 2 28 34 (1) 56 (1)
Page 50
Compliance:
tax yield (£billions) 4.69 6.11 5.2 4.31 3.93 4 5.44 4.49 3.8 4.3 4.6
Total net revenue

receipts (£billions) 77.62 87.3 97 103.7 117 128 197b 211 214 212.7 230.8
a
Figures given are for successful prosecutions, with figures for acquittals then given in parentheses.
b
Figures from 1999/2000 onward include receipts and costs for National Insurance Contributions and payments and costs for Tax Credits.
Figure 2.2 Revenue Receipts, Yields from Compliance Work and Prosecutions: 1993/4 to 2002/3
(Sources: Board of Inland Revenue Annual Reports for the years ending 31 March 1998 to 31 March 2002; Report of the Commissioners of Her
Majesty’s Inland Revenue for the year ending 31 March 2003)
Figure 2.2 shows that in 1994/5 and 1995/6 the yields achieved from compliance
work had been impressive, totalling £6.11 billion, whereas the total for the most
recent three years shows a reduction to £3.8 billion in 2001/2 followed by increases
to £4.3 billion in 2002/3 and £4.6 billion in 2003/4. Tax yields from compliance work
have therefore decreased in absolute terms by 30% since their peak in 1994/5 (the
gap in relative terms, allowing for inflation, would be even greater).
This dramatic reduction in the yields from investigation work also needs to be set
in the context of increases in the net taxes and duties received over the same period:
in 1994/5 net receipts from taxes and duties collected by the Inland Revenue (exclud-
ing National Insurance contributions) were £87.3 billion, in 2001/2 it was £167 bil-
lion and by 2003/4 the comparable figure was £159 billion. Much revenue received
since 1997 has come from indirect taxes and duties (such as VAT, fuel duty and so on)
and this may partly explain the higher levels of taxes and duties collected. The
decline in investigation and compliance yield over the same period therefore indi-
cates a substantial weakening of the Revenue’s investigatory and compliance work in
the New Labour years. This analysis was confirmed in critical comments made by the
Public Accounts Committee (PAC) in 2003:
The low number of fraud investigations and prosecutions is not commensurate

with the potential sums at stake in lost revenue. Nor has the overall scale of
work kept pace with the expansion of the Revenue’s business. Investigation
work on tax fraud seems to have reduced as work on tax credit fraud has
increased… [Though] the financial returns on investigations suggest that it
would be cost effective to do many more. (2003:6)
The issue of tax credits is indeed noteworthy. Firstly, the cost of administering tax
credits is relatively high, when compared with the costs of collecting taxes. The costs
of administering WFTC and DPTC were: 2.53 pence for every pound in 2001/2,
increasing to 4.58 pence in 2002/3 (Inland Revenue, 2003). But, secondly, investiga-
tory efforts and prosecutions in this new ‘giving’ area of Inland Revenue work is now
beginning to outstrip that of prosecutions relating to their core business of ‘taking’
(collecting taxes). Interestingly these changes are set in the context of a government
commitment to fiscal ‘prudence’ and the over-arching modernisation agenda, but
they are far from consistent with these priorities. The costs of collecting government
revenues were, overall, 1.41 pence per pound when New Labour came to power in
1997 and while this had been reduced to 1.16 in 2001/2, these advances have been
slow and rather faltering. Moreover, as we have seen, the costs of administering tax
credits are becoming worryingly high (see Chapter 4 for discussion of the informa-
tion technology issues which have contributed to these costs) and a recent report
indicates that the system is near collapse (Citizens Advice, 2005). This hardly signals
the fulfilment of New Labour’s promise of massive strides in public sector efficiency
and modernisation. In addition, their failure to tackle tax fraud has led to missed
opportunities to yield more than – or even come close to matching – the tax revenue
from compliance achieved in the Thatcher/Major years. This does not represent
either prudence or efficiency in gathering tax revenues.
• 51 •
Compliance and justice
One long standing justification for the sparing use of prosecution in tax fraud cases
was the difficulty involved in proving guilt: the burden of proof in often complex tax
fraud cases was heavy and additional difficulties in gathering evidence (usually held
by the suspect) led to the Revenue often seeking ‘private justice’ and financial settle-
ment instead (Uglow, 1984; Cook, 1989). Nonetheless, despite such difficulties, the
Revenue’s ‘selective prosecution’ policy is officially committed to taking proceedings
forward in the following types of cases:
• The most ‘heinous cases’

• ‘Status prosecutions’ where accountants and/or tax advisers have been involved
(thereby harming trust)
• Cases where taxpayers have already enjoyed a negotiated (private) settlement and
have re-offended
• Where taxpayers have failed to make a full disclosure during an investigation.
It therefore beggars belief that, given this formal policy commitment, a mere 48
Revenue prosecutions were mounted in 2003/4, with five cases being acquitted. Of
just 43 successful prosecutions, 15 referred to internal frauds involving Revenue staff
and accomplices and so this leaves a grand total of just 28 successful prosecutions for
tax evasion in 2003/4.
It is telling that there has been no independent review of core issues of tax evasion
and the hidden economy since Lord Keith of Kinkell’s report2 on the enforcement pow-
ers of the Inland Revenue in 1983. A review of the informal economy (Grabiner, 2000)
and organised benefit fraud (Scampion Report, 2000) have been undertaken under New
Labour, but 20 years on from Keith, a thorough review of Inland Revenue enforcement
and compliance activities remains long overdue. Changes in the law have, however,
taken place that should have led to an easing of the evidential and prosecutorial bur-
dens in many tax evasion cases. For example, in 2001 the Revenue received £2 million
funding to pay for extra staff to conduct investigations and apply the new criminal
offence of ‘being knowingly concerned in the fraudulent evasion of income tax’. This
offence can be tried in Magistrates’ Courts and should allow the Revenue to mount more
prosecutions, particularly in relation to the informal or shadow economy (PAC, 2003).
But the PAC noted, with some disappointment, that results so far were ‘limited’.
It is rather surprising, then, that the Grabiner Report had concluded in 2000 that ‘for
tax evasion, the current system seems to work well’. Indeed, it does seem to work
well – for the tax fraudster. However, the report did acknowledge that such a selective
prosecution policy (and only prosecuting in cases where amounts evaded were large)
did give rise to a risk of inconsistency with other departments. But this inconsistency
2
The Report of the Committee on the Enforcement Powers of the Revenue Departments
(CMND 8822, 1983).
• 52 •
does not only relate to the numbers if prosecutions mounted and the size of the sums
defrauded, but also to who was involved in the fraud: for example, Grabiner astutely
notes that a collusive employer operating in the informal economy would be regarded
very seriously by Inland Revenue, but not so by the then Department of Social Security
(DSS), even though the amount of illegal gain from tax evasion may be far greater than
most social security frauds. The DWP, like its predecessor department (the DSS), is less
interested in collusive employers than individual benefit claimants, whose removal
from the benefit rolls contributes to meeting government anti-fraud targets. And it is
to the issue of benefit fraud that we now turn.
The politics of benefit fraud
The preceding discussion of tax fraud has been underpinned by an analysis of data
provided in a range of official documents, principally Inland Revenue Annual Reports
and Public Accounts Committee reports. Where benefit fraud is concerned, there are
long standing issues around the accuracy and accessibility of data on fraud and prose-
cutions. Before its abolition in 1980, the then Supplementary Benefits Commission
produced annual reports which gave this kind of information. However, for the past 20
years, it has become increasingly difficult to access reliable and consistent information
on benefit fraud and then to interpret it. This may be part and parcel of the politicisa-
tion of benefit fraud, which has gathered pace since the 1970s.
Moral panics over ‘scroungers’ or rogues are not new, building as they do on histor-
ical constructions of the undeserving poor: for example, mid-twentieth-century ver-
sions include the post-war ‘spivs’ who lived off the ‘black market’ (Deacon, 1980). But
it was the 1970s and the successful rise of Thatcherism, channelling an anti-permissive
backlash against the Labour governments of the 1960s and early 1970s, that signalled
a step change and scroungermania was born. By 1997 The Times observed that there
was ‘a widespread belief in this country that many people receiving social security pay-
ments are scrounging off the state’ (The Times, 8 December 1977).
The years immediately following the election of the first Thatcher government in
1979 saw major changes in the estimation, investigation and policing of benefit fraud.
The official estimate of the extent of benefit fraud increased from £4 million to £200
million and staffing for investigation work increased accordingly (Spicker, 1998). Benefit
fraud prosecutions had reached their peak in 1980/1 when 20,105 supplementary ben-
efit claimants were prosecuted through the criminal courts. But the Rayner enquiry
(held in the same year) advocated a more ‘cost-effective’ approach involving ‘non-
prosecution interviews’, which would lead to benefit savings without the costs of mount-
ing a formal prosecution. This approach was pursued vigorously by new Special Claims
Control Units (SCCU), established to undertake unannounced ‘blitzes’ on target groups
of claimants (notably the unemployed and single mothers) in target areas (of highest
poverty and unemployment). Their techniques were oppressive and their goals were to
persuade claimants to withdraw their claims. Clearly the so called ‘super-snoopers’
‘chased people off the books’ (The Times, 4 August 1980) but their estimates of the
benefits saved as a result of their efforts were viewed very sceptically by many. Benefit
• 53 •
savings calculations then involved multiplying the weekly benefit paid out by a factor
of up to 52, dubiously assuming: firstly, that the claim was fraudulent; and secondly that
it would have continued for up to another year were it not for the investigation (Cook,
1989:127). An important consequence of these new policies was to inflate the estimates
of benefits saved through SCCU activities, thereby inflating the scale of the problem of
fraud, ratcheting up the political and public response still further.
The SCCU, blitz tactics and ‘Dolebusters’ of the 1980s were supplemented by
‘Spotlight’ Campaigns and the introduction of ‘Shop a Cheat’ hotlines in the 1990s.
When New Labour came to power the power of the scrounger discourse proved irre-
sistible and the Conservative policies targeting benefit fraud were continued and inten-
sified. Press, television and the Internet all now offer citizens the opportunity to give
anonymous tip-offs about scroungers they know. Twenty-first-century campaigns
including the ‘Targeting Fraud’ campaigns are glossy, professional and stir up images of
benefit claimants as, among other things, attractive shopaholic hairdressers, whose
penchant for fashion is funded by benefit fraud. A more recent campaign attempted to
inject a more intimidating and threatening tone to anti-fraud drives, by using the voice
of a celebrity villain:
Hard hitting adverts, featuring former Bond villain Stephen Berkoff, leave listeners
in not doubt that the DWP is cracking down on cheats. (DWP Press Release, 28
June 2004)
The anti-fraud Minister Chris Pond launched the campaign by saying:
The adverts are hard hitting and so is our attitude to cheats who steal taxpay-
ers money. That money should be spent on schools, hospitals and other public
services. (ibid)
The cheats and scroungers are here presented as ‘the enemy within’ who are stealing
cash meant for hospitals, schools and services. But the same tone and argument are
not being deployed where tax evaders are concerned, although their activities are far
more costly to law-abiding taxpayers and, many would argue, more prevalent. The
only Inland Revenue advertising campaigns seek to humorously reassure us that ‘tax
does not have to be taxing’ in an effort to encourage us to get our tax returns in on
time. Tax evasion has never been the subject of publicity campaigns (Grabiner, 2000),
which is in itself an indication of very unequal political responses to frauds that both
‘steal’ from the public purse.
Guesstimating and prosecuting benefit fraud
Both media-fuelled ‘moral panic’ and political hype have had an impact on the
calculation and dissemination of estimates of benefit fraud over the past 25 years. As
we have seen, estimates of benefit fraud rose from £4 million to £200 million when
the Thatcher government took power in 1979. This was largely due to the use of
• 54 •
multipliers to calculate benefit savings thereafter used as the basis for estimate of the
extent of fraud (Cook, 1989). Although the New Labour government ceased to use
multipliers, it nonetheless pedalled some dubious fraud estimates. For instance, its
1998 Green Paper on Social Security Fraud (entitled Beating Fraud is Everybody’s
Business) began with the widely-publicised estimate that 7% of claims were fraudu-
lent. But, on closer inspection, this assertion concealed that the estimate of 7% was
calculated by adding up three different elements:
• 2% of fraud which was estimated as having been ‘established’

• A further 3%, based on ‘strong suspicions’
• A ‘lower suspicion’ which was said to exist in a further 2% of cases.
In the case of the latter, ‘low suspicion’ may arise from a claimant’s spending appear-
ing to outstrip their means. Nonetheless, this type of suspicion will be included in
fraud estimates ‘on the balance of probabilities’ and without any formal evidence of
fraud taking place. These dubious methods of calculating the extent of benefit fraud,
which conflate suspicion with proven cases, are themselves highly ‘suspect’.
(Sainsbury, 2001).
The DWP continues to pursue a policy which, like the Inland Revenue, seeks only
selective prosecution. In addition it favours cautions, withdrawal of benefit, with
possibilities for additional penalties and sanction. Yet, as Figure 2.3 on page 56 indi-
cates, the DWP still prosecuted 9270 income support and jobseekers allowance
claimants in 2002/3, a year in which only 43 people were successfully prosecuted in
relation to tax offences. The data and the extensive ‘notes’3 accompanying it pro-
vided by the DWP (see Figure 2.4, page 57) demonstrate the complexities and the
duplicities involved in compiling data on ‘detected’ benefit fraud. The limitations of
the data evident in the DWP’s own notes, summarised in Figure 2.4 and the incon-
sistencies with other data sources (indicated in the author’s footnotes) should make
any reader extremely cautious about the completeness, accuracy and comparability
of the data year-on-year.
There are further issues that also shape ‘guesstimates’ of the scale of benefit fraud.
Firstly, benefit prosecutions may be mounted by different agencies: the DWP, Local
Authorities (LAs) (in relation to Council Tax or Housing Benefit fraud) or joint prose-
cutions by both. Significantly, the Anti-Fraud Minister, Chris Pond, when asked how
many joint prosecutions had been undertaken by DWP with LAs responded that ‘the
information is not available’ (Hansard, 23 February 2004, Col. 305W). All three types
of investigation – DWP, LA and joint – may be conflated where media coverage of fraud
is concerned, with a consequent amplification of the scale and threat of the perceived
problem of benefit ‘scrounging.’(e.g. DWP Press Releases, 15 and 28 June 2004).
Secondly, prosecutions are supplemented by alternative regulatory responses
which ‘count’ where calculations of the scale of detected fraud are concerned. It has
3
These notes were supplied by the DWP (2004) to accompany the more recent data.
• 55 •
Cautions and
administrative
Year Successful prosecutions penalties
DWP Local Local

(formerly DSS) authority DWP authority TOTAL
1993/4 7645 – – –
1994/5 9546 – – –
1995/6 10,677 – – –
1996/7 11,000a – – –
1997/8 11,380 700 – – 12,080
1998/9 9970 800 – – 10,770b
1999/2000 9130 860 11,030 390 21,410
2000/1 11,400 1100 15,560 550 28,610
2001/2 11,180c 1700 13,550 2600 29,030
2002/3 9270 2503 14,270 6001 32,044
a
A New Contract for Welfare: Safeguarding Social Security CM4276 (1999) http://www.dwp.
gov.uk/publications/dss/1999/fraud/pdfs/safegrd.pdf
b
But the figure cited in Social Security Departmental Report (2001) Cm 5115 p. 47 is 14,000 prose-
cuted or sanctioned.
c
HC 488 (2003) PAC Report cites 11,183 prosecutions, of which 98% were successful and 646
resulted in a custodial sentence and 175 in suspended custodial sentences.
Figure 2.3 Benefit Fraud Prosecutions, Cautions and Penalties for Those Claiming
Supplementary Benefit/Income Support or Jobseekers Allowance 1993/4 – 2002/3
(Sources: DWP Personal Communication, 19 July 2004; Cook, 1997; DWP, 1999; DWP
Departmental Report, 2001; PAC, 2003)
always been the norm to seek repayment of benefit overpaid to individuals after an
admission of (or proof of) fraud. Additionally, the Social Security Administration
(Fraud) Act (1997) introduced cautions (followed by withdrawal and repayment of
benefits) and additional administrative penalties. Recent research reviewing the
benefit fraud sanctions scheme (SPARK, 2004) found some inconsistency in the appli-
cation of sanctions and drew attention to the impact of the scheme on claimants who
had been overpaid benefit and were sanctioned despite asserting that they had no
intention to defraud. This group, termed ‘incogniscant fraudsters’, admitted their
guilt and gained a criminal record by accepting a caution, but ‘found the sanction
harsh because they did not agree that they had intended to defraud the system’
(ibid:79, emphasis added).
• 56 •
1. An effective benefit case is defined as an investigation that results in an adjustment of the

current rate of benefit, an overpayment or an underpayment or the person ceasing their
claim to benefit. There is a significant reduction in effective cases from April 1999 following
the introduction of a new measurement regime allowing only immediate interventions to be
counted.
2. Administrative penalties, as an alternative to prosecution, were introduced by the Social

Security Administration (Fraud) Act (1997) with effect from December 1998. Cautions were
made available to local authorities as a sanction from the start of 2001/2.
3. Figures for financial years 1997/8 to 2000/1 are taken from local authority management
information returns. It is possible that there could be some double counting with DWP data
if there were cases which involved a joint prosecution.
4. Management information data for financial years 1997/8 to 2000/1 is not available for all local
authorities. The total for Great Britain includes estimates for local authorities that have not
responded. These estimates are based on historical and regional data. This type of estimate
is standard practice in reporting totals where there have been non-respondents. The figures
for financial years 1997/8 to 2000/1 have been rounded to two significant figures.
5. Information for 2001/2 is from a count of prosecutions and sanctions completed by all local
authorities; this data is collected from local authority subsidy returns. Subsidy data may
differ from management information data (shown for financial years 1997/8 to 2000/1) at
local authority level; however, analysis shows a high level of consistency between the two
data sources at national level.
6. The DWP figures are from the Fraud Information By Sector database, which shows
completed cases commenced in the relevant period. Due to the elapsed time between
commencement of an investigation and completion of a prosecution there are cases that
are inserted into previously completed data for earlier periods. All DWP totals are therefore
correct at the time when quoted but subject to adjustment at a later date.
7. In accordance with National Statistics Guidelines all DWP figures are rounded to the
nearest 10. Due to rounding process totals may not agree.
Figure 2.4 DWP Notes Relating to Fraud Data

(Source: DWP, 2004)
The Social Security Fraud Act (2001), following on from the 1997 Act, strengthened
departmental powers to uncover fraud by means such as information sharing with a
range of government and other (notably credit rating) agencies. But its critics argue
that the Act:
Threatens too many innocent people’s privacy; and giving the DSS more power
to define for themselves the types of people who are ‘more likely’ to commit
offences could well prove discriminatory in effect. (James Welch, legal director
of Liberty, 19 December 2000)
In addition, and in line with US inspired policies on ‘persistent offenders’ in other

crime domains, the DWP has, since April 2002, been able to suspend benefits for 13
weeks if an individual is convicted of committing benefit fraud twice in three years
(the ‘two strikes’ penalty). Though rarely used so far, the fact that this penalty exists
• 57 •
is of concern to poverty campaigners and civil libertarians alike, who would argue
that: it denies any notion of ‘rights’ to benefits and a minimum income; such penal-
ties will have unjust impacts on other members of the family, including children;
and that they take no account of the reasons that propel some to commit fraud in
the first place – poverty, and an inability to make ends meet on benefits. Ironically,
Lord Grabiner (2000) argued that, in relation to ‘smaller’ tax offences in the hidden
economy, ‘a person’s means to pay is key – where there are “no means” to pay, the
tax is written off as irrecoverable’. A lack of means to pay does not similarly apply to
benefit fraudsters and for them recovery, not write-off, is the norm.
Thirdly, it is crucial to recognise the discursive contexts within which benefit fraud
data are constructed. Official estimates of benefit fraud are not only flawed in terms
of the inclusion of ‘suspicious’ cases, as already discussed. But in addition, frequent
reference is made – in policy documents, political speeches and press releases – to
fraud and error. This conflates the illegal and the erroneous, and also conceals the
fact that benefit losses may be due to errors by the department rather than the
claimant. Nonetheless, government targets for anti-fraud work are couched in terms
of percentage reductions in fraud and error, although errors may be nothing what-
ever to do with fraud. For example, with a baseline of 1997/8, the most recent report
on Fraud and Error in Income Support and Jobseekers Allowance from April 2002 – March
2003 confirms the Departmental target to:
achieve a 10% reduction by March 2002, a 25% reduction by March 2004 and
a 50% reduction by March 2006. (DWP, 2004a)
It states that the amount of benefit overpaid due to fraud and error on IS and JSA in
2002/3 as 6.3% of the total benefit paid. But the tables within the report indicate the
following breakdown:
• Fraud – 3.6%
• Customer error – 1.1%
• Official error – 1.7%.
(ibid:5)
If the department does indeed meet its targets, this will partly be a product of reduc-
tions in its own errors and those of claimants, although the media tale will not report
this detail: it will inevitably concentrate on the highlights and so will once again
amplify the scale of fraud and accentuate the moral panic around it. The conflation
of JSA, IS, Council Tax and Housing Benefit fraud (evident in Figure 2.3 on page 56)
achieves a similar end.
The benefit fraud agenda
The ingredients of one recent press release from the DWP shows the ways in which
all the statistical and discursive tricks discussed so far can come together to justify
• 58 •
and to drive social and criminal justice policy against benefit fraud. In this example,
benefit fraudsters are constituted as both cheats and thieves (from the honest tax-
payer) and are juxtaposed with ‘genuine’ claimants and honest taxpayers who are
encouraged to report anyone they ‘suspect’ of committing fraud. Here also prosecu-
tions by the DWP and LA (for housing benefit fraud) are added together, as are pros-
ecutions and lesser sanctions, thereby increasing the number reported and, with it,
the perceived scale of benefit fraud itself:
… the public are fed up with cheats who steal money from the taxpayer that
should go to people in genuine need of help…
And the public have supported our campaign by contacting us if they suspect
someone they know of committing fraud…
[The] DWP, in partnership with local authorities, is carrying out more prosecu-
tions and sanctions then ever before – in 2002/3 there were over 32,000 pros-
ecutions and sanctions. (DWP Press Release, 15 June 2004)
A final word on the context of the recording, reporting and construction of the
‘problem’ of benefit fraud. With such a myopic political and public focus on benefits
overpaid, one missing element is that of benefits underpaid. It has long been
accepted that benefit fraud campaigns are counter-productive where benefit take-up
is concerned: older people, in particular, are reluctant to be seen as ‘scrounging’ from
the state by claiming the benefits to which they are legally entitled. As we saw in
Chapter 1, one in five people who could claim one of the five main means-tested
benefits (Income Support, Minimum Income Guarantee, Housing Benefit, Council
Tax Benefit and Jobseekers Allowance) is not doing so and is suffering accordingly.
Most worrying was the low take-up of MIG by pensioners, which ranged between
only 63% and 72%. Campaigning groups have long been concerned about the over-
all and specific impact of low benefit take-up for claimant groups:
… the role of benefits in maximising income is fundamental to the relief of

income poverty for families with children. (Child Poverty Action Group, Press
Release, 4 March 2004)
The stigma attached to claiming benefits acts as a powerful deterrent to claiming, as

one cancer charity indicates:
More than half of people with cancer (83,000) who die each year (154,000) do
not claim their entitled disability benefits. Lindsay Baker, 37… who was recently
diagnosed said ‘I found claiming benefits more stressful than having cancer
itself.’ (Macmillan Cancer Relief, 22 June 2004)
Any government genuinely committed to social justice would be addressing benefit

underpayments in, at the very least, equal measure to fraud and overpayments of ben-
efit. While some publicity campaigns have been mounted to encourage take-up (for
• 59 •
example, of Pensioner Credits), low take-up of many means-tested benefits persists.

At the same time, social justice would involve ensuring parity of responses to individ-
ual citizens who defraud the state whether by tax evasion or by benefit fraud, and this
is very far from the case in contemporary Britain. To return to the question posed at
the beginning of this section, it does indeed appear there is ‘one law for the rich and
another for the poor’. This disparity can be understood both in terms of the continu-
ity of historical themes (notably the notion of the undeserving poor, and a traditional
hatred of personal taxation), and shifts in policy, notably agency investigation and
prosecution policies and broader political priorities designed to appeal to middle
England (see Chapter 6). The next chapter will go on to set the theoretical and politi-
cal context for developing an understanding of such disparities.
• 60 •
•three • Signs, Posts and

the Third Way
Introduction
Everything is ‘post’. We have become used to post-industrialism now for some

time, and we can still more or less make sense of it. With post-modernism
things began to get blurred. The concept of post-enlightenment is so dark even
a cat would hesitate to venture in. (Beck, 1992:9)
Ulrich Beck’s classic work Risk Society: towards a new modernity addresses the concerns
and transformations of societies which have been variously described as: post-
Fordist, post-Enlightenment, post-welfare, late-twentieth century modernity and
postmodern. The quotation above, taken from its preface, captures some of the diffi-
culties faced by academics, students, politicians, practitioners and public alike in
finding ways to name, to understand and to theorise the dramatic changes and
upheavals that transformed (formerly) modern, industrial societies in the latter part
of the twentieth century. As the title of this chapter suggests, the signs and the ‘posts’
facing those attempting to examine the relations between criminal and social justice
in such societies are confusing and do not point in any clear direction. It is little won-
der, then, that those seeking to reconcile these two key aspects of policy often get lost
along the way. The aim of this chapter is to drop markers in order to help those try-
ing to navigate through the theoretical and policy spaces in which contemporary
‘justice’ – criminal and social – is constituted. In so doing, it will also build upon the
historical themes in criminal and social justice – both the constants and dissonants –
which were discussed in the previous chapter.
1. Postmodern Confusion
As David Garland (2001) observes, the major changes which swept across modern
societies in the latter half of the twentieth century were, at the same time, economic,
social, cultural and political. Over the past 20 years academics have struggled to theorise
the dynamic, diverse and complex sets of changes which have questioned ‘modern’
taken-for-granted assumptions about the nature of social, economic, cultural, gender,
class and international relations. A full discussion of all of these changes is clearly
beyond the scope of this book but, following Garland, they may be briefly summarised
as consisting of:
• The unfolding dynamic of capitalist production and market exchange, and corre-
sponding changes in technology, mass production, consumption, transport and com-
munications
• The restructuring of the family and the household: smaller households with fewer
children, women entering the workforce in greater numbers and alternative family
formations
• Changes in the social ecology of cities and suburbs: with car ownership and mass
transport leading to suburbanisation (of employment and residence) and parallel
urban decline
• The rise of the electronic mass media, giving nation-wide information, displaying
consumption patterns and ‘lifestyles’ previously beyond the reach of many social
groups
• The democratisation of social and cultural life: following struggles for civil rights for a
range of groups (black, gay, (dis)abled, mentally ill people and women), enhanced cit-
izenship, political pluralism and challenge, and a shift from ‘communities of fate’ to
individualism and ‘communities of choice’.
One important consequence of these changes was a dissolving of the grand narra-
tives which had previously sought to explain social political, economic and cultural
life. The competing grand narratives of ‘modernism’ – Marxism, democratic social-
ism and neo-liberalism – all seemed incapable of adequately addressing the com-
plexities of late modernity and the diversity of interpretations and responses to
them. Concepts such as ‘class’ and ‘the market’ were rendered ineffectual by a post-
modern stance which unpackaged grand narratives revealing the insecurities and
‘unknowables’ which accompany an increasingly ‘reflexive’ approach to apprehending
and understanding a dynamic world. Broadly, what had been typified as industrial
society structured through social class, gave way to a highly individualised risk soci-
ety and, at the same time, concerns about the distribution of goods shifted to con-
cerns about the distribution of the bads (Beck, 1992:3).
Where the ‘bads’ were concerned, challenges to science and to scientific/professional
expertise grew as the technology and science of late modernity proved to be evermore
fallible and risky. The 1980s saw two horrendous examples of this: in December 1984
a discharge of poisonous gas from the Union Carbide pesticide plant killed more than
6300 people in Bhopal, India; and in April 1986 the nuclear reactor disaster at
Chernobyl, Ukraine, exposed 1.7 million people to radiation. The invisibility (and yet
ubiquity) of the toxins released in both cases gave testimony to the truly ‘global’
nature of the risks unleashed by, and acutely felt in, late modernity. Proximity (physical
or cultural) was no longer a defining issue where such risks were concerned – anyone,
• 62 •
• • • Signs, Posts and the Third Way • • •
anywhere could be at risk. Moreover, as Beck persuasively argues, if people say they
experience risks as real to them, then they are indeed real, and when their concerns
are met with denial by ‘the experts’, then trust in those experts diminishes further.
Lack of trust and the demystification of expertise and scientific knowledge are crucial
to the reflexivity of postmodern society. In such societies the process of reflexive mod-
ernisation involves individuals making critical evaluations and decisions about a
bewildering array of life choices – where to live, where is safe to work and travel to,
what to eat, whether to immunise infants and so on – in order to minimise the per-
ceived risks for themselves and their loved ones. However, risks are not experienced
or perceived alike by all social groups: for example, ‘there is more apprehension
among working-class people about social change and about the greater choice with
which they believe they are presented.’ (Taylor-Gooby, 2001:205). The contradictory
messages sent out in risk societies can, therefore, be perplexing and unequally experi-
enced: the dangers of MMR vaccinations, CJD and hospital ‘superbugs’ have all been
‘scares’ of national concern, but we are reassured not to be too worried about them;
the threat of weapons of mass destruction was imminent, but this was de-bunked
(when none were found following the invasion of Iraq); and the very real scare for us
all is the omnipresent fear of ‘terrorists’. Terrorist attacks have taken place which have
killed and maimed thousands (in Bali, Egypt, Iraq, London, New York and Turkey, for
example). But it is nonetheless important to recognise the confusing (and sometimes
reactionary) effects of the perpetual state of anxiety that characterises postmodern
societies. This state of ‘high anxiety’ is captured, albeit with irony and humour, in the
cartoon overleaf (Figure 3.1).
In the sphere of welfare policy, the perceived collapse of other grand narratives – not
least social democracy and ‘the welfare state’ in Britain – has also led to a quest for
new ways to cope with the challenges of postmodern societies. In the US and the UK
the free market philosophies of the (1980s) new right administrations of Ronald
Reagan and Margaret Thatcher were characterised by: antipathy to ‘big government’;
a consequent desire to ‘roll back the frontiers of the state’; economic individualism;
free market principles; and a belief in a strong (moral) civil society. The Keynesian
demand-side economic approach and pursuit of policies geared to greater equality,
which had dominated the so-called post-war ‘welfare settlement’, became fundamen-
tally unsettled as the twentieth century drew to a close (Clarke, 2004b). The fall of
old style communism in Europe and the former Soviet Union was signalled by the
literal collapse of the wall dividing communist East Berlin from the democratic West
of the city in 1989, and with it the face of international politics and global economic
relations also changed: the old adversaries in the cold war of the 1950s (the states
comprising the former Soviet Union, most notably Russia) were no longer enemies
of the West. At the same time, the challenges posed by globalisation (of production,
markets, consumption, culture and risk) also provoked a re-appraisal of social and
economic policy as the ‘tiger economies’ of the far east presented a challenge to the
former leading economies of the US and western Europe. It is within this dynamic,
fluid and insecure context that US, UK and European attentions turned to seeking
out a ‘Third Way’ – both at home and abroad.
• 63 •
Figure 3.1 Postmodern Confusion

(Source: Martin Rowson. Reproduced with permission of the Guardian)
2. ‘Thinking in Thirds’ and the Narrowness of the Third Way
The concept of third space is not new and not restricted to politics. For instance, in
the field of modern geography:
… Thirdspace is a purposefully tentative and flexible term that attempts to cap-

ture what is actually a constantly shifting and changing milieu of ideas, events,
appearances and meanings. (Soja, 1996, quoted in Haylett, 2001:43)
The words ‘tentative’ and ‘flexible’ are very telling when this concept is applied in the
context of New Labour’s much vaunted Third Way ‘project’. As I will go on to explain,
many regard the Third Way as more about antithesis than thesis, more about opposi-
tion than proposition, and more about pragmatism than politics. But let us start by
examining how the Third Way is described and understood by its two leading propo-
nents – Tony Blair and the man often referred to as his ‘guru’, Anthony Giddens.
• 64 •
According to Giddens:
The overall aim of the third way in politics should be to help citizens pilot their
way through the major revolutions of our time: globalization, transformations
in personal life and our relationships to nature. (1998:64)
He goes on to outline what he sees as core Third Way values which will make this
navigation possible:
1. Equality – defined here as ‘inclusion’

2. Protection of the vulnerable
3. Freedom with autonomy
4. No rights without responsibilities
5. No authority without democracy
6. Cosmopolitan pluralism – as a means of regenerating solidarity in the face of global-
ization and rapid social change
7. Philosophic conservatism – a pragmatic approach to coping with change and sus-
taining continuity in family life.
(ibid:66)
These values, in turn, translate into a ‘project’ which situates itself between ‘old’ left
and new right, while purporting to be a radical alternative to both. For example, in
1998 the then Secretary of State for Education, David Blunkett, stated that the Third
Way was ‘an alternative between old Labour welfarism and the rampant individualism
of the Right’ (quoted in Haylett, 2001:46). The alternative positioning of the Third Way
is demonstrated in Figure 3.2 which summarises Giddens’ views on the key dimensions
of these three distinct political, economic and social philosophies. The Third Way is lit-
erally betwixt – in the space that separates – the old left and the new right. But when
set against one another, it becomes apparent that the Third Way is clearer about what
it is against than what it is for – more antithesis than thesis.
The Third Way thesis, such as it is, depends on language and concepts which are delib-
erately fluid and slippery so that they may cover the exigencies of a globalised, shifting
and risky social and economic world. But in so doing, I would argue, what they offer can
only be a potential coping strategy rather than a positive ‘way forward’ based upon a clear
vision of political and ideological goals. In this respect the Third Way is more about the
journey than the destination, more about the means of getting there than the ends to be
achieved, more about power and governance than politics and values.
Tony Blair not only implicitly accepts this interpretation, but on taking power he
positively celebrated it:
We will be a radical government. But the definition of radicalism will not be that
of doctrine, whether left or right, but of achievement. New Labour is a party of
ideas and ideals but not of outdated ideology. What counts is what works. (Tony
Blair, 1998, quoted in Powell, 1999)
‘What works’ will be the subject of the next chapter, but here it is important to recog-
nise the centrality of pragmatism – and getting (re)elected – to New Labour and the
Third Way project.
• 65 •
Area of The ‘old left’ Thatcherism or

political classical social The Third Way neo-liberalism
philosophy democracy ‘project’ (the ‘new right’)
The state Pervasive state The radical centre. Minimal government.

and society involvement in social The new democratic Autonomous civil society.
and economic life. state (the state without Market fundamentalism.
State dominates over enemies).
civil society. Active civil society.
Collectivism.
Economic Keynesian demand The democratic family. Moral authoritarianism, plus

relations management, plus The new mixed strong economic
corporatism. economy. individualism.
Confined role for Labour market clears like
markets: the mixed or any other.
social economy.
Full employment.
Social and Strong egalitarianism. Equality as inclusion. Acceptance of inequality.

welfare Comprehensive welfare Positive welfare. Welfare state as safety net.
relations state ‘from cradle to The social investment
grave’. state.
Global Linear modernisation. The cosmopolitan Linear modernization.

relations Low ecological nation. Low ecological
consciousness. Cosmopolitan consciousness.
Internationalism. democracy. Traditional nationalism.
Belongs to bi-polar Realist theory of
world. international order.
Belongs to bi-polar world.
Figure 3.2 The Third Way Project: Betwixt Left and Right
(Source: Adapted from Giddens, 1998)
Days after Tony Blair’s first landslide election victory in 1997, an ‘old Labour’ elder
statesman and former part Deputy Leader, Roy Hattersley, expressed doubts about
the unashamed pragmatism of New Labour. He argued that sooner or later the British
electorate would need ‘an ideal to live by’ but felt that Blair had ‘built a government
which is untainted by dogma. He is taking the politics out of politics.’ The apparently
fluid policy stance of the Third Way therefore posed fundamental questions because,
as Hattersley perceptively noted, the problem with pragmatism is that ‘nobody ever
died for it’ (Guardian, 14 May 1997).1
The Third Way presents itself as a modern, pragmatic approach to addressing chal-
lenges in delivering as well as re-shaping social and criminal justice policies. The rise
1
Ironically, eight years on from this observation, there are tens of thousands who have died in
pursing the Blair’s government’s policies (most notably in Iraq), but many critics – including this
author – would argue that they have died because of, and not for, the politics of Blair’s Third Way.
• 66 •
of New Labour coincided with an acknowledgement that there were a raft of new,
complex, wicked issues (such as crime, drugs, environmental issues) that defied
resolution under traditional government’s ‘silo’ approach to departmental policy-
making and delivery. According to Clarke and Stewart (1997) these ‘wicked issues’
needed:
• Holistic, not linear, partial thinking to address complex problems which could not be
addressed by a single agency
• A capacity to work across and between organisational boundaries (multi-agency and
partnership working)
• The positive engagement of the public in developing appropriate responses (chal-
lenging top-down government, and the dispersal of power)
• A willingness to think and work in different ways, and to pursue the radical
• A new style of governing for a learning society, challenging fragmentation and bureau-
cracy.
(Taken from: Ling, 2002:622)
The Third Way response to the complex challenges of such issues was couched
in terms of: modernisation, democratisation and governance, all of which were sym-
bolised in the notion of joined-up government (JUG). Ling argues that JUG cannot
be understood merely as the ‘administrative corollary of the politics of the Third
Way.’ (2002:639). As we will see in Chapter 4, making policies ‘work’ is far from an
exact science and different departments (for instance the Treasury, Home Office and
Cabinet Office) conceive the relative importance of managerial targets, organisa-
tional culture change and public participation in very different ways.
Alongside (and integral to) its emphasis on the need for holistic, multi-agency,
democratised responses to key policy challenges, the politics of the Third Way
engages with a range of agencies beyond the public state sector. But it is important
to recognise that the beginnings of this shift – referred to by Clarke (2004a) as the
dissolution of the public realm – were evident more than 20 years ago with new right
policies of privatisation and the contracting out of formerly public sector services,
most notably in the sphere of health. The dissolution continued through the 1980s
and 1990s as public responsibilities for the care of elderly, disabled and mentally ill
people were transformed into ‘community care’ strategies and, in the field of educa-
tion, responsibilisation strategies shifted the emphasis from the state to parents
(Clarke, 2004a). The Third Way has continued and accelerated this trend with the
development of its private finance initiatives (PFI) and public–private partnerships
(PPPs). But many former state functions have not only been commercialised but also
voluntarised: in the field of criminal justice, in particular, key functions around the
support and care of victims of crime, and the ‘treatment’ of offenders are frequently
conducted not by the state’s criminal justice agencies, but by volunteers (Cook and
Vallely, 2003; Cook and Lyle, 2004). While, in theory, New Labour is committed to
less ‘big government’ (on the part of the state), it has nonetheless presided over the
development of different and more complex forms of governance which are more
• 67 •
penetrating than ever before and so there is ‘less government, but more governance’
(Clarke, 2004a:480).
In summary, the flexibility of Third Way politics means that it may appear all things
to all people and, as such, may at first sight seem to present a very broad path. But the
range of policy options it countenances is relatively narrow and limited in three key
respects. Firstly, it is invariably relative to those philosophies and policies which it
is cast in opposition to – the old left and new right. In this sense, the Third Way is
a rhetorical device for the positioning of pragmatic policy responses rather than a gen-
uinely value-led political philosophy. This view is supported by frequent references to
the Third Way or New Labour as a project: a project is, by definition, a scheme, a plan
or ‘contrivance’, but it is not a political philosophy. This characteristic clearly limits the
Third Way’s potential as a purposeful, radical driver for change. Secondly, those poli-
cies which were seen to be potential electoral liabilities for an emergent New Labour
government (including raising higher rate taxes) were ‘ruled out’ well before the 1997
election, narrowing the Third Way still further (Lister, 2001). Thirdly, it is premised on
the twin concepts of modernisation and globalisation which are seen as ‘inescapable
forces’ that proffer just one (restricted) model of social development:
The singular and unified status politically granted to that model is its most pow-
erful ally, allowing no alternatives to be brokered, quashing other social and
economic imaginaries and ways of living with its material and symbolic weight.
(Haylett, 2001:52)
But for some critics the third way is materially and symbolically a far ‘lighter’ phe-
nomenon, as Calum Paton observed in 1999:
The ‘Third Way’ is mostly rhetoric. Almost all New Labour policies are announced
as a ‘third way’; but you must look at the particular context to see which two
alternatives the alleged ‘third way’ is coming between. On the economy gener-
ally, it appears to be between laissez-faire capitalism and redistributive welfare
capitalism, with the ‘Third Way’ being a limited supply-side tinkering. On welfare
reform, it is between collectivism in financing and universalism in provision on the
one hand, and pure individualism on the other. (1999:74)
For those concurring with his view, the Third Way may be interpreted as signalling
the ‘end of ideology’ and the end of political dogma, which Blair may well see as
cause for celebration. Such a perspective would render redundant the concern of
many critics that New Labour lacks a ‘big idea’ – the lack of a big idea would not in
itself pose any problem. Fundamentally, then, it could be argued that New Labour’s
big idea is that, now, there is no big idea.
3. New Labour, ‘Social Justice’ and Inequality
To be able to assess the extent to which the Third Way politics of New Labour are
capable of reconciling criminal and social justice in contemporary Britain, we first
• 68 •
need to examine how social justice has been constituted in Third Way discourse, and
how it has (or has not) been subsequently realised in New Labour social and eco-
nomic policies. According to Blair, New Labour was and is:
… a left of centre party, pursuing economic prosperity and social justice as part-
ners and not as opposites. (Quoted in the Guardian, 11 September 2001)
And, as Alan Deacon goes on to argue,
According to Blair, the third way does not just split the difference between the
old left and the right. Indeed, the defining feature of third way politics is that it
‘reconciles’ themes which in the past have been wrongly regarded as antago-
nistic. It does not see a contradiction between the creation of wealth and the
pursuit of social justice. It seeks both to promote enterprise and to attack
poverty and discrimination. (2002:104)
In short, it is argued that we can have it all ways via the Third Way, providing that
compromise is sought and deals are struck to ‘reconcile’ what was previously seen as
irreconcilable by both the old left and the new right.
But precisely what do advocates of the Third Way mean by ‘social justice’? Firstly,
social justice for them is located in the context of a vision of equality that is rooted
in equality of opportunity. The Chancellor, Gordon Brown, has articulated this in
terms of Christian Socialism and focuses on education as the key mechanism for
its transmission: for Brown, equality of opportunity is not only valued on ethical
grounds, but the education and skills which drive it are good for the economy
too (Deacon, 2002:112). This conception of equality as opportunity links with a
dominant feature of the Third Way’s ‘social investment state… the investment in
the child as citizen-worker-of-the-future’ (Williams, 2004:408). But even its invest-
ment in children is limited: while Tony Blair proclaims in the forword to the gov-
ernment Green Paper on reforming statutory services for children (Every Child
Matters), that ‘our children are everything to us: our hopes, our ambitions, our
future’, no commitment is made to increase expenditure in order to meet their needs
(Williams, 2004). Moreover, equality of opportunity, as measured by levels of social
mobility from one generation to the next, is moving in a negative direction under
New Labour: recent research for the Sutton Trust on international patterns of social
mobility reveals that educational opportunities are still primarily shaped by class and
family. As a result:
intergenerational mobility has declined in Britain at a time of increasing income

inequality. The strength of the relationship between educational attainment
and family income, especially for access to higher education, lies at the heart of
Britian’s low mobility culture. (Blanden, 2005:3)
Secondly, the Third Way defines equality as inclusion and inequality as exclusion
(Giddens, 1998:102). This represents a ‘paradigm shift from concerns of equality to
• 69 •
inclusion and opportunity, with which comes responsibility’ (Lister, 2001:431), and
a policy focus which effectively displaces concerns about social and economic
inequality, which remain ‘off’ the agenda.
Thirdly, the term ‘social justice’ is itself liable to many interpretations in Third Way
politics, but these are not related back to structural or systemic inequalities in income
and wealth in wider society. It is significant that social justice is effectively de-coupled
from issues of income inequality in Third Way discourse, as the following extract from
a lecture by the then Home Secretary David Blunkett shows:
The distribution of assets, rather than simple income, is increasingly important

to how we understand equality in life chances. Other assets such as educational
attainment are also crucial… I believe we also need a benchmark equality of
opportunity by reference to the experience of crime and anti-social behaviour,
which is a major determinant of social outcomes and quality of life. (2003:21)
This statement raises two further themes in Third Way discourse: one is the conflation
of the criminal and the social (which we will return to below), the second is the lexi-
con of finance – social capital, the investment state, individual and community assets –
which permeates New Labour political discourse on what is constituted as ‘social
justice’. Paradoxically, the words ‘income’ and ‘wealth’ and ‘inequality’ are conspicuous
by their absence. In this way, the Third Way financial lexis through which notions of
social justice are constructed and articulated is almost wholly devoid of the grubby idea
of real ‘money’.2 As mentioned in Chapter 2, the ‘p’ word – poverty – was largely absent
from New Labour’s first term in office, only being deployed in the context of New
Labour’s 1999 commitment to ending child poverty within a generation. In its second
term, Gordon Brown pledged in 2002 to end pensioner poverty, although no specific
targets or deadlines were set. Adult poverty is not a pressing issue for the New Labour
project, although adult responsibility (to support themselves and their families), inclu-
sion (in the civil society) and engagement (in a renewed, community and partnership-
based democracy) all are.
Back in 1994, while Shadow Chancellor, Gordon Brown articulated his vision of
social justice in terms of building:
a fair society in which all people, regardless of class, race or gender have available
to them the widest choice of options and opportunities to enhance their earning
power and fulfil their true potential. (Brown, quoted in Prideaux, 2001:89)
2
But one classic policy initiative which has involved money – in the context of addressing
child poverty through ‘asset based’ welfare – is the Children’s Trust Fund. This will provide
all children born after September 2002 with a £250 initial bond, topped up to £500 for those
children in families receiving maximum Child Tax Credit. It also allows for further investment
of sums up to £1200 per year on behalf of the child. The Fund is accessible at the age of 18, by
which time better off children whose parents and families are able to make further annual
investments will benefit most. At the same time, government has failed to review the cash lim-
ited Social Fund, which help the most vulnerable families meet essential one-off and lump sum
costs (Child Poverty Action Group, Newsletter Issue 30: December 2003).
• 70 •
On gaining office in 1997 he therefore developed policies that aimed to provide

‘pathways’ of opportunity from welfare-to-work and out of unemployment, poverty
and crime too. The difficulty was that these policies involved using resources to pro-
vide ‘opportunities’ (notably through New Deal programmes) and did not involve
spending more resources on individuals themselves. As already discussed, paid work
became synonymous with inclusion, and the Third Way defines equality and social
justice in terms of inclusion. Social justice is, therefore, seen as a product of engage-
ment with paid work and maximising the opportunities for advancement which
it offers. This limited conception of the constituents of social justice serves to dis-
place alternative concerns about: the adequacy or incomes (both earned and in terms
of welfare benefits), redistributive taxation and the vast inequalities in the distribu-
tion of income and wealth which have thus far characterised the first eight New
Labour years.
Blairite policies envisage no contradictions between promoting the goals of enter-
prise and pursuing social justice, but the evidence presented in Chapter 1 suggested
that an adequate balance has not been struck between these two policy aims. There
is evidence that dramatic increases in ‘executive pay’ have played a part in widening
inequality, even though the relationship between that pay and individual success or
‘enterprise’ remains unproven. By 2000 the richest 1% of the population (around half
a million people) received 8% of total income while the share of the poorest 10%
declined through the 1990s and by 2002/3 stood at just 2.8% of total income. Put
simply, the rich have got richer and the poor have got poorer still under New Labour
(Goodman and Oldfield, 2004). The Third Way discourse of ‘equality as inclusion’
forestalls any discussion of resource redistribution and, at the same time, it is cou-
pled with an emphasis on rights and responsibilities which may also include con-
cerns around social justice. The relationship between rights and responsibilities is
grounded in communitarian thinking which seeks to balance universal rights and
the common good, and self with community. This is best achieved through norms
and values which are shared and internalised:
For a social order to be able to rely heavily upon normative means requires that
most members of the society, most of the time, share a commitment to a core set
of values, and that most members, most of the time, will abide by the behavioural
implications of these values because they believe in them, rather than being
forced to comply with them.’ (Etzioni, 1997, quoted in Deacon, 2002:70)
Within communitarian discourse, work is still seen both as a means of personal ful-
filment and as the key ‘passport back into the accepted norms of society’ (Prideaux,
2001:97). The communitarian understanding of social justice is thus constituted in
terms of reciprocity, with rights conferred conditional on obligations owed. More
broadly still, communitarian thinking also engages with a further theme within
Third Way discourse – that of community and partnership (Taylor-Gooby, 2001). It
is through community-based partnerships that both democratic self-government and
crime reduction policies are to be realised (see Chapter 5 for a fuller discussion of
• 71 •
partnership working). The notion of ‘community’ as used by New Labour does not
merely involve the bemoaning of the passing of a ‘golden age’ of community. Rather,
it is seen as a means of restoring order and disciplined personal behaviour and is thus
a crucial element of Third Way politics.
Discipline is also a key theme where welfare policy is concerned. The Third Way
focuses on what it terms positive welfare, which is seen to involve ‘attacking prob-
lems of poverty, isolation and lack of self-fulfilment wherever they arise’ (Giddens,
2000:166). But the ways in which these problems are to be ‘attacked’ is at the level
of the individual – her or his responsibilities, behaviours and motivations – and so
invariably fails to address systemic or structural issues. Consequently, poverty per se
is not the problem, but:
It is poverty of ambition and poverty of expectation that is debilitating – if you

are going to crack that you have to confront it and do some things which
people think are tough. (Alistair Darling, Secretary of Sate for Social Security, in
the Guardian, 11 February 1999)
Positive welfare may therefore involve the equivalent of ‘tough love’, coupled with
regulation and compulsion. The view that ‘rights entail responsibilities’ and the
other Third Way catchphrase ‘work for those who can, security for those who can-
not’ evidences this approach, as does the following statement by Chancellor Gordon
Brown:
Full employment is not just about the right to work, but where there are jobs, the
responsibility and the requirement to work. (Brown, 2000:16, emphasis added)
This vision of welfare subjects here is far from ‘positive’ as it is assumed they are in
need of policing, management and control to ensure they fulfil their responsibilities
in terms of paid work. This is to be accomplished by a thoroughly modern welfare
state:
I believe you cannot have a modern Britain without a modern welfare state –
empowering, clear on priorities, realistic about human nature, tough on fraud,
using the best modern technology in delivering services. (Darling, quoted in
Haylett, 2001:50)
The prioritising of the benefit fraud issue has already been discussed and more will be
said about issues of ‘modern technology’ (below) and empowerment (Chapter 5). But
the comments of both Brown and Darling indicate that the modernisation agenda has
taken a cultural turn where welfare is concerned, by deploying the notion of the ‘unde-
serving poor’ where those who can work fail to do so. (It is no accident of policy, there-
fore, that those who are of working age and have no children are poorer under New
Labour than before they came to power – see Figure 1.6 (on page 27). The welfare recip-
ient – unless a child or a pensioner – is thus cast as ‘other’, in need of management,
regulation and inclusion, for their own and society’s good.
• 72 •
There are are, however, alternative perspectives which challenge Third Way welfare
politics and offer an alternative vision of how welfare may be re-ordered to address
the challenges of modernity. For example, Fiona Williams (2000: 675–84) proposed
what she has termed seven ‘good enough’ principles for the re-ordering of social wel-
fare relations:
1. Interdependence: in a rejection of the centrality of paid work and the dependency/

independence dichotomy, this principle acknowledges the range of emotional, mate-
rial, reciprocal networks which make autonomy possible, through collective effort.
2. Care: the ethic of care ‘presumes relationships which are bounded by mutual
interdependence’.
3. Intimacy: intimate relationships are more about commitment and trust than duty
and tradition. This principle also focuses on democratised gender and parent-child
relations.
4. Bodily integrity: welfare interventions have traditionally been based on healthy/
productive, unhealthy/unproductive dichotomies. This principle sees the body as
a site of control and resistance (e.g. for reproductive rights, challenging certain med-
ical treatments, campaigning against sexual abuse), arguing that ‘respect for the
integrity of the body is fundamental to the integrity of the welfare citizen’.
5. Identity: recognition is central to gaining a sense of self and belonging. This principle
suggests that New Labour’s focus on ‘family, community and nation’ as the bases for
solidarity is simplistic and insufficient, given the complexities and diversities which cut
across the monoliths of family, community and nation.
6. Transnational welfare: nationality as the basis of welfare is increasingly being chal-
lenged by shifting national boundaries and increasing numbers of people crossing
those boundaries (e.g. migrants, refugees, asylum seekers). This principle argues for
a move towards ‘post-national citizenship’.
7. Voice: this principle runs through all of the above and stresses the value of ‘lay’ in
addition to ‘expert’ knowledge. Based on radical, pluralist notions of democracy, this
poses an alternative version of ‘active citizenship’. It would also recognise the need
for greater equality and entail struggles for redistribution of resources.
These values suggest an alternative ‘active welfare subject’ who differs radically from
those constituted within and through Third Way welfare politics. For Williams, this
subject is neither an exerciser of choice in the welfare market nor simply pursuing
family and community responsibilities through engaging in paid work. S/he is not
driven by incentives, duty and responsibility alone. Rather, these welfare subjects are
pursuing ‘the recognition of moral worth… [through] new social movements and
user groups’ (Williams, 2000), and are sustained through interdependence, mutual
recognition and security and tolerance (ibid). The Third Way ethic of paid work is
balanced here by the ethics of interdependence and care in global as well as mutual,
family and community contexts.
The core values behind these principles are also evident in Ruth Lister’s work which
offered a ‘compass to guide New Labour towards a more progressive second term’
(Lister, 2001). However, the extent to which the compass she provided has been utilised
as a guide along the (Third) way is highly debateable. Yet without commitment and
• 73 •
adherence to such principles it is difficult to see how genuine progress towards social
justice can be made in contemporary Britain or, indeed, globally.
4. The Third Way, Crime and Justice
Having suggested that social justice remains an ill-defined and illusory goal in
New Labour’s Third Way politics, this section will address issues of criminal
justice. Firstly, however, it is necessary to build upon the issues raised in Chapter 2
by locating Third Way criminal justice policies in their appropriate historical,
social, economic and cultural contexts. This involves revisiting the politics of
Thatcherism.
As already suggested, the rise of Thatcherism in Britain in the 1970s marked a sig-
nificant break with the past, in terms of both economic and social policies. In sharp
contrast with the previous decade, Britain in the mid-1970s was beset by a deepen-
ing economic and industrial relations crisis coupled with a conservative ‘backlash’
against what had come to be seen as the ‘permissive’ cultural climate of the 1960s. A
vital component of this backlash was a powerful appeal to Law and Order which
served to bridge both sets of concerns – the economic and the social.
This fusion – of economic and social concerns – in law and order discourse was par-
ticularly evident in relation to crime and ‘trades union power’, which were fre-
quently referred to within the same breath: for example, in 1979 Margaret Thatcher
spoke of the ‘vandals on the picket lines and muggers on the streets’ (Hale, 1989). In
this way appeals to ‘Law and Order’ became unifying and populist themes which
encapsulated a range of social anxieties of the day:
The Tory Party was able to present a coherent framework in which to tackle
problems in both the economy and social life. The debate as they defined it had
recurring themes: welfare scroungers, stand on your own two feet, the need to
break the dependency culture, trades unions operating outside the law, moral
decline, personal discipline and personal responsibility. (Hale, 1989:344)
Law and order proved to be the decisive factor in the Conservative election victory
in 1979 which brought Margaret Thatcher to power. In relation to this dominant
agenda, ‘the mugger on the street’ had become a particularly powerful symbol of
Britain’s economic and social decline in the mid-1970s, although the term ‘mugging’
itself, and the moral panic it generated, had been imported from the US (Hall et al.,
1978). Public fears about mugging in the UK were, therefore, largely shaped by the
US experience and were distinctly racialised. The racialisation of the law and order
discourse (indicated in Chapter 2) continued in to the 1980s as Britain witnessed
a shift in concern from ‘crime’ as such to a wider concern over social disorder
following the ‘riots’ (or ‘disturbances’ or ‘uprisings’, depending on your perspective)
in British cities during 1980/1 and 1985. Despite evidence to the contrary, the events
• 74 •
in Brixton (London), Handsworth (Birmingham), Toxteth (Liverpool) and Mosside

(Manchester) were defined as ‘race riots’ and so the threat posed to social order was
once again seen as a racialised one (Solomos, 1993:129).
The policy responses to the law and order ‘crisis’ of the 1970s and 1980s were
essentially punitive: criminal justice and penal policies were primarily concerned
with the apprehension and punishment of offenders, rather than with their rehabil-
itation or the prevention of their offending. What crime prevention there was dur-
ing the 1980s was situational rather than social – it involved locks, bolts and ‘target
hardening’ rather than seeking to address the social conditions which were regarded
by many as the source of crime (as will be discussed further in Chapter 4). The
emphasis, then, was on crime as the product of individual ‘wickedness’ and there was
little political truck with social explanations. For instance, the then Conservative
Home Secretary, Douglas Hurd’s, response to the 1985 disturbances in Handsworth
was that the events marked ‘not a cry for help, but a cry for loot’. Inflammatory
tabloid headlines including ‘Hate of the Black Bomber’ (Sun), ‘Bloodlust’ (Daily Mail)
and ‘War on the Streets’ (Mirror) focused on the allegedly linked issues of race and
criminality. The tabloid press ignored, however, the social problems of racism and
the apparent breakdown of community policing in Handsworth which many felt to
be at the heart of the problem.
Looking back at the list of social and economic problems, identified by Hale above,
which the Conservatives highlighted in 1979, we could, 25 years on, beg the ques-
tion ‘What has changed?’ With the notable exception of the ‘problem’ of powerful
trades unions, which (after repressive legislation in the 1980s and decimation of
Britain’s industrial base over the past 25 years) is no longer an issue, the remaining
concerns around welfare dependency, personal and moral responsibility are all
echoed in the New Labour agenda of Tony Blair. His ‘moral crusade’, which marched
on into the twenty-first century, has now been accompanied by a rejection of
the 1960s ‘liberal consensus on law and order’ (Guardian, 19 July, 2004), which was
as powerful a denunciation of the era as that mounted by Margaret Thatcher a quar-
ter of a century ago.
The law and order agenda has remained a vital electioneering platform since 1979,
when Margaret Thatcher fused her key economic and social policies in one key phrase:
What the country needs is less tax and more law and order. (Margaret Thatcher,
1979, quoted in Charman and Savage, 1999:193)
Following on from the ousting of Thatcher in 1991, the new Shadow Home Secretary,
Tony Blair, was determined to challenge the Conservative party as the ‘natural’ party
of law and order. His famous soundbite of 1993 that a Labour government would be
‘tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime’ enabled the Third Way to distance
itself from the old left who had traditionally been seen to be ‘soft’ where issues of law
and order were concerned. It also captured the hostile public mood following the
murder of Liverpool toddler, Jamie Bulger, by two other children in February 1993.
• 75 •
‘A hard core of persistent young offenders commit a disproportionate number of crimes. They
offend again and again, laughing at the law and making their neighbours’ lives a misery.’
(Conservative Party general Election Manifesto, 2001)
‘[We will] take further action to focus on the 100,000 most persistent offenders. They are
responsible for half of all crime. They are the core of the crime problem in this country.’
(Tony Blair, Prime Minister, 2001)
‘Conservatives will stand up for the silent, law-abiding majority who play by the rules and pay
their dues. The clear distinction between right and wrong has been lost in sociological
mumbo-jumbo and politically correct nonsense.’
(Michael Howard, Conservative Party Leader, 2004).
‘[People] want a society of responsibility. They want a community where the decent law-abiding
majority are in charge; where those that play by the rules do well and those that don’t get
punished.’
(Tony Blair, Prime Minister, 2004).
Figure 3.3 Tough Crime Talk 2001–2004
Since that time both major parties have vied to ‘out-tough’ one another, thereby
ratcheting the penal stakes still higher and so the following themes have remained
at the core of both New Labour and Conservative criminal justice policy:
• The difference between right and wrong

• Standing up for the law-abiding citizen (and victims)
• Standing against the anti-social
• No-nonsense sentencing and punishment
• Prison works (and its use fully justified)
• Common sense (not liberal political correctness).
Taking the Third Way has led to a growing convergence in political discourses in
recent years, and this is particularly evident in relation to ‘tough’ talking about crime
as the quotations in Figure 3.3 show.
The consequences of tough talk such as this were clearly acknowledged by Blair:
But as fast as we act, as tough as it seems compared to the 1970s or 1980s, for
the public it is not fast or tough enough. (Tony Blair, 2004)
Blair is quite correct: New Labour’s bid to develop its Third Way politics and in so
doing to distance itself from its predecessors (by being seen to be tough on crime, law
and order), is bound to fall short: the hyper-politicisation of the crime issue, and an
often hysterical media, fuels a spiral of anxiety, fear and anger wherein the public
will never believe that anything is ever tough enough. This does, however, have seri-
ous consequences for the direction of future policy, as Michael Tonry observes:
People who are constantly reminded that they should be fearful and protect
themselves from criminals become fearful; and that may make them more likely
• 76 •
to be more mistrustful and more receptive to populist anti-crime appeals. And

having, through assiduous crime-prevention programmes created a more fear-
ful populace, England is now busily expanding its criminal justice system to
address those fears. (Tonry, 2004:6)
In government, New Labour policy responses to their tough promise has indeed
involved expansion of the criminal justice systems (in particular imprisonment – see
Chapter 5). Broadly, its approach has been twofold: firstly, a populist penal strategy
which is indistinguishable from that which it inherited from Conservative Home
Secretary Michael Howard. Secondly, a community safety strategy, implemented at a
local level, which adopts a twin track approach – reducing the problems of crime and
disorder, while addressing the perceived causes of crime within those localities. The
community safety approach (to be discussed in detail in Chapter 5) also seeks to
tackle the problem of the insecurity and anxiety which crime engenders. Much anx-
iety is spatially experienced: individuals are fearful of places and neighbourhoods,
and it is to this level of concern that community safety strategies are also addressed.
There is therefore a vicious circle (or spiral of decline) whereby crime and environ-
mental decay are seen to be mutually reinforcing, as the one is cited as evidence of
(and explanation for) the other, very often in the context of ‘sink’ housing estates (as
described in Chapter 2). But, at the same time, crime and environmental decay are
both seen to be associated with deeply rooted social and cultural changes – epitomised
by the notion of the ‘loss of community’:
With the collapse of local communities there is less stigma attached to crimi-
nality, the informal sanctions and expressions of disapproval which offenders
fear are no longer there; and they have little reason to empathize with their vic-
tims. There are fewer inbuilt deterrents and greater incentives to criminal
behaviour. (Hutton, 1995, quoted in Worrall, 1997:49)
However, for political commentator Will Hutton, community breakdown and

crime are not the products of individual inadequacies, but are the logical consequences
of the economic and social policies of the last 20 years. These policies have resulted in
what he sees as an obsession with short-term profits; lack of investment; unemploy-
ment; insecurity; and impoverishment and social exclusion, particularly of the young.
This view echoes earlier analyses in the US which similarly argued that urban commu-
nities blighted by such capital disinvestment became associated with a recapitalisa-
tion around illegal activities – notably drugs and crime. Although, particularly for the
young, crime may bring short-term gains, the long-term consequences are significantly
diminished life chances, and a spiral of decline prolonged into adulthood (Hagan,
1994:93).
While the Third Way focuses on community as social – a source of solidarity, rec-
iprocity, empowerment and social capital – it has yet to demonstrate that it grasps
the macro and micro-economic conditions and the political ‘givens’ that curtail the
capacity of individuals within those communities to respond in such positive, civic
ways (this theme will be explored further in Chapters 5 and 6). It is necessary, then,
• 77 •
to engage with theory at a range of levels in order to grasp the constraints, complexities
and local struggles within communities which shape the ways in which issues
of crime and disorder are interrelated and responded to in local social/economic/
cultural environments. In other words, this engagement involves not only analysing
formal crime reduction and community safety policies, but also involves developing
‘a local politics of crime control’ which is informed by local sensibilities about place
(Stenson and Crawford, 2001). This process would also entail a critical appreciation
of the ways in which New Labour criminal justice and social policies have served to
blur the boundaries between the criminal and the social: this blurring is particularly
evident, at the local level, at the interface between community safety and social
inclusion strategies.
5. Criminalising the Social
Community safety is perhaps best seen as an aspect of ‘quality of life’ in which

people individually and collectively, are protected as far as possible from the haz-
ards or threats that result from the criminal or anti-social behaviour of others, and
are equipped or helped to cope with those they do experience. It should enable
them to pursue, and obtain fullest benefits from, their social and economic lives
without fear or hindrance from crime and disorder. (Ekblom, 1998:8)
This extract, from a Home Office publication, exemplifies the overlapping nature of
the criminal and the social within community safety discourse. Here crime and
disorder are conceived as essentially ‘quality of life’ problems and, on the face of it,
this seemed to mark a shift towards a ‘socialising’ of the problem of crime. In a brief-
ing tellingly titled Reducing Crime and Tackling its Causes, the then Home Secretary,
Jack Straw, announced the £250 million Crime Reduction Programme (CRP), which
was ambitiously geared to securing a reversal in the long-term rise in crime and
achieving a corresponding reduction in the fear of crime. The stated goals of the CRP
are explicitly linked with broader social aims to ‘add value to every aspect of life,
enhance liberty and revitalise our communities’ (Home Office, 1999:2). These goals
also tie in with the remit of the government’s overarching Social Exclusion Unit
(SEU), set up in 1997, to:
develop integrated and sustainable approaches to the problems of the worst

housing estates, including crime, drugs, unemployment, community break-
down and bad schools etc. (SEU, 1998)
The first SEU Report Bringing Britain Together – a National Framework for Neighbourhood
Renewal outlined the goals and plans of the 18 separate (but ‘joined-up’) Policy Action
Teams operating within the SEU framework with the fourfold goals of achieving:
• Lower long-term unemployment and worklessness

• Less crime
• 78 •
• Better health
• Better qualifications.
The SEU sought to succeed, where other policy initiatives since the 1960s had failed,
‘in setting in motion a virtuous circle of regeneration, with improvements in jobs,
crime, education, health and housing all reinforcing each other’ (SEU, 1998:9).
Clearly, then, the problem of crime under New Labour was part and parcel of the
broader problem of social exclusion. Consequently, the policy goals of both crime
reduction and community regeneration strategies were seen as inextricably linked, as
‘the fight against crime is at the centre of this Government’s commitment to make
Britain a better place to live’ (Home Office, 1999:2). Crime, ‘disorder’ and social
exclusion are all fused within such discourses. Not only are the criminal justice and
social policies intertwined, but so are the objects of those policies: the lexicon of crim-
inal justice, crime reduction and community safety policies have effectively been
extended to encompass a range of (non-criminal) activities under the umbrellas of
disorder and ‘anti-social behaviour’. However, these terms are (perhaps deliberately)
imprecise and may be used to cover a multitude of sins.
There is no single definition of anti-social behaviour, although section 19(1) of the
Crime and Disorder Act (1998) defines it as: ‘that which causes or is likely to cause
alarm or distress to one or more persons not of the same household’. The SEU never-
theless acknowledged potential ambiguities and difficulties in operationalising the
term in its observation that:
Anti-social behaviour covers a wide range of behaviour, from the clearly crimi-
nal to that causing lifestyle clashes. Activities that are criminal are defined by
law. Defining other behaviour as anti-social is more difficult. Behaviour regarded
as acceptable by some can be completely unacceptable to others. Acceptable
behaviour to a young person can be difficult for an elderly person to tolerate.
(SEU, 2000:para 1.1)
The recognition that ‘lifestyle clashes’ may lead to behaviour being interpreted and
labelled as ‘anti-social’ is very significant, as is the acknowledgement that age and
tolerance thresholds play a part in how behaviours are interpreted. But these issues
are swept aside in political discourses and policy-making which is geared to appeal to
those demanding ‘toughness’ on crime and disorder. For example, locating his ‘stand
against’ anti-social behaviour within the Third Way politics of responsibility, duty
and active citizenship, the Home Secretary, in his Ministerial foreword to the White
Paper Respect and Responsibility – Taking a Stand Against Anti-Social Behaviour, framed
new legislation in the following way:
Our aim is a ‘something for something society’ where we treat one another with
respect and where we all share responsibility for taking a stand against what is
unacceptable… We must be much tougher about forcing people to not behave
anti-socially. When people break the rules, there must be consequences for them:
consequences that are swift, proportionate and that change the pattern of their
• 79 •
behaviour. And where those who are responsible for tackling anti-social behaviour
fail to do so, we must intervene. (David Blunkett in Home Office, 2003b)
This suggests that part of the community citizenship deal involves ‘taking a stand
against’ what is unacceptable, although there is no clear idea of who defines accept-
ability and in line with whose political and cultural norms it is defined. This is not only
insufficient but also very worrying, not least because the full force of the law (civil and
criminal) may be brought to bear on those who engage in behaviours which are, in
their very essence, both contentious and contested. There is a good deal of slippage
from what is seen by some to constitute the unacceptable to the anti-social to the
criminal and yet all are fused together in a disciplinary continuum which reflects the
hyper-politicisation of law and order (McLaughlin, 2002). The issue of anti-social
behaviour and policy responses to it will be discussed in more depth in Chapter 6. But,
for the time being, it stands as a worrying example of the ‘criminalising of the social’
within Third Way criminal justice discourse.
At a broader level, criminal justice discourses under New Labour also reflect the
power and significance of the multi-layered relationship between the media and
policy-makers, which generates a state of ‘permanent campaign’ (24 hours a day, seven
days a week), in which governments are pushed to evidence, again and again, their
ever-tougher approach to crime (Garland, 2001; McLaughlin, 2002; Tonry, 2004). If
they are seen to fail, as they invariably must, their response is often denial. As already
noted, professional and expert denial may contribute to growing mistrust of those
experts and a disengagement from them. It is to the problematic issue of trust in
Third Way politics that we now turn.
6. The Vexed Issue of Trust
Now, at the beginning of the twenty-first century, it is commonplace to speak of a trust

deficit. The risk society has significantly undermined trust, whether this is trust in politi-
cians, banks, insurers, pension providers, judges, police officers, doctors, big businesses
or their products. As Skidmore and Harkin (2003) note, ‘trust is a way of coping with
complexity rather than being paralysed by it’. Inimical feelings of anxiety and trust are
therefore central to the ways in which we all try to ‘cope’ with a dynamic, uncertain
world: but they are also vital for politicians who seek to gain and hold on to power.
However, after the events of 9/11 in New York, fear has further corroded feelings of secu-
rity and trust – not only in the US but globally. In the UK the trust deficit has been
increasingly evident in a series of opinion polls over the past 15 years which showed, for
example, that non-expert opinions are often seen as more trustworthy than those of
either scientists, ‘experts’ or politicians. When asked who they would trust most to tell
the truth about risks of pollution: 61% favoured pressure groups; 5% private companies;
and only 4% trusted politicians (ibid). Government decision-making on policies rang-
ing from genetically modified crops to MMR immunisation for infants have led to
similar expressions of public mistrust of politicians and ‘experts’.
• 80 •
In the UK in the 1990s, the problem of trust in public life most often referred to the
problem of ‘sleaze’ and corruption in business and politics. A series of scandals around
allegations of political bribery and MPs being offered ‘cash for questions’ dogged the
Conservative government of John Major and, in part, led to its downfall. Under New
Labour the twenty-first-century manifestation of the trust deficit is different, but it also
encompasses concerns about the ‘truthfulness’ of politicians, and this has profound
implications for public participation and democracy. In both respects the government’s
controversial decision to invade Iraq in 2003 has been of immense significance in the
wake of BBC-aired allegations that the evidence upon which the decision to go to war
was taken had been ‘sexed up’. Following on from the suicide of the man held to be
the main source of the BBC story (Dr David Kelly), a series of Parliamentary Inquiries
(under Lord Hutton and Lord Butler) sought to restore trust. But public disquiet
remained over the truthfulness of the reasons given to parliament (and to the public)
for going to war, particularly as the weapons of mass destruction, which were the pri-
mary justification for the war, have never been found.
But, even before the invasion of Iraq, there was a problem of trust in UK politics.
A MORI survey conducted in 2002 showed that:
• 91% of those surveyed would trust doctors to tell them the truth
• 85% would trust teachers
• 25% business leaders
• only 19% would trust politicians to tell them the truth.
(Quoted in Skidmore and Harkin, 2003:9)
The research authors stress that ‘trust must be earned – but it must also be learned’
and, they suggest, learned in new ways. The tired and discredited strategies of repu-
tation management, ‘spin’, audits and inspections cannot restore what they term
‘grown up trust’. Yet these strategies do seem to remain at the heart of Third Way
approaches to trust. If we take the example of New Labour’s second term mantra of
‘delivery, delivery, delivery’, the implication here was that if performance manage-
ment and targets work, if they did deliver the enhanced public services promised in
the second-term manifesto, then the public would recognise this and trust would be
restored. However, this simplistic view fails to recognise that a downward spiral of
mistrust is hard to break. For example, politicians may claim that child poverty is
being gradually eliminated, school performance enhanced or that hospital waiting
lists are being greatly reduced, but faith and trust in politics and politicians is far
from restored by graphs, statistics and good news stories.
By the time of the 2005 general election, trust had been very far from won by New
Labour in general and by Tony Blair in particular, and the issue dominated much of
the campaign. Nonetheless, New Labour responses to the trust deficit continue to
depend on performance management, reputation and news management, while at
the same time attempting to engage the public through enhanced forms of consul-
tation, community engagement and participative democracy (Blunkett, 2003). As we
will see in Chapter 5, community consultation and empowerment for the most part
• 81 •
remain a matter of rhetoric rather than reality (although there are opportunities for
challenge and for positive change).
The Third Way democratisation project, like the welfare project, is also mired in the
language of finance and management with talk of social capital and co-production
as essential components of trust and positive political, economic and social engage-
ment. The concept of ‘co-production’ rests on the notion that public goods, such as
health and education, are not produced and delivered by state, but produced with
the consent and active participation of all citizens and, hence:
Active citizenship. Community engagement. Co-production between providers

and users. These are the modern routes to social justice. (Milburn, 2004)
Once again, active citizenship (through engaged communities) is lauded as a means

of fostering new forms of trusted governance, which lie beyond the realm of the pub-
lic state. Here, too, the notion of ‘social justice’ (albeit a very partial one) is portrayed
as the end point of the route to democratisation and ‘co-production’ in contemporary
Britain. But there are clear limits which bound relations of co-production: the polit-
ical realities of New Labour mean that central control by the state – most importantly
in terms of Treasury support and decisions as to whether certain policy options are
‘on’ or ‘off’ the national agenda – is still very much alive and kicking. While both
modernisation and democratisation promise a new localism to provide ‘local solu-
tions to local problems’, there are distinct limits to localism: firstly, central govern-
ment (Treasury) resources are not made available to put desired solutions in place;
and secondly, those locally suggested solutions which are regarded as ‘off message’
(and not reflected in centrally defined performance targets – see Chapter 4) are
highly unlikely to be taken forward. And so while the new localism may offer possi-
bilities for challenge and change (Hughes, 2004b; and Chapter 5), the gulf between
its promise and its reality leave further space for public disillusionment and the ero-
sion of trust. One (Third) way to address the trust deficit is by attempting to restore
the bonds of trust that are a core element of the concept of social capital.
7. Social Capital – A Third Way Policy Panacea?
The Third Way conceptions of community, participation, trust and active citizenship
could be seen to coalesce around the core notion of social capital. As we have seen,
the election of the New Labour government in 1997 saw the establishment of the
cross-departmental SEU in 1999, signalling the government’s intention to deploy the
concept of social capital in the policy arena to address a range of social ills including
poor health, low educational attainment, crime and unemployment. However, social
capital still remains an elusive concept which is hard to pin down in ‘the real world’
(Roche, 2004a).
The genesis of the concept can be traced back to US sociologist James Coleman
(1990) and political scientists Francis Fukuyama and Robert Putnam who, in the
• 82 •
1990s, attributed the social ills of the US to a deterioration in community life to the
erosion of social capital. They envisaged social capital as being:
a range of social structures and relations which acted as a form of ‘social glue’,
facilitating human interaction within communities. (Roche, 2004a:98)
The processes at work in generating social capital are acknowledged to be complex.

They involve, at the same, three levels or dimensions:
1. Relations of social capital (trust, expectations, obligations, sanctions), which may

operate through…
2. Structures of social capital (society, regions, communities, families), both of
which may relate to, or be shaped by…
3. Ideologies of social capital (altruism and notions of ‘the public good’) which can
be manifested at the levels of individuals, groups or more widely in communities.
These processes are represented diagrammatically in Figure 3.4.

Where UK policy is concerned, social capital has traditionally focused a relatively
narrow range of issues centring on the social and economic benefits of increasing
participation (within communities and social networks), trust, shared expectations,
reciprocity and altruism. In the UK the most frequently utilised interpretation of
social capital – that put forward by Giddens – defines it in terms of ‘trust networks
that individuals can draw on for social support, just as financial capital can be drawn
upon to be used for investment’ (Giddens, 2000:78). The benefits of social capital are
therefore seen in terms of its ability to harness community networks to help address
Social Capital
social relations structures ideologies
Trust Society
Altruism
Expectations Regions
Communities The
Obligations
Families ‘public good’
Sanctions
Figure 3.4 Defining Social Capital

(Source: Roberts and Roche (2001))
• 83 •
the problems of under-employment, crime and disorder and to enhance health and
well-being (Campbell et al., 1999; Lederman et al., 2002).
The relations and structures of social capital are viewed, by Giddens, through the
lens of ‘active citizenship’. Such networks can range from leisure centres, job clubs,
churches and faith groups to credit unions and neighbourhood watch schemes. But,
for its critics, social capital may also have negative consequences, such as sectarian-
ism and corruption. As Putnam (1993) acknowledges, examples of social capital in
action may well include choral societies, bowling leagues, trades unions and faith
groups, but may also include organised criminal gangs and right-wing militias. The
networks and relations of social capital may therefore not always be directed to law-
ful and positive civic ends.
For some commentators, the speed with which the concept of social capital has
gained ascendancy across a range of disciplines reflects the political and intellectual
vacuum which the concept is seen to fill by offering a Third Way between economic
interventions and political interventions and so seeking ‘to connect “the economic”
with “the social” (beyond market and state) in new ways’ (Mayer, 2004:113). But Mayer
contends that social capital cannot escape its fundamentally economic roots and
herein lie many criticisms. She persuasively argues that in urban settings, social capital
deals largely with ‘excluded’ and poorer groups and the tapestries of ‘third sector’
(not-for-profit, voluntary and community sector) initiatives that aim to achieve the
inclusion of the poor and marginalised into a harmonious, civil society. This focus
effectively filters out any adversarial movements and so prevents challenges to the cap-
italist economic orthodoxy that underpins the concept of social capital itself. As a
result, a failure to ask the key question social capital for whom and to what end? can
lead to a narrowed set of aims, and policy goals defined as ‘inclusion’ and not the
reduction of inequality. These ‘blind spots’, which Mayer observes in the theories and
policies of social capital, limit the possibilities for radical community and group move-
ments in deprived urban areas. At the same time, they can put pressure on those who
may be striving for fundamental change: for instance, many of those working with
grassroots initiatives may be either ‘too busy working with the poor to join coalitions
against poverty’ or are so under-funded and under-staffed that they exhaust themselves
trying to achieve the competing aims of (largely economic) inclusion and genuine
empowerment and ‘mobilisation from below’ (Mayer, 2004:113).
Having established that there are problems in the definition of social capital and a
lack of critical engagement with its negative features, we now turn to one of the key
difficulties that the concept poses for policy-makers and analysis – how to measure
social capital and its consequences (either positive or negative). If it is a critical ele-
ment in New Labour policies geared to health, safety and inclusion, we need to be
able to evaluate the success (or otherwise) of policies which seek to develop social
capital and networks. Methods used to assess the extent and effects of social capital,
usually in deprived communities, have often depended on large-scale survey methods,
which explore questions related to the key ‘domains’ of social capital – sociability,
participation, trust and altruism. But quantitative methods have proved to be blunt
• 84 •
instruments for assessing the complex and slippery concept of social capital and its
impact in the ‘real world’ (Roche, 2004a).
Despite problems of definition, scope, usage and measurement, a great deal of polit-
ical capital has been invested in social capital in recent years, both in the US and the
UK. As we have seen, it has been seized upon by Third Way advocates as a policy
panacea for a range of social ills and ‘wicked problems’ in the UK, and is frequently
invoked by politicians as a means of (re)building community:
Building social capital is the pre-condition for tackling problems of urban decay,
crime-ridden streets, educational failure. (Milburn, 2004)
It gives concrete empirical and theoretical content to ideas about community

networks, the bonds of trust and belonging, and shared values amongst fami-
lies, friends and communities. (Blunkett, 2003:26)
Social capital is presented here as a ‘good thing’ which is associated with community,
bonds, trust, family and friends, and seen as against ‘bad things’ such as urban decay,
crime and educational failure. In short, it is sold as a policy cure-all. The usage of the
concept in this unfocused way poses the rhetorical question ‘Who can argue with
that?’ There is a feel-good factor embedded in the discourse of social capital – encom-
passing community, participation, trust, bonds, altruism and the public good – that
is seductive. Mayer argues that in appearing to connect the capital with the social,
this concept gains a potentially attractive force. It also offers politicians a ‘non-
economic (low-cost) solutions to social problems’ (Mayer, 2004:115). The attraction
of the low-cost solution is evident in the work of Charles Leadbeater who identifies
the pivotal role of the social entrepreneurs who can:
set in motion a virtuous circle… They help communities to build social capital
which gives them a better chance of standing on their own two feet.
(Leadbetter, 1997:9–10)
Building social capital therefore depends on members of communities helping

themselves and, ultimately, having only themselves to blame if they fail to ‘invest’
sufficiently to improve their own quality of life and life chances. In this sense the
policy panacea of social capital is closely allied to notions of active citizenship and
positive welfare. But, for many sceptics, it remains a concept bereft of real substance
and ill-equipped to address the multi-faceted and structurally rooted problems facing
postmodern societies.
8. Social and Criminal Justice – The Technological Fix
This section will go on to look at another key element of Third Way political dis-
course – information and communications technology (ICT) – which is, like social
• 85 •
capital, often held out as a ‘policy panacea’ for a range of complex and intractable
problems. Moreover, leading proponents of the Third Way have made explicit
connections between the relations and structures of social capital and developments
in ICT:
the cultivation of social capital is integral to the knowledge economy because

while innovation in the ‘old’ economies was based on research and develop-
ment, innovation in ‘new’ knowledge-based economies derives from networks
and collaborations. (Giddens, 2000:78)
Therefore networks and collaborative ventures are seen as the basis of social (as well
as financial) capital in postmodern knowledge-based economies.
Broadening the survey one finds the epochal shifts that Third Way politics are
fundamentally concerned with that centre on globalisation and the information
revolution. Consequently, for Giddens, responding to these challenges involves ‘a
commitment to modernisation – to shape the future by embracing change not seek-
ing to defy it’ (Giddens, 2000:32). ICT lies at the heart of the New Labour moderni-
sation project and is fundamental to a range of social policies including education,
training, enhanced citizen and community participation, the modernisation of local
democracy, and the management and delivery of a range of health, welfare and crim-
inal justice services (to name but a few). But faith in ‘new technologies’ has taken on
a particular resonance for Tony Blair’s government. Just as politicians in the Victorian
Age wished to be associated with the then ‘new’ technologies of the railway, and as
Harold Wilson seized upon and valorised the ‘white heat of technology’ in the 1960s,
Tony Blair embraced ICT in the 1990s (Geoghegen, 2004).3
For New Labour, ICT offers the radical prospect of changing the way companies do
business and the way citizens gain access to goods and services (Cabinet Office,
2000). Discussion of the extent to which ICT based solutions ‘work’ in these and
other respects will follow in Chapter 4, but regardless of whether it ‘works’ or not,
there remains a firm faith in the capacity of ICT to provide access to information for
all, a source of empowerment and route for new forms of democratic governance.
Consequently, the government’s ambitious e-government strategy (Cabinet Office,
2004) promised that all citizens would have electronic access to all government ser-
vices, through their own home computers or through community access points, by
2005. The e-government strategy is lead by the governments ‘e-envoy’, Departmental
Information Age Government Champions (IAGC) and the Central IT Unit (CITU) in
the Cabinet Office (ibid). But despite the impressive array of acronyms, institutional
changes and the ‘feverish outpouring of policy papers’ that have accompanied the
strategy (Hudson, J., 2003), grave doubts still remain about whether this 100% access
target is achievable and, moreover, whether meeting it would achieve the overarching
3
However, Luke Geoghegen argues that New Labour’s emphasis is less on the information and
communication aspects of ICT than the potential offered by the new technologies themselves.
• 86 •
inclusive, democratising, empowering, enabling and efficiency aims sought. For the
strategy to be successful, everyone who wants to use the Internet must have not only
access to it, but also the skills to use it (Hudson, J., 2003). As a result, the digital
divide between information ‘haves and have-nots’ remains a crucial issue for the
legitimacy of e-government and the government’s social inclusion strategy: there are
dangers that lack of access and skills for ICT will reinforce rather than reduce social
disadvantage and exclusion (ibid).
To shed light on the relative success of ICT in enabling public sector reform, we can
usefully turn to the work of Richard Heeks (1999). He offers a chronology of
approaches to ICT, which governments, and the senior officials who develop and
implement policy, may adopt: as the summary in Figure 3.5 shows, these approaches
can range from the tendency to ‘ignore’ ICT to a recognition of the need to ‘inte-
grate’ ICT into all policy reform and delivery processes. A cursory glance at Britain in
2005 suggests we remain at the intermediate ‘idolise’ stage, with ICT seen as an ‘end’
and a policy centrepiece rather than a crucial ‘means’ of working towards genuinely
integrated policy solutions. ‘Over-awareness’ of ICT and misplaced faith in its poten-
tial to fix problems and transform government could be illustrated with reference to
a number of policy spheres, but the research-based examples4 chosen for brief dis-
cussion here are: firstly, shared information regarding vulnerable young people; and
secondly, ICT and information exchange in the criminal justice system.
• Ignore: Out of ignorance, public officials include neither ICT nor information in plans for
reform
• Isolate: Public officials lack computer literacy and an understanding of the power of
information, yet are aware of ICT and its potential. Investment in computing is therefore
included in reforms, but as a preserve of ‘ICT experts’, not as a systematic component of
the reform process
• Idolise: Public officials are often semi-literate. They are over-aware of ICT’s potential, and
believe it can transform government (or at least transform their careers), so ICT becomes
the centrepiece of all changes
• Integrate: Public officials have become information-literate. They recognise information as
a resource central to all public sector functions. ICT is relegated to a secondary role as a
valuable means to achieve certain reform ends, not as an end in itself. Re-engineering
of information systems and introduction of ICT are now fully integrated into the change
and reform process.
Figure 3.5 ‘The Four Is’: A Chronology of Approaches to the Use of ICT in
Enabling Public Sector Reform
(Source: Heeks, 1999)
4
See research project reports: Cook and Roberts (2001) www.wlv.ac.uk/pri. Cook and Vallely (2003)
www.wlv.ac.uk/pri and Cook, Burton, Robinson and Vallely (2004) www.eps.gov.uk/publications/
docs/ specialistdvcourts.pdf
• 87 •
Vulnerable young people and information sharing
The vulnerability of young people and need for effective systems to ensure child
protection have long been an important policy issue. There have been over 70 pub-
lic inquiries into severe child abuse in Britain and the majority of these were worry-
ingly similar, centring on children killed after months of torture and neglect. The
first of these inquiries, held in 1945, following the death of 13 year old Denis O’Neill
led to a new Children Act and to the creation of local children’s committees. But
little appeared to change and almost 30 years later (in 1974) the report following on
from the death of seven year old Maria Colwell led to further significant reform cre-
ating local committees to co-ordinate child protection. 30 years on from Maria’s
death, the Laming enquiry into the torture and death of Victoria Climbié found a
similar catalogue of failings in relation to poor communication and co-ordination
between agencies, bad practice and inadequate supervision of social workers.
The Green Paper, Every Child Matters, was published following the Laming enquiry
into the death of eight year old Victoria at the hands of her aunt and her aunt’s
boyfriend. The enquiry revealed a catalogue of professional and bureaucratic mistakes
and failures in decision-making and inter-agency communication. In response the
Green Paper proposed to introduce electronic dossiers for all children in order to min-
imise future mistakes and enhance child protection. These electronic dossiers would
hold information for all children on, for instance, school exclusions and whether they
are ‘known’ to agencies including Youth Offending Teams (YOTs), the police, mental
health and social services. But critics cast doubt on how the dossiers can be imple-
mented and managed as the Green paper had envisaged: for Williams (2004) the
paper’s proposals seek a technological fix for problems which involve deep-seated
issues around agency trust, accountability and clashes of (multi--)organisational cul-
tures. Research on ways of linking information on vulnerable young people supports
the view that organisations including the police, social services, YOTs, Connexions,5
Primary Care Trusts (PCTs) and voluntary and community sector agencies may work to
very different organisational goals and targets (Cook and Roberts, 2001; Green et al.,
2001). These studies suggest that if those working with vulnerable children and young
people are to adopt a genuinely multi-agency and holistic approach, then all available
information needs to be synthesised in an agreed and structured format in databases
held by all the key agencies (health, social services, YOTs and so on). But information
sharing at this level presents a number of problems, including:
• Technical challenges: ensuring consistency across multiple databases. Agencies

frequently use different ICT systems which are often not compatible with each other
5
Connexions is the government’s support service for young people aged 13–19 in England.
The service aims to provide integrated advice, guidance and access to personal development
opportunities and help the transition to adulthood and working life. Connexions joins up the
work of six government departments and their agencies and organisations on the ground,
together with private and voluntary sector groups and youth and careers services.
• 88 •
and do not enable the speedy transfer or sharing of data between agencies (Cook and
Roberts, 2001)
• Legal barriers: ensuring compliance with the provisions of the Data Protection Act and
the European Convention on Human Rights is often cited as a major problem facing
multi-agency partners. However, these principles may for some agencies be a ‘shield
behind which to hide’ if they are reluctant to share information (Green et al., 2001)
• Cultural barriers: are as important as technical ones. The creation of a culture of infor-
mation sharing that recognises the enhanced decision-making capability that better
information provides an essential precondition for success
• Geographical barriers: different agencies often work to different spatial boundaries:
the operational boundaries of YOTs, health services (PCTs) and social services may not
be coterminous. Some may be ‘borough-wide’, others ‘county-wide’ and some work
to historical divisions which cut across both of these. This poses challenges for effec-
tive cross-border working and permeability of these boundaries for real multi-agency
planning and service delivery (Cook and Roberts, 2001).
Recalling Heeks’ chronology, an integrated approach is needed to address these prob-

lems, but this would require that public officials are ‘information literate’ and recognise
ICT as a valuable means to achieve policy ends. This also involves several other impor-
tant developments in relation to organisations’ attitudes to ICT and partnership work-
ing which, arguably, have not yet taken place. Firstly, such integrated approaches
would require a culture change within organisations to shift from a concentration on
their internal priorities and targets towards ‘joined-up’ multi-agency goals. Secondly,
they need hybrid managers who understand both ICT and policy issues and are in a
position to offer a balanced (not idolised) view and to manage systems effectively
towards agreed policy ends (Heeks, 1999). Thirdly, there is a need for agencies to be
open and willing to respond positively to, and not hide behind, the frameworks pro-
vided by Data Protection and Human Rights legislation (Green et al., 2001). Fourthly,
a strategic and well-managed approach to commissioning public sector ICT projects is
crucial. Fifth and finally, there is a requirement for resources – in terms of money and
skilled staff – to provide an adequate and planned infrastructure for all of the above. In
relation to the last two issues, the second example to be discussed here – ICT for the
criminal justice system – is particularly relevant.
ICT for the criminal justice system
As in other policy spheres, criminal justice reforms depend on effective communication

and use of ICT. A key weakness within the CJS is that its lead agencies – police, courts
and CPS – all have differing ICT systems. Moreover, the 43 police forces in England and
Wales differ from one another too and the difficulties involved in the exchange of
information and intelligence between police forces in England and Wales was high-
lighted in the high profile case of the Soham murders. Where the CPS is concerned, the
introduction of their new COMPASS ICT system in May 2003 may have helped to
improve their internal communications, but it will still not interface with the
Magistrates’ Court’s Libra system or many of the police systems. This, in turn, has a
• 89 •
Effective information exchange is a key requirement for joining up the operation of the CJS,
including by:
• Providing more up-to-date criminal records for all who use them, improving bail,
charging and other decisions
• Improving the information available to victims and witnesses and reducing the time they
spend at court, thereby improving the quality of service to them
• Better use of court time and a reduction in discontinued trials through more immediate
access to court lists and better information
• Enabling end-to-end process management and innovation
• Reducing the costs that currently result from duplicating information input. We are
committed to major improvements in the sharing of case information between criminal
justice agencies by 2005. During 2002/3 work was undertaken on the options and
funding of £1.2 bn over the next three years secured for investment in infrastructure,
linked case management systems and supporting services. This funding is ring-fenced
and subject to the joint control of Home Office, LCDb and CPS Ministers, and the
Director General CJS IT. Priorities include:
• Modernising the ICT infrastructure within agencies and enabling them to securely
e-mail each other and partners, such as Youth Offending Teams and defence
solicitors;
• Establishing linked case management systems to ensure that up to date case
information is available to those who need it and that resources are not wasted; and…
• Providing a ‘one stop shop’ for victims who will be able to track the progress of their
cases on-line.
a
Home Office Departmental Report 2003 Cm5908 (2003).
b
Now Department for Constitutional Affairs – DCA.
Figure 3.6 ICT in the Criminal Justice Systema

(Source: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/docs2/annexrep2003)
negative impact on attempts to more effectively co-ordinate criminal justice services

for victims: the differing ICT systems of the different CJS agencies therefore remain
unable to ‘talk to’ one another and so the police, CPS, Probation and Court staff, some
of whom may be working in shared offices, are still often unable to transfer case-related
information to one another even if they work in the same room (Cook and Vallely,
2003; Cook, Burton, Robinson and Vallely, 2004). And so, while the intentions of the
Home Office ICT strategy (reproduced in Figure 3.6) are clearly stated, the practical
means and resources to deliver them remain unclear.
The dangers of over-‘idolising’ ICT and over-reliance on it as a policy panacea are
evident in the final elements of the strategy which refer to linked case management
systems and the ability of victims to track the progress of their case on-line, both by
2005. This ability is, at the time of writing, a very long way off for victims and those
who engage with them. While there are examples of innovative ‘information portals’
(such as the Warwickshire Victim Information Portal – VIP) being developed by
• 90 •
multi-agency partnerships, these are often funded as Home Office pilot projects and
remain the exception rather than the rule. Research undertaken in 2003/4 found that
case tracking remained a key problem for staff within the CJS, with evidence that it
was not the use of ICT but the actions of committed staff – from the CJS and volun-
tary and community sector support groups – using word of mouth and telephones
that provided the basis for most case tracking and updating to victims (Cook and
Vallely, 2003; Cook et al., 2004). The technical fix promised in the CJS ICT strategy
by the end of 2005 therefore appears a very long way off.
Finally, it is worth emphasising that Third Way faith in ICT has often gone hand
in hand with (often misplaced) faith in the private suppliers of ICT infrastructure,
systems and services. Where the Magistrates’ Courts are concerned, the consequences
have been disastrous. A common ICT strategy for all courts had been called for since
the 1980s and, after two failed projects in the early 1990s, the Lord Chancellor’s
Department (now the Department for Constitutional Affairs) procured a PFI contract
in 1996. By 1998 only one bidder for the contract remained – ICL (now called Fujitsu
Services) – and a deal was struck with them later that year for The Libra Project. Five
years on, the PAC (2003) castigated the project as ‘one of the worst PFI deals we have
ever seen’. The original bid in May 1998 estimated total costs of £156 million for an
11 year project; by the time the contract was signed in December 1998 the costs had
risen to £194 million for a ten and a half year project. By July 2002, the costs of the
project had soared to £390 million over a reduced term of eight and a half years
(ibid). There remain serious reservations about the fitness for purpose of the system
with many experts believing that business systems should have been redesigned
before the new ICT system, and others stating that ‘Fujitsu had “run rings” around
officials’ (Computer Weekly, 30 January 2003).
As the first section of this chapter demonstrated, the belief that the UK economy
and society is undergoing an inevitable ‘ICT-driven transformation’ is central to the
political discourse of the Third Way. There are important debates and questions to be
posed around the nature, limits, meanings, consequences and ‘inevitability’ of those
transformations. For this discussion of criminal and social justice it is important to
recognise the significance of the concept of the ‘information society’ in driving (and
justifying) Third Way policies. ICT in particular is re-shaping issues of welfare and
social equality in very specific ways as ‘it allows New Labour to craft a narrative that
presents the abandonment of traditional egalitarian policies as a necessary modern-
ization of values’ and the only viable basis for egalitarianism in the new world order
(Hudson, J., 2003:281).
Hudson signifies this important shift through the motif of e-galitarianism which use-
fully conveys three themes connecting ICT with Third Way conceptions of equality:
• The centrality of the ICT revolution for New Labour (through the ‘e ’ prefix)
• A clear break with the ‘old’ past and traditional egalitarian values
• And a reduced (− minus) version of the former Labour vision of egalitarianism.
(ibid:284)
• 91 •
Having examined some of the ‘signs’ and ‘posts’ along the Third Way it is clear that
in terms of both ideas and policies much has been abandoned and much re-branded
to meet the perceived challenges of postmodernity.
9. More Than Just Words
In this chapter we have seen how and why in 1990s Britain, the Third Way marked a
significant departure from the language and politics of both the ‘old left’ and the ‘new
right’. Where the former is concerned, the Third Way departure from the language of
class and conflict was clearly a crucial element in its wider aims, or ‘project’:
The simultaneous reform of welfare and Labour party principles is a re-structur-

ing project which starts as a language and a set of ideas: the ‘third way’ is a dis-
course through which restructuring is proceeding, through which the meanings
of welfare, work and Labour are being remade. (Haylett, 2001:14)
In this process of ‘remaking’ the political values of Labour, the Third Way rhetoric of
inclusion is very significant. Many feel that this is serving to displace more radical con-
cerns over socio-economic inequality and polarisation (Lister, 2000). At the same time,
the (cultural) use of the term inclusion implicitly identifies those who do not ‘fit’ with
the new demands of the modern and globalised economic order. It constructs an
‘exclusive’ version of citizenship which centres on paid work, and in which equality
and justice are re-defined in terms of ‘equality of opportunity’. Moreover, the concept
of inclusion itself presumes that there is consensus about what exactly it is we are being
included into. In so doing it side-steps struggles and conflicts over values and politics
and generates a ‘non-conflictual, non-targetable, procedural form of politics’, which
acts as a persuasive and potent strategy for power (Haylett, 2001:53). This politics is
dominated not by ideals and ideologies but by pragmatism and what works.
But the importance of the language that shapes the parameters as well as the
expression of politics needs to be emphasised because, in politics, words are not just
words but are powerful tools for, and engineers of, change. The former Republican
Speaker of the US House of Representatives, Newt Gingrich, acknowledged this when
he asserted that:
The real breaking point is when you find yourself having a whole new debate,
with new terms. That’s more important than legislative achievements. (Quoted
in Peck, 1998:135)
Whether Third Way political philosophy is seen as insubstantial or not, it has

certainly changed the language and parameters of debate across British politics and
so, taking on board Gingrich’s argument, this is indeed a breakthrough. However, in
attempting to present a non-conflictual Third Way, New Labour has astutely
succeeded in occupying a political centre-space against which competing politics
• 92 •
(from the left or the right) will inevitably be presented as ‘extreme’. In this way the
Third Way rejects the bi-polarity of the old order and takes the imagined position of
‘middle England’ as its political benchmark (see Chapter 6 for a fuller discussion). But
this position is far from a politically neutral one: for example, in her discussion of
social capital Mayer (2003) expressed concern at the dominance of ‘less conflictive
civil society groups’ at the expense of political and oppositional movements. For her,
as for other critics, binary politics and conflicts over values and political priorities
can be healthy and productive for democracy. It is to these conflicts and challenges
and the possibilities they hold for enhancing and reconciling criminal and social jus-
tice that we will return in the final chapter of this book.
• 93 •
•four • ‘What Works’ and

Criminal and Social
Justice
Introduction
For his first major speech as Prime Minister, Tony Blair chose the run-down Aylesbury
estate in Southwark, London, to set out his political priorities for the first New
Labour term. In this speech Blair established his firm commitment to pragmatism
and to finding out (and funding) ‘what works’ across all spheres of policy:
Unless government is pragmatic and rigorous about what does and does not
work, it will not spend money wisely or gain the trust of the public… We will
find out what works, and we will support the successes and stop the failures. We
will back anyone – from a multinational company to a community association –
if they can deliver the goods. We will evaluate our policies – and improve them
if they need to be improved. And where appropriate we will run pilots, testing
out ideas so that we can be sure that every pound we spend is well spent. (Tony
Blair, speech at the Aylesbury Estate, Southwark, 2 June 1997)
This speech marked a departure from the political values of the old left and the new
right, which were seen to have hampered the development, design and delivery of
effective (and cost effective) policies in the past. The new approach indicated in the
Southwark speech was therefore not just pragmatic but it was anti-ideological too
(Solesbury, 2001): reacting against previous government policy-making, which was
seen as driven by political ‘dogma’, New Labour instead advocated the ‘objective’ and
efficient processes of audit, inspection and evaluation. What mattered for Blair and
New Labour was not that policies were driven by political ideals, but that they ‘deliv-
ered the goods’, and it did not matter who delivered them – whether the public, pri-
vate or voluntary and community sector.
The ‘objective and efficient’ managerial processes to be taken forward by New
Labour had first been set in train in the 1980s with the Thatcher governments’ drive
• • • ‘What Works’ and Criminal and Social Justice • • •
to bring private sector business practices into the state realm, notably through the
tools of performance management. But these processes were, and are, very far from
objective and value free: critics of what they came to signify (New Public Sector
Management – NPSM) located the development of the management tools of audit,
inspection and evaluation in the context of the rise of new, more penetrating, forms
of regulation and governance (Daly, 2003; Clarke, 2004a). Where New Labour
departed from its Conservative predecessors was not in their use of such techniques
but in their motivation for adopting them: rather than seeing them as essentially
‘a good thing’, chiming with their (Conservative) ideological beliefs in the primacy
of the market, New Labour was interested only in what was effective – what worked,
in practice. Crucially, for New Labour, this key aim was underpinned by a belief in
the value of research and evidence as the objective basis for policy choices and inter-
ventions, whether in the fields of health care, welfare or criminal justice.
The relationships between research, ‘evidence’ and policy development are complex
and highly contested, and nowhere more so than in the fields of criminal justice and
social policies. Moreover, the sheer scope indicated by the title of this chapter could
merit at least one book in its own right. But for the purposes of this book, an inevitably
limited and summary approach will have to be taken to accomplish three broad aims.
The first aim is to outline the rise of evidence-based policy (EBP) and the ‘what works’
paradigm, which lies at the heart of post-1997 welfare and criminal justice policies.
Secondly, the chapter will explore theoretical and practical problems associated with
‘what works’. Thirdly, it will examine examples of the use, or misuse, of ‘what works’
in the fields of criminal justice and social policies. Finally, while addressing these three
aims, the chapter will seek throughout to critically appraise what works in the context
of the rise of new forms of governance which are shaping the contours and the limits
of criminal and social justice.
1. Evidence-based Policy and the Rise

of the ‘What Works’ Paradigm
In popular terms the word ‘evidence’ is often associated with forensic science and the
investigators who use evidence as the basis for solving crimes. Similarly, medical and
scientific models of enquiry are based on the objective collection and analysis of data
(evidence) in order to support or reject the hypothesis or theory the investigator is
testing. It is important to recognise that the emergence of the ‘what works’ paradigm
in the 1990s was not an entirely new phenomenon, but signalled a re-emergence and
re-shaping of a long-standing positivist approach in which scientific research had
long been seen to hold the key for explaining (and thereafter changing) human and
social conduct (Sebba, 2001).
Where crime and criminal justice were concerned the earlier positivistic view had
been challenged from a range of perspectives: Marxist approaches argued that ‘crime’
itself was defined by the ruling capitalist elites and that punishment and the process
of criminalisation constituted part of a repressive social apparatus. Postmodernist
• 95 •
and interpretivist approaches to crime and justice also rejected positivism, but for
different reasons, arguing that using pseudo-scientific tools in the search for univer-
sal ‘truths’ or generalisations in dynamic, contested, social spheres was not only
futile, but was an ideological enterprise in itself. Particularly notable in undermining
scientific and positivistic approaches were the reviews of penal policies and interven-
tions conducted during the early 1970s, the most notable being Robert Martinson’s
work, which concluded that community corrections were no better or worse than
incarceration and that, in short, ‘nothing works’. This stance paved the way for
a rejection of the rehabilitative ideal in favour of a ‘just deserts’ approach to penal
policy (Hudson, 1987).
But the impossibilism inherent in the ‘nothing works’ stance would not prevail for
long, not least because it ran counter to political imperatives that demanded that
‘something should be done’ about crime, law and order. Subsequently, reviews of pre-
ventative and correctional interventions returned to predominantly scientific/medical
models of research and evaluation and suggested that some things did indeed work
and that it was, after all, possible to assess what works, what does not work, and what
is ‘promising’ in anti-crime interventions (for instance, see Sherman et al., 1997).
Government funded research by, for example, the Department of Justice in the US,
the Home Office for England and Wales and the Ministry of Justice in the
Netherlands, all gave a renewed impetus and a veneer of legitimacy to quantitative,
evidence-based research (Sebba, 2001).
Where the development and ‘testing’ of social policy solutions are concerned, issues
of evidence and evaluation have only come to such prominence relatively recently. To
some extent they can be traced back to movements towards greater consumer choice
and the ‘Citizens Charters’, which were led by Conservative Prime Minister John Major
in the early 1990s and have been adopted since then by successive governments.
According to this view of citizens as consumers, it was clear that if citizens were to
have ‘choice’ (in education, health care, housing, pension provision, transport and so
on) then they needed the evidence upon which to base their choices. If they were to
receive the rights that their ‘Charter’ guaranteed, then the services they received would
need to be evaluated against the Charter’s promises. In these two key respects, evidence
and evaluation were therefore, in the 1990s, becoming influential in the development,
choice and delivery of policies in a range of fields.
At the same time, universities became increasingly involved in gathering and dis-
seminating the research base for EBP. But this role was (and still is) not without its ten-
sions and ambiguities: for example, the conventions of writing up research findings
for academic journals invariably leads to an editing down of much rich contextual
information and may also lead to a reluctance to give entirely honest accounts of
research or programme failure (Pawson, 2001). The demands of academic perfor-
mance may also militate against ‘take risks’ with innovative or controversial research
findings (Crawford, 1998). In addition, the pressure on university research centres
to generate external income may lead to their trying too hard to please research fun-
ders by giving them ‘what they want’ rather than opening up spaces for dialogue and
critique.
• 96 •
Early academic/practitioner collaborations around EBP included: the Evidence for

Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre (EPPI-Centre) based at the
University of London, established in 1993 to address the need for a systematic
approach to evidence-based work on social interventions; the Centre for Evidence
Based Social Services (CEBSS – a partnership comprising the Department of Health,
Social Services Departments in the South West of England and the University of
Exeter), established in 1997 with the main aim of ensuring that decisions taken at all
levels in social services were ‘informed by trends from good-quality research’. More
recently, the collaborative National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) was estab-
lished by New Labour in 1999 to bring together researchers and practitioners and to
promote and disseminate evidence of good practice in the sphere of health. At the
same time, National Service Frameworks drawing on research evidence were devel-
oped to provide templates of ‘what worked best’ in organising and delivering health
and social care services. Where social care was concerned, the children’s charity
Barnardo’s also committed itself to ‘what works’ in arguing, quite rightly, that it was
the right of every child ‘to expect that professionals intervening on their lives do so
on the basis of the best available knowledge’ (Jackson and Thomas, 1999).
2. ‘What Works’ – Theoretical and Practical Issues
One key issue at the heart of the what works paradigm is how to determine exactly
what is the ‘best available knowledge’ for guiding interventions. The means by which
this is established is not a neutral process as it involves decisions about what consti-
tutes robust, ethical, relevant and ‘good’ research. By definition, finding out ‘what
works’ also involves judging the cause and effects of interventions in the social
world, but the means to accomplish this are often drawn from the philosophy and
methods of the natural sciences.
Deciding what works
In the fields of medicine and health care, international networks have been estab-
lished to use ‘scientific’ methods to produce robust evidence of what works for policy-
makers: for instance, the Cochrane Collaboration (established in 1993) seeks to
produce evidence which has been ‘systematically searched, critically appraised and rig-
orously analysed according to transparent criteria’ (Davies, 2004:7 original emphasis).
The same basic principles for establishing what works are also adopted by the
Campbell Collaboration (C2) network, which covers research in social and educa-
tional interventions. For these (and other) networks, the single research study is seen
often to lack methodological rigour and is not ‘sample-specific, time-specific and
context-specific’ (ibid). By contrast, engaging in systematic reviews and meta-analyses
can lead to an accumulation of evidence collected from those single studies which are
deemed eligible for inclusion according to clear sample, time, context and quality
• 97 •
criteria. In this way, the selection of which studies are appropriate and included in
reviews is crucial to the subsequent analysis which, in theory, should then offer more
than the sum of its parts.
When deciding on the inclusion criteria for systematic review, such networks see
the random controlled trial (RCT) of medical research as the methodological ‘gold
standard’, but many argue that systematic review and meta-analyses are inappropri-
ate for the complex analysis of cause and effect in the social realm. Moreover, the
processes for judging what evidence qualifies for inclusion in reviews is seen by some
as a highly selective and limiting process:
These services, while valuable, are dominated by peer reviewed journal papers,
with variable and usually limited coverage of the wealth of social science
research, policy and practice information that appears in government reports,
independent research institutes and think tank publications, academic working
paper, other grey literature and books. (Gomersall, 2005:127)
Where social issues and interventions are concerned, recent moves to develop merged,
databases which would incorporate these ‘grey’ sources may begin to address some of
the problems raised by systematic review (ibid). Nonetheless, there remain profound
theoretical problems in adopting the scientific realism they imply. Firstly, within the
social realm there are difficulties in establishing exactly what is a ‘programme’ for the
purposes of comparative research and systematic review. For instance, programmes
addressing teen pregnancy may be defined by their goals or by the elements that con-
stitute them: the goal of reducing pregnancies may be achieved through ‘programmes’
stressing abstinence, or those promoting contraception and these are by no means
comparable (Cottingham et al., 2004). Secondly, there is a risk that scientific realism
may descend into scientific reductionism, so ‘rendering complex social world simple
and governable’ (Gadd, 2004). David Gadd’s work (on cognitive behaviour pro-
grammes for perpetrators of domestic violence) makes it clear that, in this field, dubi-
ous evidence of programme ‘success’ has nonetheless been used to justify certain
(preferred) policy options (Gadd, 2004). Recent regionally-based research on voluntary
domestic violence perpetrators’ programmes similarly revealed concerns around the
policy orthodoxy of the cognitive behavioural approach in general, and the Duluth
model in particular (Cook and Lyle, 2004). What emerged from our analysis of inter-
national and UK studies, and our own empirical research, was that there was no clear
evidence that voluntary perpetrator programmes (or, indeed, court mandated pro-
grammes) had a positive effect on perpetrator attitudes, re-offending patterns or victim
safety. In short, we were unable to propose a ‘model’ which could be adjudged to ‘work’
in these crucial respects.
But certain orthodoxies are hard to shift, particularly when they have acquired
‘scientific’ kudos, however dubious. Home Office research published in 1997 had
already acknowledged the difficulties in ‘scientifically’ assessing the effectiveness of
programmes based on the cognitive behavioural approach and, moreover, went on
to cast doubt on the value of systematic review and meta-analyses in assessing what
• 98 •
does and what does not work to reduce offending (Vennard et al., 1997). However,
in respect of domestic violence offenders, government policy appears to be shackled
to perpetrator programmes based on the cognitive behavioural approach, despite
significant problems in implementation and little, if any, robust evidence that
they actually work to reduce offending and enhance the safety of victims and their
families.
The evidence-based policy (EBP) agenda
The EBP movement has in recent years been intimately linked with the New Labour
government’s modernisation agenda, as the following quote from the 1999 White
Paper, Modernising Government shows:
[Government should] produce policies that really deal with problems; that are
forward looking and shaped by the evidence rather than a response to short-
term pressures; that tackle causes not symptoms. (Cabinet Office, 1999)
Finding out and supporting ‘what works’ based on the core principle of ‘building ini-
tiatives by learning from past successes and failures’ is a commendable aim (Pawson,
2001). But, while there is widespread support for drawing on robust research evidence
to inform decisions about policy and practice, ‘the evidence-led agenda promises too
strong a role for evidence’ (Tilley, 2001:96). Rather, Tilley advocates a rational, reflec-
tive and generative approach to what works, which rightly acknowledges that it is
not programmes that work, but the underlying reasons or resources that they offer
which work to generate change. The CEBSS adopts a complementary stance in its
stress on the importance of professional and personal contexts and argues that ‘what
works’ alone is not a sufficient basis for policy: research evidence needs to be
used ‘in combination with the preferences of clients, and the judgement and experi-
ence of professionals’ (http://www.ex.ac.uk/cebss/evidence_based_practice.html).
These are important qualifying additions to the what works paradigm which taken
together confirm that:
• Evidence in itself should not determine policy – it is not just what works that matters
• A thoughtful and generative approach needs to be taken to assessing the benefits,
changes or failures of policy interventions
• Practitioners and service users also have a vital role to play in shaping the policy process.
As already indicated, the rise and use, of EBP and ‘what works’ has been particularly
notable in relation to crime and criminal justice policy over the past two decades. In
England and Wales this work has broadly consisted of two strands. The first is evident
in the work of the Home Office Crime Prevention Unit, set up in 1983 to address sit-
uational crime prevention measures. These measures have developed, over time, from
‘locks and bolts’, to include a range of more complex techniques. Situational crime
prevention measures currently consist of those geared to: increase the effort required
• 99 •
to commit crime (car immobilisers, anti-robbery screens in banks, gating alleys);

increasing the risks of crime (better street lighting, CCTV, neighbourhood watch);
reducing the rewards of crime (property marking, merchandise tagging); and, more
recently, ‘reducing provocations and removing excuses’ (for instance, reducing
crowds, installing breathalysers in pubs) (www.crimereduction.gov.uk).
Secondly, the psychological approach to crime is also a significant interest among
Home Office researchers, for instance, the use of cognitive behavioural approaches to
changing offenders’ behaviour (Home Office, 1997). Evaluation research conducted
within the what works paradigm – whether situational or individual in focus – is
invariably limited to the parameters of the intervention being studied: this means
that the wider context in which the intervention takes place is seen as beyond the
scope of the research. Critics have argued, therefore, that where ‘official’ Home Office
research on crime is concerned, the twin focus on situational measures and individ-
ual psychology has served to displace broader concerns with the economic and social
relationships and structures that shape the contexts of, and motivations for, crime
(Stenson and Edwards, 2004).
Where economic and social relations were concerned, a tranche of high-profile
centrally funded programmes launched in the term of the first New Labour govern-
ment (1997–2001) explicitly set out to address the causes of crime: among others,
the flagship New Deal for Communities, Surestart and Connexions programmes were
all seen as The Way Ahead in tackling the causes of crime (as indicated in Figure 1.7
earlier (see page 31)). But these programmes remained somewhat separated from
those Home Office initiatives geared to tackling crime itself: these were based on
measures involving situational crime prevention, enhanced law enforcement and
more effective administration of justice. Therefore, despite the rhetoric of joined-up
policy, ‘crime reduction is separate and relatively disconnected from strategies to deal
with the deeper causes of crime’ (Stenson and Edwards, 2004:226). This is particularly
evident when these strategies come together in local contexts, as we will see in the
discussion of partnership, social inclusion and community safety strategies in the
next chapter.
What works and governance
Researching within a ‘what works’ paradigm has practical, theoretical and ethical
implications for researchers engaged in it: for those of us with experience of com-
munity-based and evaluative research, it is clear that inherent within the paradigm
is a higher than ever degree of client control and prescription. For example, research
sponsors have the power to identify, adopt and fund the policy intervention that is
being studied in the first place (and this will inevitably have involved the exclusion
of alternative interventions); they pose the research aims and questions to be
answered (ruling out of order more radical research questions); they frequently set
the criteria against which projects are to be evaluated (often in terms of internal
organisational goals, targets, and cost effectiveness criteria); closely define research
parameters (with no-go areas or themes for research); and, on some occasions, seek
• 100 •
to restrict the dissemination of ‘unpopular’ research findings. Many of these

constraints have always applied to social research but, above and beyond this, what
is distinctive about ‘what works’ is the driving force of its managerial logic and its
subsequent role in constituting and justifying new forms of governance. As Peter
Raynor observed (in relation to Probation Pathfinder evaluative research),
Detailed ideas about the methodology of evaluations were developed in RDS

[the Home Office Research and Statistics Directorate] before invitations to ten-
der were issued… the scope was limited by the fact that budgets had been pro-
visionally determined on the base of the methodology already devised within
RDS… the process of tendering and contracting felt more like becoming a sub-
contractor of RDS than receiving a research grant. (2004:314)
Raynor’s comments on the extensive accountability requirements of the HO as

research funders (for instance, frequent progress reports and steering group meet-
ings), chime with my own experience and, I am sure, are typical of the experience of
many researchers working with government departments and public bodies.
Academics working within such tight managerial constraints (even to the point of
the funder attempting to re-work or ignore unpalatable research findings – see Hope,
2004) find the experience not only frustrating but a threat to ethical and robust
research practice.
As a consequence, some (though not all) research conducted within the what
works paradigm can be conceptualised as part of a constrained, controlled and man-
aged process for the selection and validation of particular policy options. It is not
surprising, then, that many doubt the value and ethics of much officially sponsored
policy research in the what works mould, and that research conducted by and
on behalf of the Home Office has come in for particular criticism (Hope, 2002;
McLaughlin, 2002). Critics see researching what works in the sphere of crime and
criminal justice largely as a limiting and self-referential exercise, which is part and
parcel of a wider process of governance and policy legitimisation. This process effec-
tively constitutes ‘governing at a distance’ and is partly accomplished through the
discursive and working practices that operate through the what works paradigm:
these practices serve to manage research in ways that effectively ‘bracket out’ the
complex politics and conflicts around crime reduction – at national and local levels.
Consequently, McLaughlin contends that:
… the excessive focus on demonstrating the relentless march of the ‘what works’
programme flattens New Labour’s criminal justice project into a non-descript,
uninflected narrative devoid of complexity, tensions and contradictions. This
account has no use for letting the different facets of the government’s crime
reduction agenda ‘breathe’ and no interest in exploring the social and political
overtones and undertones of policy, practice and discourse. (2002:48)
The same criticisms can be made of what works research in other areas – such as
social exclusion (see also Chapter 5). The paradigm itself displays what McLaughlin
• 101 •
terms a ‘high modernist’ faith in administrative efficiency, science and technology to

reduce crime and to solve social problems. (This is a theme we will return to in the
discussion of the Crime Reduction Programme below.)
Realistic evaluation – in theory and practice
There have, however, been attempts to develop EB research in ways that would raise
more important questions that just ‘what works’? For instance, the principles of real-
istic evaluation seek to avoid some of the pitfalls of a ‘flattened’, narrow ‘what works’
approach (Pawson and Tilley, 1997). Instead, it seeks to develop theorising which is
based on contexts, mechanisms and the (sometimes unintended) outcomes of inter-
ventions, which are not predictable or generalisable. Instead of the medical model’s
RCT as a gold standard for evidence-based research, the goal of realistic evaluation
research is conceived as:
a tested theory or set of theories that provides an improved grasp of what

worked, how and with whom within the programme. (Tilley, 2001:94)
Realistic evaluation, rooted as it is in a ‘middle range scientific realism’, is far from

‘sexy’ and, as Tilley puts it:
‘What works for whom and in what circumstances’ is hardly a rallying cry. It
calls for patient analysis and hard thought. It eschews the undifferentiated,
blanket response. (2002:79)
For crime reduction and criminal justice research, then, what works is being slowly
refined and developed through the principles of realistic evaluation and problem-
solving approaches to research and policy. But in practice these refinements are not
easy to take forward on the ground within agencies and partnerships. The reasons for
this are due in part to the cultures of crime reduction organisations and partly due
to issues of resources. In relation to the former, many of those working in crime
reduction and in community safety partnerships may feel constrained by their
organisational roles and are understandably reluctant to be critical of what works
(officially) and to pose creative alternatives (Gilling and Hughes, 2002). In relation
to the issue of resources, Read and Tilley (2000) in a paper suitably titled Not Rocket
Science? Problem-solving and crime reduction, examined police approaches to crime
reduction through problem-solving. They found that despite two years of a high pro-
file policy drive from the Home Office, high quality problem-solving remained
‘exceptional’ as police forces continued to focus on the ‘sharp end’ of policing and
on offenders. They went on to observe that:
data are weak, and routine aggregate data sharing is exceptional and prob-
lematic. Analysts are thin on the ground, often used mechanically and for pro-
cessing management information, and tend to be inexperienced, poorly paid,
and with few qualifications for preventive analysis. (2000:vii)
• 102 •
Two years on from Read and Tilley’s observation on the lack of staff, skills and ICT
resources to make what works really work, very similar problems resurfaced in a fur-
ther Home Office sponsored report that sought to develop a framework for police
and local partnerships to address crime and disorder problems more effectively
(Tilley and Laycock, 2002). In line with what works principles (and based on US and
UK research), the authors identified six key principles which would underpin suc-
cessful, EBP namely:
1. Aims – knowing what you aspire to do

2. Problem specification – having a detailed and evidenced statement of the aim
3. Tactics – what will actually be done to tackle the problem
4. Mechanisms – ways in which these tactics will bring about change
5. Context – the time, place, social organisation in which the tactics will activate the
mechanisms for change
6. Replication – adopting and adapting approaches that have been found to be effec-
tive in one context, so that they will similarly work when implemented in another
context/place.
But in order to apply successfully these six principles to practice locally, the agencies
engaging with the problem-solving approach to crime reduction need to have essen-
tial skills and resources. A cursory look at the checklist of the skills required by these
agencies and partnerships reveals a number of resource problems they face, includ-
ing: suitably qualified staff; ease of access to up-to-date research (including on-line
access); opportunities for staff to update their knowledge base; the ability to think
critically and laterally about crime and crime reduction policies; the ability to sug-
gest creative alternative interventions; and finally and crucially, the effective collec-
tion storage and retrieval of crime and disorder data in ways which facilitate their
analysis from a problem-solving perspective (Tilley and Laycock, 2002). This suggests
that what works cannot work without the appropriate infrastructure and skills base
to support it.
The dynamics and ‘disconnections’ of what works
However, at this point we need to take a step back in order to critically address some
of the assumptions underlying the list of principles for EBP reproduced above. Firstly,
the construction of the list in itself can be seen to present a technicist view of the
processes of policy-making, implementation and evaluation that echoes the ‘high
modernist’ perspective alluded to by McLaughlin earlier. Similarly, a plethora of
Home Office what works ‘toolkits’ offer simple ‘off the shelf’ (and more often, ‘off
the web’) guides to practice, which drive a naïve and uncritical approach to crime
reduction policies (Hughes, 2004b). While sharing ideas on effective practice can be
valuable, it is also important to recognise the uniqueness of ‘place’ and localities in the
development of community safety strategy. If toolkits and good practice guidelines are
seen as a short cut to policy-making and are adopted uncritically and wholesale, they
• 103 •
may undermine the ‘down-up’, community empowerment, partnership model which

lies at the heart of community safety principles. Imaginative and locally driven
responses are therefore likely to be stifled by top-down prescriptions of what works
elsewhere – nationally and internationally. This brings us to a second set of prob-
lematic EBP issues, around context and replication.
There is a tendency inherent within what works to assume that there is ‘out there’
an objective reality to be studied and a full grasp of the context (historical, social,
economic, cultural and spatial) in which policy interventions are to be applied. But
these contexts are dynamic and contested: for example, in relation to community
safety priorities and policy aims, there will inevitably be competing views held by the
police, local councillors and community safety ‘professionals’, and local residents.
The task of adapting and implementing crime reduction policy (or any other kind of
policy) according to local contexts is far from a static or a politically neutral process.
It also raises the question of the extent to which we can ever replicate what works in
one place in another place or time. It also raises some fundamental questions about
the construction of ‘the’ knowledge base for what works – whose knowledge is it,
where does it come from, where does it apply, and to what end was it generated?
If we look at the empirical case studies drawn upon in the Home Office commis-
sioned report Reducing Offending (itself the centrepiece of New Labour’s £250 million
Crime Reduction Programme, launched in 1999), we find that many are based on US
‘experiments’ (Goldblatt and Lewis, 1998). The same may be said of more recent sys-
tematic reviews on other issues (for instance on the effectiveness of interventions
designed to reduce criminal behaviour among drug users) where authors note the dom-
inance of US studies and a ‘gap’ in relation to evaluations of interventions in the UK
(Holloway et al., 2005). The extent to which US studies are robust, reliable and relevant
in the UK context is open to debate (Fraser, 1998). But, even if generated in the UK,
‘what works’ evaluations may (possibly with good intentions) serve alternative inter-
ests or agendas. For example, the extensive Home Office Guidelines produced when
implementing the Crime and Disorder Act (1998) are largely made up of ‘what works’
case studies from a range of UK pilots and locally based community safety programmes.
Such pilots and programmes are geared to demonstrating ‘success’ or ‘progress’, not
least because this is often the only way to ensure continued funding. Therefore there
is an enthusiasm for demonstrating ‘wins’ – and ‘quick wins’ at that – to ensure pro-
gramme survival and the jobs of those involved (Raynor, 2004). At the same time, the
what works approach (based on ‘scientific’ analyses) raises expectations of success and
so, when programmes fail to deliver that success, the failure is often blamed on the sub-
ject – the offender (Boone, 2004).
‘What works’ studies in the field of crime reduction may also suffer from the same
criticisms that Jamie Peck made of workfare experiments and exemplars in the US –
that they are disembedded and lead to the tendency to construct policy on the basis
of ‘facts from nowhere’, or at least from somewhere else (Peck, 1998:141). Peck’s crit-
icisms are equally relevant for both the criminal justice and social policy spheres: he
persuasively argues that in the US poverty and welfare dependency have been con-
ceptualised as largely inner city problems, but the ‘local solutions’ posed, especially
• 104 •
the workfare solution, have come from very different places, notably ‘rural’ areas of
Wisconsin and Riverside in California. Policy solutions transposed to the UK may
therefore suffer from a double disconnection – at both inter- and intranational
levels: clearly what is seen to work in Wisconsin may not work in entirely different
social, economic and cultural contexts of Glasgow and the Scottish Highlands,
Cardiff and West Wales, or Birmingham and rural Shropshire. According to Peck this
‘profound spatial disconnect is largely buried under the decontextualised pseudo-
science of workfare advocacy’ (ibid:141). The ‘science’ or ideology of the intervention
itself thus displaces issues relating to the socio-cultural, economic and spatial con-
texts in which it is implemented. It is significant then that ‘exemplar’ US workfare
experiments have had such a powerful influence on UK policy, despite the profound
historical, cultural and spatial disconnects between the two countries and settings
(Deacon, 1997; Cook, 2001; Daguerre, 2004). In a similar way the UK Home Office
off-the-web toolkits present facts ‘from somewhere else’ and so may, too, be regarded
as the spatially disconnected products of crime (pseudo)science. In the realm of
crime reduction, as in that of workfare, ‘Sub-national experiences leaving a strong
imprint on national debates’ in the sense that we may feel we know ‘what’ works,
but are unsure if or where else it will work. In relation to both crime reduction and
workfare then, effectiveness is ‘contingent on local conditions’, not least local eco-
nomic and (‘flexible’) labour market conditions (Peck, 1998).
‘What works’ as governance? The Case of

the Crime Reduction Programme 1999–2002
As we have seen, many of the initiatives constituting the ambitious Crime Reduction
Programme (CRP) were inspired or justified with reference to US research studies and,
therefore, may suffer from the problem of ‘disconnection’. Nevertheless, the launch of
the £250 million CRP in 1999 was greeted with much enthusiasm: it encompassed a
wide range of initiatives, accorded unprecedented importance (and 10% of its budget)
to evaluation and offered, for the first time, the prospect of long-term, sustainable
multi-agency approaches to crime reduction (Maguire, 2004). But although the CRP
promised much, it largely failed to deliver the promised understanding of ‘what works’.
Reasons for this are complex and numerous but include:
• Its over-ambitious scale, with unrealistic expectations of outcomes

• Implementation failure, which itself involved: the nature and (unrealistically tight)
timetables of programmes; slow, bureaucratic procedures; capacity of programme
managers; and the priorities of local managers in the police and Crime and Disorder
Reduction Partnerships (CDRPs)
• Poorer than expected police data
• Lower than expected commitment to evaluation by project staff
• Where implementation was successful, difficulty in attributing cause and effect (partly
because projects comprised several strands of preventive action running simultaneously).
(Sources: Hough, 2004:240; Maguire, 2004:213)
• 105 •
Consequently, the evaluations that came out of the CRP could ‘say a great deal
about ways of improving implementation, but very much less about what to imple-
ment’ (Hough, 2004:240, emphasis added). As a result, politicians began to lose faith
in the programme (and, to some extent, in the researchers conducting evaluations)
and the CRP ran for three years rather than the ten years originally envisaged (ibid).
Some academics, too, lost faith in evidence-based policy-making arguing it had in
practice given rise to networks of governance within which the boundaries between
political, administrative and scientific interests and expertise became excessively
blurred (Hope, 2004). Such networks accomplish a central task of governance as a
‘tool to help govern a complex society, whose complexity is continuously expanding
as a result of the application of science to social problems’ (ibid:302). Crucial to these
networks, and vying for policy influence, are what Hope terms the new crime sci-
ences which are seen to operate ‘symbiotically in the construction of political pro-
grammes’ (ibid:302). In this way the scientific rationalism inherent in the CRP was
subverted into a kind of ‘scientific reductionism’ in which the complexities of the
worlds of local managers and partners were either not appreciated fully (or were
ignored) in the interests of governance (Hough, 2004). Nevertheless, many acade-
mics are still reluctant to jettison the notion of EBP either seeing it as a necessary
antidote to the political conservatism inherent in the impossibilism of ‘nothing
works’ (Maguire, 2004), or as important to enabling local actors/partners, in particu-
lar, to make informed policy choices (Hough, 2004).
What works and empowerment
Despite a welcome and renewed emphasis on the importance of the ‘rootedness’ of

research evidence (Shaxson, 2005), the what works paradigm is still seen by many as
fundamentally at odds with the principles of ‘down-up’ empowering research in
which the perspectives of users and practitioners are valued and voiced. While realis-
tic evaluation does offer the potential to listen and learn lessons from policy experi-
ences, it is often mistakenly assumed to be merely about ‘hard’ quantitative data. But
valuable qualitative, ‘soft’ evidence can and does come from engagement with users
and practitioners too (as the CEBSS rightly stated, above). There are powerful argu-
ments from this alternative perspective that may counter the govermentality that is
seen to underlie EBP and what works: many of these arguments emanate from those
promoting user-led and user-controlled research (Beresford, 2002; Bennett and
Roberts, 2004; Lister, 2004). The process of critiquing and unpackaging research and
policy within the what works paradigm therefore opens up the space for social
researchers to ask alternative and important questions such as: What’s the problem,
and who says so? What might be done about it? By whom? Who should be asked and
about what? Who is the evaluation for? The final two questions are vital as they
require and enable researchers to engage with (and for), users and potential users of
the service or intervention being studied. In this sense, evaluation research can be ren-
dered more democratic and empowering (Fetterman, 2001). As we will see later, this
• 106 •
approach is increasingly being taken forward in community-based research around

safety, poverty and social inclusion. The challenge for policy research is to find ways
to reconcile the best reflective and generative elements from realistic evaluation with
innovative, user focused elements of democratic research and evaluation.
3. The Use, and Misuse, of ‘What Works’
As we have seen, some of the key principles underlying the ‘what works’ paradigm are
positive ones: firstly, whether in the fields of health, social care or criminal justice, cit-
izens and service users should be able to benefit from policies based on the most sound,
up-to-date and appropriate research evidence. Secondly, that policy should be evi-
dence-led rather than wholly evidence-based, as the perspectives of citizens, service
users and practitioners should also shape the policy process. But the importance of
national politics (and political perspectives on public opinion) should not be under-
estimated: drawing on the example of the CRP, there is a powerful view that ‘future
policies may be informed by research, but they will be shaped by politics and by a polit-
ical perception of public sentiment’ (Raynor, 2003:86, original emphasis).
Nonetheless, it is crucial not to descend into the impossibilism of the nothing works
mentality. There are examples of what does work, and not all of the initiatives that do
work are centrally driven or derived from replications of programmes from the what
works mould. For example, if we take the issue of domestic violence, many important
initiatives geared to addressing domestic violence have emanated from the innovative
work of the voluntary and community sectors and others engaged with supporting
victims and their families (such as the Leeds Inter Agency Project, the Help, Advice
and the Law Team (HALT) in Leeds, the Cardiff Women’s Safety Unit, Women’s Aid
and, of course, the Refuge movement). If, for instance, we take the introduction of
Specialist Domestic Violence Courts (SDVCs) into the UK as one such positive initia-
tive, this was not mainly or solely driven by the agencies of the CJS. Led by the exam-
ple of the Leeds ‘cluster court’ launched in 1999, Magistrates’ Courts in Cardiff, West
London and Wolverhampton had all worked in partnership with local domestic vio-
lence fora (and their constituent voluntary and community groups) to develop SDVC
arrangements locally. The evaluation of five such court schemes, also including an
additional CPS-led scheme in Derby, evidenced that SDVCs and fast track arrange-
ments did work to provide enhanced services for victims and survivors (Cook et al.,
2004). This evidence, in turn, provided the basis for wider roll-out nationally (Home
Office Press Release, 31 March 2005). It is encouraging, then, that national policy
innovation in the sphere of domestic violence, as elsewhere, can be driven by local
actors, practitioners, and voluntary and community sector groups.
Conversely, it should be noted that not all of the evidence from research projects,
and the recommendations flowing from them, are heeded by government, particu-
larly where costs are involved: for example, in the SDVC project, one key recommen-
dation proposing a national funding programme for voluntary and community sector
• 107 •
advocacy groups working with victims and survivors was not taken forward, despite
the research finding that the success of SDVCs would depend on accessible and sus-
tainable advocacy and support services. (In addition, the funding allocated to ‘roll
out’ SDVCs nationally provided only £1 million to ‘set up’ 25 courts, but no funds
are allocated to ensure their sustainability – Home Office Press Release, 31 March
2005). Nevertheless, this and subsequent research (Vallely et al., 2005) have indeed
shown that SDVCs can ‘work’. Perhaps less clear is exactly why they work: this can-
not be simply attributed to CJS processes or to the remit and operation of support
services at court. Rather, complex issues around the politics of local partnership and,
crucially, the driving role of key individuals can make the difference between over-
whelming success and relative failure.
The what works paradigm, based on the model of the natural sciences, is far from
equipped to deal with the complex and dynamic effects of organisational culture and
personal agency on ‘programme’ success. A further issue is therefore that programme
fetishism itself focuses on implementing ‘programmes or interventions’ rather than
providing an experience of case work, case management, outreach work, support
and/or supervision (HM Inspectorate of Probation, 2002). In this sense, a focus on
‘what works’ alone produces a ‘one dimensional’ approach to measuring outcomes
that concentrates on one variable (the programme) at the expense of many other
independent variables. Once again, the scientific/medical model inherent in the
what works paradigm fails to come to grips with the messy and complex relations,
and contested realities, of social life and social ‘problems’.
Changes in research philosophy and practice are, however, proving fruitful. The
development of more generative and ‘rooted’ approaches to research and the use
and enhancement of multiple methodologies are beginning to establish that, in
relation to criminal justice and social policy interventions, some approaches do
indeed work better than others. In this sense, the ‘nothing works’ era is at an end
and research is providing some ‘useful leads’ (Bottoms, 2005). Nonetheless, there is
a temptation to over-egg positive results and rush to quick fixes. However, if, as
Tony Bottoms argues, ‘we are serious about an evidence-based approach, the evi-
dence has to be allowed to accumulate incrementally, with policy and practice built
slowly alongside the evaluations’ (Bottoms, 2005:12). The difficulty remains that
the exigencies of politics and governance frequently demand a quick fix rather than
a considered development of policy and its evaluation over the longer term.
This, and other problems with ‘what works’ discussed thus far, are summarised in
Figure 4.1 opposite.
Bearing in mind these concerns, and the issues around what works discussed so far,
we will move on, finally, to explore some of the issues and problems for policy-
making associated with the use, and misuse, of ‘what works’. This will be accomplished
by examining three selected, and necessarily brief, case studies:
1. ‘On the spot’ punishment – the Penalty Notice for Disorder

2. Identity cards
3. ICT and the technological fix
• 108 •
1. Knee-jerk definitions of those ‘problems’ that are seen to be in need of research and
policy solution (for example, penalty notices for disorder and ‘street crime’)
2. ‘Initiativitis’ from central government with, as one political commentator noted, ‘more
pilots than British Airways’, and a parallel failure of co-ordination at local and national
levels and subsequently…
3. A veritable flood of evaluation research, in which it becomes more difficult to explore
what is working, where, for whom, why and under what circumstances
4. Pitfalls of meta-evaluations which in part attempt to deal with the problem of proliferation
of (local) findings, but can be highly selective and gloss over much important detail
5. Accentuating the positive, with pressure deriving from research funders and some
academic conventions to produce positive results rather than to report programme failure
or ‘bad news’
6. Short-termism – the timescales (and budgets) for much important policy evaluation work
are limited, for instance, to fit in with political policy cycles (such as the Comprehensive
Spending Review and Budget cycles) and of course general elections. This is also linked
with the desire for…
7. Quick fixes, particularly to perceived crime and disorder issues, to demonstrate ‘success’
and to enhance media and electoral support (see Tonry, 2004)
8. Shooting (or rubbishing) the messenger – where research indicates to funders that
favoured policy options will not work, it is likely to be dismissed (as we will see in the
discussion of ID cards)
9. Gathering dust – on the other hand, if researchers say what does work and the policy
interventions they recommend are seen as ‘off message’ (or too costly) the research may
be shelved, to gather dust (see Chapter 5 for a discussion of SEU recommendations in
relation to ex-prisoners)
10. Policy-based evidence-making – given all of the above, politicians and policy-makers
may take decisions to (a) implement policies which they know will probably not work but
‘fit’ with wider political priorities; and/or (b) fail to implement policies which are likely to
work because they don’t fit or are too expensive. In this way they may entirely reverse the
principles of EBP.
Figure 4.1 Pitfalls of Policy Research Within the ‘What Works’ Paradigm
‘On the spot’ punishment – Penalty Notices for Disorder (PND)
A thug may think twice about kicking your gate, throwing traffic cones around
your street, hurling abuse into the night sky if he thought he might get picked up
by the police, taken to a cash point and asked to pay an on-the-spot fine of, for
example, £100. (Tony Blair, speech to the Global Ethics Foundation, June 2000)
Tony Blair has long been a passionate advocate of ‘what works’, so can we presume that
this proposal, made in a speech to the Global Ethics Foundation in Germany, emanated
from extensive, robust research within this paradigm? Apparently not, and yet this
vision of ‘summary justice’ was brought into law the following year (in the 2001
Criminal Justice and Police Act) despite the fact that 12 month pilot projects evaluat-
ing PNDs in four police force areas only started in August 2002. The policy was, there-
fore, launched in advance of any research evidence to support it: by the time the results
of pilot evaluations were published (in September 2004) the PND scheme had already
• 109 •
been rolled out nationally. Although the evaluation did conclude that ‘on the whole
the PND project has been a success’ this success was judged in terms of police attitudes,
and it seemed that the police had ‘warmed to this disposal as a way of dealing with
anti-social behaviour in a swift, decisive manner’, hence the initiative was judged a suc-
cess (Home Office, 2005f:6). The PND is therefore a good example of policy-based-
evidence-making and a sobering example of the abrogation of what works in favour of
a political ‘quick win’.
According to critics, the PND also demonstrates a further blurring of the bound-
aries between the civil and the criminal law: notices can be issued by police officers,
some community support officers and ‘“accredited” persons such as neighbourhood
wardens and security staff’ for a range of ‘disorderly behaviour’ (Roberts and Garside,
2005). Examples of such behaviour range from throwing fireworks in a thoroughfare,
throwing stones and depositing litter to ‘behaviour likely to cause harassment, alarm
or distress’.
Of the total of 63,639 PNDs issued in England and Wales in 2004:
• The vast majority (78%) were issued for the two offences of ‘causing harassment,
alarm and distress’ and being ‘drunk and disorderly’
• 94% were issued to adults and 6% to juveniles (aged 16–17 years)
• Only 38% of PNDs issued were paid in full by the statutory 21 day deadline1
• After the initial 21 day period, just over half (52%) of PNDs were eventually paid with-
out recourse to court action
• Fines were registered for 44% of PNDs for adults and 45% for juveniles.
(Sources: Home Office, 2004; Home Office, 2005f).
If we take compliance with notices as a measure of success, the data presented by the
Home Office for the first full year in operation hardly justifies the initial evaluation
that PNDs were successful. The PND was a policy also designed to make justice
quicker, hence Blair’s notion of ‘marching’ offenders to a cash point. But if an
offender is drunk (as there are in a majority of PND cases), they cannot receive a PND
on the street, and so invariably the notion of swift summary justice begins to dissi-
pate. Where swift payment is concerned, the data on payment rates within the 21 day
notice period indicate that only 38% pay. The notion of ‘justice’ (summary or other-
wise) is also questionable given the potential for differential impacts of an £80 or
£50 fine (depending on the offence) on relatively wealthy and on poorer offenders.
This inequity may be compounded by the imposition of a further fine and a ‘quasi-
criminal record’ for those who cannot pay (Roberts and Garside, 2005). There is also
evidence that much of the PDN ‘new business’ is for those offences which may have
previously resulted in an informal warning: this raises the issue of the net-widening
effects of the order. Taken together, this brief case study shows that this particular
1
By contrast, the payment rate for penalty notices for motoring offences is 59% (Home
Office, 2005a).
• 110 •
policy initiative was not grounded in evidence of what works, was stimulated by
knee-jerk politics and may well prove counter-productive for justice – both criminal
and social.
Identity cards
Instead of wasting hundreds of millions of pounds on compulsory ID cards as

the Tory Right demand, let that money provide thousands more police officers
on the beat in our local communities. (Tony Blair, Leader of the Opposition,
Labour Party Conference, Brighton, 1995)
Of course, as discussed in Chapters 2 and 3, there have been profound national and
global changes since 1995 when Tony Blair made this speech, in opposition to the
then Conservative government’s proposals. What a difference a decade makes, as the
now Prime Minister argues precisely the reverse:
‘People recognise the benefits of a scheme that will allow us to tackle identity
fraud more effectively, bear down on illegal working, illegal immigration, abuse
of our public services and help the fight against organised crime and terrorism,
and these are all strong arguments for moving forward with identity cards.
(Tony Blair, Prime Minister, House of Commons debate on second reading of
the Identity Cards Bill, 28 June 2005)
The claims made here in relation to the aims, benefits and support for identity (ID)
cards appear strong, but to what extent are they based upon robust evidence of what
will and what will not work? What research evidence there is indicates that ID systems
work best when they are established for clear and focused purposes, but critics have
expressed concerns about complexity and function creep in the current proposals out-
lined in the 2005 Identity Cards Bill (Liberty, 2005). Government ministers have, at dif-
ferent times, stressed differing aspects of the ID card’s benefits in terms of tackling the
following: identity theft (allegedly costing £1.3 billion per year); illegal immigration
and working in the hidden economy; misuse of public services; and organised crime
and terrorism. A six month research project conducted by academics from the
Enterprise Privacy Group at the London School of Economics (LSE) examined the gov-
ernment’s proposals and likelihood of meeting all, or any, of these aims in a (cost) effec-
tive way. They concluded that ‘The proposals are too complex, technically unsafe,
overly prescriptive and lack a foundation in public trust and confidence’ and proposed
an alternative model which, they argued, was more appropriate and could be delivered
at one tenth of the cost (LSE, 2005). To summarise very briefly, the concerns of the
LSE Identity Project Group, Liberty, The Register and others, they argue that there is no
evidence that the government’s proposed ID Scheme will:
• Combat international terrorism – as a compulsory ID scheme in Spain did not prevent

the bombings in Madrid in 2004, and 9/11 and 7/7 terrorists did not conceal their
identity
• 111 •
• Reduce crime and increase detection rates – the Police Service argues that the ID
scheme will not itself lead to this because identity itself is rarely an issue, though police
resources are
• Reduce benefit fraud – the vast majority of benefit fraud cases relate to misrepresented
circumstances, with only an estimated 5% relating to false identities
• Tackle illegal immigration and illegal working – those seeking asylum have been
required to carry identity cards since 2000; and the location of many illegal immi-
grants and their workplaces is already well known to the authorities (as is evident, for
instance, in the tragic case of those working in Morecambe Bay)
• Reduce the £1.3 billion a year lost through identity theft – the LSE report states that
‘many of the claims about the prevalence of identity theft are without foundation’ and
many regard the estimate of £1.3 billion as ‘a fraud’ in itself: the figure merely adds
together a range of disparate estimates of the costs of, for example, overall plastic card
crime, false insurance claims and the costs of dealing with immigrants to the UK who
arrive with false documents.
The LSE Project also questioned government figures of the costs of the (initially
voluntary2) scheme put at £5.8 billion by government and instead put the costs
of implementation at between £12 billion and £18 billion. Crucially, it also con-
cluded that the technology envisioned for the scheme was ‘untried, untested and
unreliable’.
For the purposes of this chapter, what is notable in this case study is the abandon-
ment of the ‘what works’ principle (in favour of policy-based evidence-making) and,
in addition, the rubbishing of academic research which counters official policy. In
relation to the latter point, the Home Secretary Charles Clarke, variously described
the LSE findings (which followed on from interviews with over 100 academic and
business experts in the field and a comprehensive analysis of the implications of the
scheme – technical, legal, political and financial) as ‘total nonsense’, ‘simply mad’
and part of a media scare campaign (TimesOnline, 16 June 2005). The final case study
will look at policies which, like the ID card Bill, seek to deploy technical fixes for
criminal justice and social policy problems.
ICTs and the technological fix
Not only does… [the government]… believe that ICTs have the ability to
improve public services and make them more relevant to individual needs, it
believes that services will be improved irrespective of context, be they run by
the public, private or voluntary sector, the remit of the NHS, the Department
2
The Scheme is envisaged as initially voluntary, although the programme to introduce bio-
metric data on passports by the end of the decade will mean that the ID scheme will in effect
become compulsory for all those wishing to travel beyond the UK. However, until then it is
difficult to see how the rationale of tackling international terrorism could be applied to this
proposed voluntary scheme and slow, progressive roll-out.
• 112 •
for Trade and Industry (DTI) or York City Council, funded by charging, by adver-
tising or general taxation, it does not matter: services will be improved by
greater use of ICTs. (Hudson, J., 2003:274, original emphasis)
Belief in ICT and the technological fix has become the holy grail of New Labour.
Their strategy for modernisation is not rooted in the what works paradigm, but
rather represents an act of faith in ICT. As discussed in Chapter 3, ICT is not always
(or even mostly) the efficient, empowering and democratising tool it was envisaged:
on the contrary, it may be inefficient, controlling and excluding. The brief examples
that follow indicate some of the issues for ‘what works’, and for criminal and social
justice, which are raised by recourses to ‘the technological fix’.
Welfare – Jobcentre Plus
The status quo, so far as the welfare state is concerned, has not worked. (Tony
Blair, quoted in the Observer, 14 December 1997:2)
New Labour set out to make welfare (and welfare claimants) ‘work’. The welfare to
work project launched in 1997 focused on the perceived problems of welfare depen-
dency and inefficient welfare systems. In this context ICT was also seen to offer tech-
nical solutions in the sphere of policy management and delivery too (for instance in
streamlining benefit claiming and assessment, countering benefit fraud and enabling
direct payments to claimants). One means of addressing problems of welfare depen-
dency and management using ICT as an engine for change was the notion of a ‘One
Stop Shop’ and policies geared to this end – the ‘ONE’ initiative, followed by
Jobcentre Plus and electronic service delivery (ESD) – were seen by New Labour as key
elements in the modernisation of welfare.
The remit of Jobcentre Plus is central to the welfare to work project in providing
‘integrated and efficient labour market and benefit services to people of working age’
(DWP, 2005b) Although this has led to significant political fallout: the national
roll-out of Jobcentre Plus (to be completed in 2006) has involved the closure of over
200 former Benefit Agency local offices, leading to vocal protests that these closures
marked a reduction rather than an enhancement of services, particularly in rural
areas (Citizens Advice, 2004). The staff involved, too, have protested at the lack of
consultation in a process which, in their view, will change their roles from offering
responsive ‘face to face’ advice on benefit entitlement, to a ‘call centre worker’ con-
ducting initial telephone interviews according to a prepared script. In such ways
modernisation can create barriers which reduce front-line contact, particularly ‘for
those with limited English or keyboard skills’ (Finn, 2003:722).
Such criticisms and problems are not unique to the UK: recent research on the
computerisation of social security systems in 13 OECD countries has concluded that
‘information technologies have generally increased the control of staff and claimants
by management rather than empowered them’ (Henman and Adler, 2003:139).
In Ontario, Canada, the process of ‘screening’ claims through call centres (similar to
that used by Jobcentre Plus) has also proved problematic:
• 113 •
While social assistance recipients were promised a streamlined, efficient and

user-friendly application process, the reality is a convoluted, unreliable and
extraordinarily complex one. (Herd et al., 2005:69)
This project concluded that the Canadian welfare to work regime subjected welfare
recipients to administrative processes that they described as ‘dehumanizing, degrad-
ing and demoralizing’ (ibid:73). Crucial to this process was the increase in ‘social dis-
tance’ between customer and welfare provider, which also characterises the UK
model. While Jobcentre Plus office environments are bright, well furnished and usu-
ally in ‘high street’ settings, the interactions of staff and customer are tightly con-
trolled and choreographed. These practices constitute new forms of governance
through which both welfare claimant and staff are managed and controlled. In such
contexts:
technology is not simply a tool with which to implement welfare state policies,
but is a productive partner alongside discourses and practices in constituting
and transforming governmental relations. (Henman and Adler, 2003:159)
Do the principles and practices of the modernised Jobcentre Plus ‘work’ to enhance
services to working age benefit claimants? Recently published evaluation research
(authored by internal DWP researchers, with external social research input) con-
cluded modestly that ‘satisfaction levels of Jobcentre Plus customers are comparable
with satisfaction levels for respondents from legacy offices’ (DWP, 2005:157), which
hardly signals a dramatically enhanced service from the customers perspective.
Moreover, the evaluation found that if customers’ needs were ‘straightforward’ (for
example, where benefits are paid direct into a bank account) they had less contact
with the service and were more satisfied, and conversely, those with more complex
‘non-standard’ needs tended to have more frequent contact and their levels of satis-
faction were lower (ibid: 159). In assessing whether this or any other initiative is
‘working’ we also need to bear in mind that ‘definitions and measures of service
improvement are not technical and universal but politically constructed and contin-
gent on a variety of circumstances’ (Boyne, 2003:224), and hence the bulk of this
evaluation refers to DWP measures of effectiveness in terms of returns to work.
Jobcentre Plus is seen as a positive model in France and Germany (Clegg, 2005),
although if the primary rationale for Jobcentre Plus was an enhanced, modernised
service for citizens, based on best use of ICT, then in my view the jury is still out.
Welfare – tax credits

As already indicated in Chapter 2, tax credits have proved costly and difficult for the
Inland Revenue (now HM Revenue and Customs – HMRC) to administer. At the time
of writing the issue has come to a head with the publication of a Citizens Advice
Report documenting Citizens’ Advice Bureau (CAB) clients’ experiences of tax cred-
its. The report used the catchphrase of the tax credit take up campaign – Money with
Your Name on it? – with much irony and with a question mark added (CAB, 2005b).
• 114 •
Its findings were based on analysis of the number and nature of tax credit problems
which bureaux had advised on – these numbered 150,000 in the year to March 2005.
In relation to the role of the IT system in generating these problems the report was
damning:
The lack of sophistication of the computer system has led to huge overpay-
ments as calculations have been made based on incompatible data, and there
have been random and undue payments. (CAB, 2005b:9)
It repeated HMRC data for 2003/4 showing that: 46% of all tax credit families had
been either over or underpaid; overpaid tax credit amounted to £1.9 billion; a third
of all families had been overpaid; and a third of these overpayments exceeded £1000.
The fiasco has had a disproportionate effect on the poorest families who suffered
considerable hardship when payments were reduced, and in 82% of the cases
reported to CABs, this reduction happened without warning (ibid:38). Despite all this
(and, rarely, an apology from the Prime Minister), the Minister responsible, the
Paymaster General, Dawn Primarolo, denied that the system was near collapse (BBC
News, 22 June 2005).
Policing
Returning to the sphere of criminal justice, some of the principle problems relating to
ICT have been outlined in Chapter 3, notably the disaster of the courts’ Libra system.
There clearly was, and still is, a need for harmonisation of ICT systems to enable trans-
fer of files and data between agencies in order to improve both CJS efficiency and
victim satisfaction. In relation to policing, the Police Information Technology
Organisation (Pito) was established in 1998 largely to assist in this harmonisation by
delivering a national IT system to cover all 43 forces in England and Wales. Reporting
on the release of the independent McFarland review (written before the May 2005 elec-
tion but not published until late June) Computer Weekly reports that it:
depicted the Police IT Organisation (Pito) as largely dysfunctional and set up on

the basis of offering national systems that some police forces perceive as delayed,
expensive and technically backward. (Computer Weekly, 28 June 2005)
But relations had clearly broken down on both sides as:
Pito management ‘regard the governance systems under which they operate as
unnecessarily bureaucratic, wasteful and demoralising.’ These views are shared
by all stakeholders, including police IT directors. (ibid)
The report indicates the damaging effects of the conflict between accepting delays,
which may well lead to better relations with forces and better functionality of
the system, and the imperative of meeting Home Office targets for delivery of
a national system. The system designed to deliver the modernisation of ICT in the
• 115 •
NHS – Connecting Health – is at an earlier stage of development, but may suffer a

similar fate and consequently be shunned by clinicians (Collins, 2005). Taken
together, these examples seem to support the view of computer experts that minis-
ters3 have little grasp of the task of delivering IT projects on such a massive scale. At
the same time, they also demonstrate the inter-relationship between IT, governance
and EBP which, in theory at least, should be ‘an approach to decision-making which
is transparent, accountable and based on careful consideration of the most com-
pelling evidence’ (MacDonald, 2001).
CCTV
CCTV is a national obsession: 10% of the world’s total CCTV cameras are located in
Britain; it is the most heavily funded non-criminal justice crime prevention measure
in England and Wales, with £170 million of government money spent between
1999–2001; and in 1996–8 CCTV accounted for over three quarters of Home Office
expenditure on crime prevention (Welsh and Farrington, 2002:44). There were so
many software-based surveillance and IT systems embedded in British cities in 1999
that the UK Audit Commission had difficulty finding them to ensure they would
function in the year 2000 (Graham and Wood, 2003:233). Given this faith, and this
level of investment, it is of serious concern that evidence that CCTV ‘works’ as a
crime prevention measure remains limited.
The systematic review conducted for the Home Office by Welsh and Farrington
(2004) concluded there was ‘some support, albeit with the advantage of hindsight,
for government expenditure on CCTV initiatives’. This retrospective ‘support’ was
gleaned from just 22 evaluations from different spatial contexts (car parks, city cen-
tres and public transport), which met the stated criteria for systematic review. Of
these 22 studies, only half found ‘desirable effects’ on crime, five found undesirable
effects, five found null effects, with the final one ‘uncertain’. This is hardly a ringing
endorsement of such massive expenditure. More recently a more comprehensive
national evaluation of 14 CCTV systems in England and Wales reported only small-
scale impacts, and found only two areas where it was possible that CCTV was a sig-
nificant factor in reducing recorded crime (Gill et al., 2005:34). The example of CCTV
therefore presents us, once again, with an example of an important policy being
funded and implemented with an unswerving faith in technology, but no evidence
that it would work for the stated purpose.
In addition, CCTV poses challenges for ‘justice’ and transparency in contemporary
societies: it is frequently difficult to establish who operates CCTV systems and for
what purpose, yet according to some this ‘opacity and ubiquity’ functions as ‘digital
surveillance’ and the ‘electronic disciplining of subjects against redefined norms’
(Graham and Wood, 2003:233). The linked issues of ICT, surveillance, discipline and
3
For instance, during the second reading debate on the ID Card Bill the Home Secretary
attempted to defend the governments record in running large scale IT projects by citing the
positive example of Chip and Pin – which is not a government project at all.
• 116 •
the redefinition of norms have implications for both criminal and social justice,
particularly in relation to behaviour which is ‘seen’ to constitute anti-social behav-
iour (see Chapter 6). CCTV, and its capacity for surveillance, was positively lauded
following the attacks on the London transport system on 7 July 2005 (and the failed
attempts on 14 July), when public and private systems were seen to contribute to the
identification of the perpetrators and assisted with the timeline of the investigations.
But here CCTV served a (retrospective) surveillance and identification function,
rather than a (preventative) crime reduction role.
4. ‘What Works’ – Policy Implementation and Governance
Returning to the Southwark speech which opened this chapter, Tony Blair was deter-
mined to signal that his New Labour government was going to ‘hit the ground run-
ning’ in 1997 in terms of researching what works and implementing policies
accordingly. In relation to criminal and social justice, government departments
drove forward a wide range of policies geared to tackling ‘crime and the causes of
crime’. The parallel commitments to modernisation and joined-up government lay
at the heart of both the crime reduction and social inclusion strategies launched by
the newly elected government. In the Southwark speech both sets of strategies were
sold to the public as being predicated on ‘what works’, coupled with a firm belief in
the role of ICT, public sector modernisation and performance management to ensure
the effective implementation of those interventions that were adjudged to ‘work’.
However, as we will have seen, it was not as simple as that. The unwavering faith and
optimism of New Labour in ‘what works’ often proved to be misplaced (or misused)
and failure in implementation has bedevilled many policies aimed at enhancing
criminal and social justice.
Many implementation failures derived from deeper problems surrounding
national and local governance. The term ‘governance’ is not used consistently but,
according to Tom Ling, ‘it gestures towards: new types of public-private partnerships,
‘flatter’ relationships between organisations; a blurring of the boundaries between
previously distinct functions; and new ways of managing consequential relation-
ships’ (2000:624). These new ways of working are predicated on NPSM techniques
which include, for instance, setting clear aims and objectives, identifying targets and
measurable outcomes designed to meet those objectives, with ‘performance indica-
tors for all parties, and a plan of action (and milestones towards completion) detail-
ing who is responsible for what and by when. This may sound very laudable and, in
theory, many aspects of NPSM should assist effective policy implementation.
However, the underlying principle of NPSM – that ‘what is measurable can be man-
aged’ – may lead to over-bureaucratic (and not enabling or flexible) management and
delivery structures.
The consequences of managerialism, on the ground, are vividly described
by John Braithwaite (2002) in his account of nursing home regulation in the US. These
• 117 •
consequences are equally applicable to UK settings where NPSM may encourage local
managers to be ‘creative’ in the ways in which they meet their targets: for example,
When rewards were put in place for the number of residents participating in
activity programmes, we noted sleeping residents in wheelchairs being wheeled
into the room where an activity such as a craft or game was going on so that
they could be recorded on the head count. (Braithwaite, 2002:15)
Similarly, the ‘empowerment’ of residents was to be ‘measured’ in by the use of per-

sonal items and other ways of de-institutionalising space: and so, for instance, this
standard was operationalised by counting the number of pictures on the wall. Here,
creative compliance to this standard meant ‘slapping up’ pictures of film stars and
also hiring pot plants. In summary, Braithwaite concluded that ‘the bigger the incen-
tive, the more complex the phenomenon regulated, the worse creative compliance
gets’ (ibid).
Social and public policy has also been permeated by mechanisms for compliance
through ‘contractual governance’. Where the regulation of criminal, or anti-social
behaviour, is concerned, anti-social behaviour orders, curfew orders and acceptable
behaviour contracts all seek to generate conformity and order by means of ‘regulated
self-regulation’ (Crawford, 2003:488). But if the contract is broken, it is the individ-
ual who is seen to have failed to meet their part of the bargain. Contractual gover-
nance – whether in crime control, housing policy or other spheres – thus constitutes
‘market based’ forms of governance through contracts, which ‘recast social obliga-
tions in forms of parochial control’ (ibid:479).
More generally, new modes of governance also serve to displace professional
autonomy with managerial control, and this can be deeply de-motivating for pro-
fessionals engaged in the criminal justice and social policy spheres. For example,
where lawyers are concerned, Hilary Sommerlad (2001) argues that changes in the
delivery of legal services in the UK which form part of the NPSM agenda are produc-
ing ‘high output, low morale’ legal practitioners. The NPSM logic is, according to
Sommerlad, producing a market in and not for clients within which delivery of ser-
vices is both standardised and set at a low level, with worrying implications for the
rights of the Legal Aid client and for the ‘degradation’ of the legal aid professional.
But, she argues, this logic is flawed, not least because it is impossible to deliver a
purely ‘technical service’ where the complexities of advocacy, values and justice are
concerned.
But there are those who see issues of justice and confidence in the systems through
which it (allegedly) flows as both simple and ‘technical’. For example, Sir Robin Auld
in his Review of the Criminal Courts of England and Wales articulated this view:
Public confidence is not an end in itself; it is or should be an outcome of a fair

and efficient system. The proper approach is to make the system fair and effi-
cient and, if public ignorance stands in the way of public confidence, take steps
adequately to demonstrate to the public that it is so. (Auld, quoted in Morgan,
2002:312)
• 118 •
The complex issue of how to secure, maintain and measure ‘public confidence in the
criminal justice system’ in the context of an unequal society has been reduced to a
PSI target for all constituent CJS agencies, but this did not pose a problem for Auld:
merely ‘make the system fair’, tell the public that it is fair, and the job is done!
Despite the New Labour rhetoric of modernisation and joined-up working, there
remain significant problems of communication (including ICTs), partnership work-
ing and ‘silo’ mentalities. Bureaucratic structures, inefficiency, delay and (inter-
organisational) competition have therefore bedevilled the implementation of many
‘joined-up policies’. The tight proscription of policies – their objectives, targets, per-
formance indicator and modes of delivery – often undercut attempts to gain a gen-
uine sense of local ownership of policy. For example, in relation to the work of YOTs,
teams were initially meant to develop their own youth justice plan, but ‘were heav-
ily constrained by the prescriptive nature of legislation and by detailed specification
templates, and performance indicators’ (Burnett and Appleton, 2004:48). In this con-
text, the success of many YOTs and their contribution to innovations in youth jus-
tice policy is therefore remarkable: this success stems from the professionalism and
commitment of team members and is achieved despite the frameworks of governance
within which they operate (as we will discuss further in Chapter 7).
Organisational and delivery structures over-determined by NPSM are ill-equipped to
deal with the complexities arising from ‘modernised’ frameworks of governance – most
notably multi-agency and partnership working. Under reformed and modernised
structures, large, bureaucratic ‘silos’ were to be a thing of the past as power would be
located in partnerships and flatter (horizontal) relations. However, Ling argues that part
of the reason for local failures is a failure to engage in genuine JUG at the top: the
conflicting and competing priorities of government’s two leading departments (the
Treasury and the Cabinet Office) have undermined joined up working at the centre,
with negative impacts on national, regional and local implementation. It is to issues of
policy engagement and impact – nationally and locally – that we now turn.
• 119 •
• five • The ‘Upside Down

Duck’: Par ticipation and
Engagement for Criminal
and Social Justice
Introduction
Moving on from issues of ‘what works’ and criminal and social justice, this chapter will
look at the effect of criminal justice and social policies on people’s lives on the ground.
It also addresses the extent to which individuals and communities are engaged with the
processes of policy formation, evaluation and development. Given this focus on policy
engagement and impact, the chapter’s title may seem puzzling at first.
To explain: the image of an ‘upside down duck’ emerged from discussions with
colleagues1 in the late 1990s when we were all attempting to make sense of the bewil-
dering array of social policy interventions launched by New Labour after 1997 and
the effects they were – or were not – having on the lives of people on the ground
(both in communities and in the local agencies serving them). If we were to
see society as a pond, we could envisage the policy process (policy-makers and imple-
menters) operating like ducks, smoothly moving through sometimes troubled waters,
their calm vision and direction steering social policies, which are implemented
through the firm direction of the paddling webbed-feet, working rhythmically and
powerfully below the surface, translating policy into action and direction. If we ‘run
with’ this analogy, I would argue that, since 1997, the duck’s channel through social
waters has been far from smooth. In fact, the duck has been turned upside down by
a plethora of government papers, policies and initiatives which have literally
swamped those agencies (most notably LAs, health authorities and criminal justice
agencies) charged with their implementation. The duck is turned upside-down, its
1
Particularly Martin Roberts (Spatial Research) who helped me to develop this rather curious
analogy.
• • • The ‘Upside Down Duck’: Participation and Engagement • • •
rapidly paddling feet now flay energetically in mid-air without firm strategic direc-
tion but, at the same time, little is actually happening in the waters below. Moreover,
before long the duck is likely to drown!
The purpose of this analogy is to use it to try to visualise the impact of a vast array
of criminal justice and social policies on those charged with implementation and
those at the receiving end of policy. This chapter will examine the view that both are
drowning – the former because of the impossibly heavy demands of successive rafts
of policies and the latter because, for many, very little has changed in terms of their
experience of inequality, poverty and social exclusion. As we have seen, New Labour
came to power in 1997 committed to criminal justice and social policies driven
by the principles of modernisation, effective governance and social inclusion. Key
policy mantras underpinning these overarching themes were, and still are:
• Participation and engagement of individuals and groups, especially at local level

• Partnership, both as a new mode of governance and a means to achieve participation
and engagement
• Community, both as the pathway for policy interventions and site for development
of capacity and ‘social capital’ (with a key role for voluntary and community sector
organisations).
Central to the ‘joining up’ of the New Labour project in relation to these three core issues
was the requirement to engage in consultation with communities. The planners and
deliverers of policies ranging from New Deal for Communities, Neighbourhood Renewal,
Health, Education and Employment Action Zones, Surestart, Local Authority Best Value
reviews, National Service Frameworks (NSFs) and Crime Reduction and Community
Safety strategies, all have obligations to consult service users, carers, local communities,
and voluntary and community sector groups in the planning, evaluation and review of
services. The acid test of ‘New Labour’s’ second term commitment to ‘delivery, delivery,
delivery’ in public services could largely be measured in terms of its success (or otherwise)
in listening and responding to lessons learned from the consultation process. Its new
third term mantra of ‘respect’ (discussed in more depth in Chapter 7) will similarly
depend on listening to and responding to the concerns and priorities of individuals,
groups and communities. The concepts of participation, partnership and community
are therefore crucial to the successful delivery of criminal and social justice and consul-
tation and engagement are the channels through which all of these elements will (or will
not) be realised in the course of New Labour’s historic third term in office.
This chapter will, firstly, address the issue of engagement for criminal and social
justice. It will draw on a range of recent community-based research projects under-
taken in the West Midlands region and beyond,2 and analyse the practices and the
2
The original research which is referred to and discussed here represents a number of applied
social research and evaluation projects undertaken over the last four years by staff from the
Policy Research Institute (formerly the ‘Regional Research Institute’), at the University of
Wolverhampton. Research reports released in the public domain are available at: http://www.
wlv.ac.uk/pri
• 121 •
consequences of what passes for ‘consultation’ at local levels. As we will see, these
practices may range from tick-box tokenism to innovative and empowering work. At
the same time, it is important to recognise that the political discourse of consulta-
tion and engagement itself conceals complex processes of ‘governance’. The analysis
will therefore also look at the ways in which the managerial imperative to consult
(and be seen to consult) itself constitutes an important aspect of govenmentality.
Secondly, the chapter will at the same time be examining the vexed issue of policy
impact, seeking to explore some of the ‘on the ground’ outcomes of post-1997 crim-
inal justice and social policies, particularly for vulnerable and socially excluded
groups. Within the context of a vast array of local initiatives, policy impact is very
difficult to assess, although clearly the outcomes of criminal justice and social poli-
cies are often diverse, contradictory and unintended. In attempting to shed light on
some of the problems and paradoxes of policies ‘on the ground’ the chapter will try
to test whether or not the imaginary duck of the title is in fact drowning, and the
extent to which pond life (particularly in the muddier waters) has experienced the
breath of change or remains stagnant.
1. Responsibilisation, Inclusion and Consultation
As we have seen in Chapters 3 and 4, transformations within (and the ‘hollowing out’ of)
the modern state have given rise to new forms of governance that are complex, multi-
layered and grounded in partnership and cross sector working (Newman et al., 2004). As
a result, public, private, voluntary and community sector agencies, and actors are all
charged with engaging with communities through multi-agency partnership working
and through the requirement to consult with service users and communities. Multi-
agency working and consultation can be seen as tools and channels for governance, but
can also be regarded as an extension of wider social responsibilisation strategies. It is
through the activities and relations of responsibilisation that the linkages between the
modernisation, democratisation and communitarian projects are forged.
According to Garland (2001) responsibilisation strategies involve the devolution of
certain social controls to communities which are then called upon to take an active
role in resolving the problems in their own midst. Local problems, most notably of
crime and social (dis)order, are thus constituted as a problem of and for individuals
and communities, who are then responsible for their solution: for instance, anti-
social behaviour then becomes a problem not just (or even principally) for politicians
or the police, but for individuals themselves, for parents, communities and ‘commu-
nity leaders’, teachers and so on.
But these communities, and the individuals who comprise them, have to be seen to
act responsibly and dutifully in order to be eligible for fully social inclusion. Yet those
behaviours which characterise social inclusion are defined in restricted and very spe-
cific ways (as we will see in Chapter 6). For instance, when governments set out defini-
tions of what constitutes unacceptable or anti-social behaviour, it effectively defines out
the ‘others’ who are outwith the limits of acceptability and they remain by definition
• 122 •
socially excluded (Colley and Hodgkinson, 2001; Young and Matthews, 2003). It is
through these discursive practices – and the professional and managerial practices that
accompany them – that the consequences of ‘responsibilisation’ are made real for those
who do not engage in, for example, education, paid work, training or effective parenting.
Not only are they ‘blamed’ for their own situation, but:
Deep seated structural inequalities are rendered invisible, as social exclusion is

addressed through a strongly individualistic strategy based on personal agency.
(Colley and Hodgkinson, 2001)
Community consultation is an important component of the responsibilisation pro-

ject: as a tool of governance, consultation processes put the obligation on communities
themselves to become engaged and ‘have their say’. If they ‘fail’ to do so, they can
hardly complain. In these respects consultation is, at the same time, a managerial prac-
tice, a tool of governance and a means of obtaining policy legitimation. The govern-
ment acknowledges that ‘by enabling communities to help shape decisions on policies
and services, we will support civil renewal and strengthen the legitimacy of government’
(ODPM, 2005b:7). After eight years in power it remains vital for the success and legiti-
macy of New Labour’s modernisation and democratisation projects that new, flexible
and appropriate approaches to consultation are developed and effectively used.
2. Community Consultation – In Theory and Practice
According to the Audit Commission (1999), consultation is ‘a process of dialogue

that leads to a decision’. This implies an ongoing process in which different parties
listen to and take account of each other’s views. At the same time, consultation is
related closely to decision-making. Overall, the literature on community consulta-
tion falls broadly into two types: firstly, ‘how to do’ guidance and manuals and,
secondly, more reflective work, which addresses pitfalls and problems with the
process in addition to raising issues around the aims, purposes and outcomes of the
process itself. There is no shortage of official advice on ‘how to do’ public or commu-
nity consultation; most government departments offer an array of guidance notes,
‘toolkits’, exemplars of best practice and lists of the essential ‘dos and don’ts’ (for
instance: the Cabinet Office, ODPM, DOH, Home Office and Audit Commission all
produce such guidance). Before examining consultation in practice, it is useful to
look at the second type of literature, which examines the contexts in which consul-
tation can take place and, in particular, at how the scope and parameters of the exer-
cise are defined by those obliged to do the consulting.
Scope and parameters
More than a decade ago the Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF) published The Guide
to Effective Participation (1994). This was more than a ‘how to do’ piece and within it
• 123 •
Supporting
Substantial
Degree of control
Acting together
participation
Deciding together
Consultation
Information
Figure 5.1 Levels of Participation

(Source: JRF, 1994 Reproduced with kind permission of the JRF.)
a ‘five-rung ladder’ of participation was proposed to reflect the differing stances

an organisation promoting participation may take. This framework (indicated in
Figure 5.1) remains useful as it acts as a litmus test for the aims, scope and the degree
of control exerted over any consultation exercise, as indicated in more detail in the
level descriptors which follow.
• Level 1 – Information: consultation at this level involves merely telling people what is
planned
• Level 2 – Consultation: offering some options, li stening to feedback, but not allowing
new ideas
• Level 3 – Deciding together: encouraging additional options and ideas, and providing
opportunities for joint decision-making
• Level 4 – Acting together: not only do different interests decide together on what is
best, they form a partnership to carry it out
• Level 5 – Supporting independent community interests: local groups or organisations are
offered funds, advice or other support to develop their own agendas within guidelines.
Despite the current political rhetoric of democratisation, social capital, social inclu-
sion and empowerment, my view is that government shrinks from the implications –
in terms of funding and devolution of control – of community participation at ‘Level
5’. (Outside of the housing sector, and the devolution of control to certain tenants,
there are few examples.) Rather, my own research has found that agencies often
decide upon the scope and limits of their policy options and reverse engineer the
consultation processes to suit. In other words, their use of relatively tokenistic
approaches to consultation reflects not only managerial imperatives (consultation
has to take place), but also the taking of strategic decisions on what can and what can-
not be done in terms of policy outcomes. This would not be so bad if local policy
actors debated or discussed (or even articulated) the parameters they operated within
• 124 •
with the communities they serve, but for the most part they do not. The tactical use
of market research-type consultation frequently masks a patronising and complacent
attitude to service users whom, it is believed, ‘cannot be bothered to’ respond to
(often ‘paper-based’) surveys and so are not regarded as eligible to take their place as
sovereign consumers in shaping the services they should receive.
Active citizens who participate in (for example) LA Citizens’ Panels or Citizens’ Juries
and those who respond to traditional paper/text based consultations and surveys are
relatively easy to reach. They may also be older, better off and ‘articulate complainers’.
There is, however, a pressing need to focus efforts on positive attempts to identify and
engage those individuals and groups who are not currently or usually participating in
consultation. Techniques for so doing vary depending upon the scope of the consulta-
tion exercise and the service provided, but may most usefully involve a range of
bottom-up approaches which are most effectively undertaken by users and communi-
ties themselves. These may involve: using community-based networks to gain initial
access; thereafter snowballing contacts within communities; using ‘face to face’ con-
tacts; attending drop-ins and informal events; conducting focus groups and interviews
in community-based or home settings; and training and capacity building, which are
essential for such participation. (Such activities may be undertaken in addition to any
paper-based consultations that are regarded as appropriate for users, carers and advo-
cates.) Crucially, all of this should involve the active engagement of members of the
community in shaping and conducting policy research; not merely as passive research
subjects (Commission on Poverty, Participation and Power, 2000: Beresford, 2001;
Bennett and Roberts, 2004; Butt and O’Neill, 2004; Lister, 2004; Hanley, 2005). As part
of a longer-term project, The Commission on Poverty, Participation and Power (2000)
looked particularly at the role and voice of people in poverty in shaping social policies
and quite rightly asserted that participation in the policy process by people in poverty
‘is a basic human right’. Moreover they argued that such participation would: improve
decision-making; empower individuals and communities; and promote healthier
democracy. The Commission found that ‘phoney’ consultation was all too common
and disillusioning, messages were not being heard or ‘getting through’ to action, and
that professional attitudes undermined the process.
It is also vital to recognise that users do want to (and they deserve to) receive some-
thing from their participation in the consultation and policy process: put simply,
having given of their time and energy, consultees are entitled to receive not only respect
as research partners, but at the very least adequate feedback (in a suitable form) on:
• The findings and results of the consultation exercise

• The action that was taken as a result
• If the action they recommended was not taken, the reasons why not.
In this way, closing the feedback loop is essential to assure the ethical conduct, valid-
ity and sustainability of any consultation process. A further problem for those
involved with consultation is that past failures to ensure appropriate feedback and
• 125 •
action has often led both to deep frustration and to disengagement from future exer-
cises. For instance, JRF sponsored research (Butt and O’Neill, 2004) with older people
from black and minority ethnic communities revealed that they felt that: they had
been ‘researched to death’ for the past 15 years, and yet their views had not been
acted upon; there was little acknowledgement of the positive aspects on their lives
and culture; and they were seen as ‘problems’ rather than as possessing strengths to
be valued. As a result, black and minority ethnic older people did not want more
research or consultation, but action and change in response to issues that were
already well documented. Black and minority ethnic groups are, in general, often
termed ‘hard to reach’ and yet such findings indicate that when they are reached,
and their voices heard in consultation and research, policy-makers still fail to listen
to or to understand them.
Consultation, ‘hard to reach groups’ and governance
One of the key challenges facing those seeking to consult users on policy issues is
how to access the views of those who are not proportionally, currently or usually
engaged in consultation processes.
This broad challenge is, in turn, filtered into the more specific and contentious
problem of accessing what are often termed hard to reach groups. This loose and
ambiguous term is both misleading and counter-productive when used in a pejora-
tive way. For example, the research brief for one study of anxiety about crime in a
rural (and fairly prosperous) area of south England explicitly aimed to explore ‘fear
of crime amongst hard to reach groups’. The definition of this term by the local
authority commissioning the work included (for example) travellers and the gay
community. However, in discussion with people within these communities, their
response to our research team was a very firm ‘Who says we are hard to reach?’ This
kind of disjunction between official and users’/subject’s views of this term is echoed
in other research, most notably in the field of policing.
The police, like other service providers, are required to consult with users in for-
mulating, implementing and evaluating their policies. But there are significant con-
cerns over the representativeness of those individuals and groups who are regularly
consulted by them. For instance, where black and minority ethnic groups are con-
cerned, those consulted are often older, male and established ‘community leaders’
and may enjoy good relations with the police, whereas younger and disadvantaged
members of the community may be more hostile. From this critical perspective, con-
sultation with the usual suspects is tokenistic and unrepresentative in terms of the
community as a whole. Conversely, some police officers feel that consultative meet-
ings can often be hostile and critical of the police – features that do not support the
claims about passivity of consultees or ‘capture’ of the consultation process (Jones
and Newburn, 2001). More generally, though, it is the view of many sceptics that the
consultation equation can be summarised as ‘Usual methods + usual suspects = old
answers’ (Commission on Poverty, Participation and Power, 2000).
• 126 •
Moving beyond the usual suspects, how is ‘hard to reach’ officially defined? Early
guidance for Community Safety Partnerships established under the Crime and Disorder
Act (1998) offered a comprehensive list of ‘hard to reach groups’ which included:
young men, the homeless, drug users, the gay community, members of minority eth-
nic communities, children, those who suffer domestic abuse, and the elderly. (ibid)
Taken together, this list included a very significant proportion of the population of
England and Wales! Even leaving aside the deep-rooted problem of treating such
groups in a crassly homogeneous way, what is implicit in such guidance is that,
despite their diversities, such groups are lumped together in sharing their shared
‘hard to reach’ label because they have something in common – they are seen (for dif-
ferent reasons) to have problems relating to the police. Many would contend it is the
other way around – that the police have problems engaging with many of the com-
munities and populations they serve.
The term ‘hard to reach’ is both stigmatising and falsely assumes homogeneity
among the individuals within the groups so labelled. In an effort to come to terms
with some of these difficulties, more recent Home Office research (Home Office,
2003a, 2003b) on consultation by Police Authorities (PAs) uses the term hard
to hear. This may be a slight improvement, but we should be asking why it is that
policy-makers and deliverers are unable to hear some voices while they are acutely
attuned to those of others (most notably the tabloid press – see Tonry, 2004).
Nonetheless, usage of the notion of ‘hard to reach’ persists, with differing defini-
tions emerging from a range of other policy areas, for example, the On Track pro-
gramme which was established in 2000 to provide multiple interventions for ‘at risk’
children aged 4–12 years and their families through 24 local On Track partnerships.
Based on the perspectives of practitioners within these partnerships, Doherty et al.
produced a typology of ‘the hard to reach’ as follows:
• Minority groups – the marginalised, disadvantaged and socially excluded (including

minority ethnic groups, travellers and asylum seekers)
• Slipping through the net – the invisible or those unable to articulate their needs
(including those with mental health problems, people who fall just outside the remit
of a service provider)
• The service resistant – those unwilling to engage with service providers, the suspicious,
the over targeted or disaffected (including those ‘known’ to agencies such as social
services and those hostile to providers, possibly due to alcohol or drug use).
(Source: Doherty et al., 2004)
These categories of ‘the hard to reach’ are not only overlapping, but also problematic
because they are defined by agency practitioners in terms of their own roles and
remits – that is, they are determined from the top down. Once again, the problem
of effective consultation becomes constituted as emanating from individuals who
are marginalised, invisible or hostile, or a mixture of all three. But professionals’
• 127 •
perceptions and concerns about the ‘barriers’ to effective consultation noted in this
study serve to reveal an alternative picture with professional concerns expressed
around: agencies’ genuine commitment to consult and the skills and capacities avail-
able to do so; the rejection of plans to consult with hard to reach groups because the
effort required would divert resources from elsewhere; and the dangers of raising
service users’ expectations (which also features prominently). Yet these issues do not
derive from the difficulties of consulting ‘problem’ individuals or groups, but from
the concerns and constraints of the agencies who are meant to provide services
for them. Here consultation is revealed as a component and a tool of governance: the
role of such agencies in multi-agency partnerships can be recast as attempting to
‘re-socialise’ (Hill and Wright, 2003) and manage difficult groups (and their expecta-
tions), rather than including and empowering them through consultation and par-
ticipation in the policy process.
The aims of consultation
As we have seen, the context and ‘level’ at which community consultation is pitched
serves to delimit the scope and parameters of the exercise itself. In addition, agencies
may have a range of different aims in mind when designing and conducting com-
munity consultation and so we need to ask ‘What is consultation for?’ To return to
the example of policing, there are important concerns about the differing purposes
and expectations of the consultation process on the part of the police and of the
communities they serve: the gap in their relative perceptions of the ‘Aims and
Objectives of the Service’ are summarised in Figure 5.2 below. The vision of consul-
tation which is implicit in the police perspective is essentially a reactive one, which is
located within the terms and operational priorities set by the police themselves. By
contrast, the community perspective seeks a proactive role for consultation, which
derives from an active engagement with an agenda not of the police’s making: for
example, encouraging awareness of culture and diversity and encouraging police
Police perspective Community perspective
• To identify local issues and problems • To influence local policing policy and/or style
• To inform the delivery of policing services • Encourage action on specific problems
and the development of policing methods • To elicit police recognition of community
• To inform communities of forthcoming dynamics and cultural differences
operations • Accountability and conflict resolution
• To inform and educate the public about • To obtain access to police resources and
policing facilities
• To promote support for and co-operation
with the police
Figure 5.2 The Aims and Objectives of Consultation – Policing

(Source: Jones and Newburn, 2001)
• 128 •
action on community-defined problems. Consultation is thus rendered a problem-

atic and contested process which may display both tokenism and instrumentalism
on the part of the police. Within this contested framework, the ‘tick-box’ approach
to police consultation (purely for managerial accountability) and the ‘cascade down’
approach (for operational accountability, that is ‘We will tell you what we are going
to do’) are both rendered redundant exercises. Instead, a more flexible response and
two-way dialogue is essential if genuine consultation is to take place, and this con-
sultation would need to be part of an on-going process and not a one-off event.
It is important, however, to recognise there are very welcome indications that
some police forces are increasingly aware of the pitfalls of current approaches to con-
sultation. For example, the West Midlands Police, in its Best Value Review of Public
Consultations and Expectations (2004), was candid about its previous performance in
stating that: although a wide range of activities were undertaken, much consultation
was unco-ordinated and inefficient; there was duplication of effort between the force
and the PA; and there was no corporate strategy outlining the aims of and principles
for undertaking consultation activities which were ‘appropriate, informed, balanced,
relevant, transparent and honest and result in informed reflection of all views’ (West
Midlands Police, 2004:3). The performance review concluded that the force’s consul-
tation processes did not currently represent ‘best value’ and exposed the force to
many risks, including wasting resources in duplicated efforts and failing to meet
community expectations. These problems are common to other forces and many
other agencies too, and emanate in part from a situation of consultation overload at
local level.
Consultation overload
As we have seen, the New Labour government’s early emphasis on ‘joined-up’ poli-
cies required an equally ‘joined-up’ approach to engaging with users and communi-
ties in shaping policy and turning policy into effective practice. But the sheer
number and scope of centrally driven initiatives has proved confusing in practice
locally. For example, initiatives including the latter stages of the Single Regeneration
Budget (SRB), New Deal for Communities (NDCs), Neighbourhood Renewal,
Education Action Zones (EAZs), Health Action Zones (HAZs), Drug Action Teams
(DATs), Private Finance Initiatives (PFI), the genesis of Primary Care Trusts (PCTs) to
deliver and manage health care, Crime and Disorder Reduction Programmes
(CDRPs), Communities that Care (CTCs), Community Fund projects, Surestart pro-
grammes, the Children’s Fund and so on, have all meant that ‘at local level, the array
of nationally driven programmes is bewildering’ (JRF, 2000).
On the ground, the cumulative effects of consultation overload arising from this
vast array of programmes, have swamped LAs and other statutory bodies engaged in
consultation and also their service users. Members of black and minority ethnic com-
munities, in particular, express consultation fatigue and yet (as we have seen) dis-
may that the messages they have relayed in a series of consultations have not been
• 129 •
listened to or responded to. In addition to the problems of overload, the timescales

set by central government for obtaining, analysing and responding to community
and service user consultation are often impossibly tight. This, coupled with the expo-
nential growth of government demands for consultation across the range of policy
areas already cited, meant that there was (and still is), insufficient ‘time out’ for LAs
and partner agencies to think strategically about how best to manage and maximise
the potential of the process. This means consultation may become an end in itself to
be ‘ticked off’ the organisation’s ‘to do’ list in order to meet government targets.
Consultation and engagement with communities thus becomes a tool of governance,
a token device to justify local policies that are principally determined centrally. At
the same time, there is a lack of government recognition that answers to multi-
layered (often structural) problems cannot be provided at local level alone, and certainly
not overnight.
Local solutions to local problems?
‘Local solutions to local problems’ and partnership working have been key policy
mantras underpinning the consultation process under New Labour but, eight years
on, they are still proving elusive to achieve on the ground. Firstly, although initially
envisaged and sold in terms of equal partnership, many of the important multi-
agency forums designed to identify priorities, discuss and deliver policy at local level
are very far from equal in practice. Key partners who are mandated to provide local
solutions frequently vie with one another for power and influence. For example,
community safety research has consistently demonstrated the dominance of the
police and local authority community safety ‘experts’ over both the voluntary and
community sector and local voices when it comes to strategy and priority setting
(Hughes, 2004b). At the same time, the role of local elected members – from Parish
to local Borough Councillors – may also prove influential in gate-keeping what issues
will, and will not, be deemed a ‘local problem’ for which a solution is required.3 For
many, this raises additional concerns around the ‘representativeness’, leadership
skills and calibre of elected members who have key roles in partnership working
(McManus, 2004).
Secondly, recent research also highlights that what local partnerships need most to
work more effectively is time and money – notably to resource networking, training
and support. As one local government officer commented, nobody complained
about a lack of information, just ‘the time to access it and the available systems to
make this process as straightforward as possible’ (MacDonald, 2003:9). But while
local groups may be formally included in discussions over local issues, where regen-
eration is concerned, determining priorities and resource allocation lie outside the
3
For example, one recent study quoted a councillor – speaking on behalf of ‘the public’ – stating
that the public was not worried about domestic violence (Follett, 2004).
• 130 •
immediate regeneration areas themselves (Perrons and Sykers, 2003). Community

consultation and engagement clearly involves listening and voicing, but giving real
voice ‘means making claims on others’ (Forester, 1998, quoted in Perrons and Sykes,
2003:266). However, these claims cannot be effectively made or met within the rules
of governance and finance which are pre-determined by central government.
Nevertheless, the importance of the local is continually stressed by New Labour as,
for instance, in a speech to the DEMOS foundation entitled Localism: the need for a
new settlement. In this speech Alan Milburn re-iterated that ‘local problems require
local solutions’ and focused on the central role of ‘local communities’ in regenera-
tion. It is also significant that here the criminal and the social are explicitly linked,
because:
it is at this level that crime and grime issues – anti-social behaviour and street
cleaning – are probably best dealt with. (Milburn, 2004)
While crime reduction and community safety policy remains a cornerstone of both
anti-exclusion and anti-crime policies, the political commitment to localism is
tightly limited in practice, not least because the resources to deliver such solutions
are not adequately provided by central government. Nonetheless the discourse of a
‘new localism’ stubbornly persists as was evident in yet another action plan – Together
we can – launched in June 2005. It reinvented the concept of joined-up government,
involving 12 government departments in, once again, setting out government com-
mitment to ‘communities and public bodies working together to set and achieve
common goals’ (Home Office Press Release, 28 June 2005). Despite the rhetoric of the
launch on ‘passing power to local people, and empowering communities to tackle
problems together’, there is little change or substance here. Moreover, the ODPM
acknowledged there had, to date, been
little assessment of the extent to which participation and consultation exercises

actually influences [sic] decision-making processes. (2005a)
Under such circumstances it is not surprising that there is scepticism about seeking
‘local solutions to local problems’ to be solved, if the genesis of those problems, or
the funding of their solution, lies beyond the scope of the locality itself and if con-
sultation itself is not seen to be effecting change. Despite numerous ‘case studies’ pre-
sented in this recent ODPM report, few (with the exception of Tenant Management
Organisations) would pass muster as genuinely engaging with communities in an
empowering and participatory way.
Happily, there are some more positive examples, where working relationships within
partnerships geared to social inclusion are productive and characterised by mutual
respect, as for example, in the case of key initiatives in rural Northern Ireland which
have successfully bridged barriers of religion, identity and politics (Williamson et al.,
2004). It is from such genuine examples of successful and innovative partnership work-
ing, participation and empowerment that lessons may usefully be learned.
• 131 •
3. From Consultation to Empowerment?
There is a widespread acknowledgment among those involved in social policy

(whether academics, practitioners or policy-makers) that consultation is a crucial yet
deeply problematic process. As we have seen, some of the main challenges facing any
consultation or feedback mechanism include: reaching and hearing a diverse range
of service users and/or client groups; understanding and responding appropriately
to the needs and views they express in consultation; building the outcomes of con-
sultation into collaborative planning and service delivery within complex (and
sometimes competitive) partnership-based agendas; and feeding back these out-
comes to those who participated in the consultation process.
Despite these challenges there is a long-held optimistic view that holds that an ‘old’
model of consultation – often tokenistic, unrepresentative and not engaging – is being
replaced with a ‘new’ one. This progressive perspective was exemplified not only in the
ODPM report on ‘New Localism’ discussed above, but by others including the Joint
Review Team (JRT) which evaluates the performance of all councils with social services
responsibilities. In their Annual Report for 2000/1 the JRT summarised problems
around working with users and carers in the up-beat terms of ‘familiar problems, new
solutions’ (Joint Review Team, 2001). ‘Old’ solutions were seen to be limited to formal
consultation at (policy) planning stages and nominal representation on planning
groups. But the ‘new solutions’ were identified in terms of:
• User-led services
• Direct payments
• Involvement in Best Value
• Involvement in commissioning decisions.
Under New Labour Best Value replaced CCT (compulsory competitive tendering) as
the key means of ensuring quality and value for money in public services. Its key
ingredients are the four ‘C’s: challenge, compare, consult and compete, with
‘consulting’ vital to agencies in accessing user needs and their views on local policy
and service delivery. In terms of the JRT vision of the ‘policy wheel’ (reproduced
in Figure 5.3 opposite) the ‘new solutions’, which included Best Value, would signal
a change of gear from (often tokenistic) consultation, through the phase of partici-
pation (in monitoring and developing services), towards empowerment, which
enables users and carers to set priorities and manage services.
Based on research I have conducted in a range of fields4 there are several problems
with this optimistic vision. Firstly, it assumes that all service users and carers (across
ages, genders, ethnic groups, abilities and sexualities) will have equal motivation and
4
For example: on the delivery of health and social care services to older people; Surestart;
Community Safety; Crime and Disorder Reduction Partnerships; Domestic Violence prevention;
Substance Misuse; and Homelessness (see http://www.wlv.ac.uk/pri).
• 132 •
Consultation – Participation –
to gain feedback about services to develop services
fe rences evie
ws
Pre Sa er
s& ti vic Pil
r
ed
Se
s fa
ot
Ne
c ti
sch
on
em
su
es
rveys
C o m p l ai nts
USER/CARER USER/CARER
Q u a lit y
ass
ps
/co
ur
ou
m
an
gr
li m e
p
c
en s in
ts me nn
O u tc o Se r vice p
la
Empowerment –
to manage services
ittees
mm Staff
r co tr ain
e
Us
ing
& recurit nt
me
USER/CARER
S e tti n g
tar
s
ie
ge
ts it
or
g p ri
Fra min
Figure 5.3 Aims of the Process: From Consultation to Empowerment (Joint

Review Team, 2001)
capacity to contribute to and participate in the development and management of the

services they do, or potentially should, receive (for a discussion of ‘the public’ in pub-
lic participation see Barnes et al., 2003). Secondly, it assumes that service providers
will have the resources – financial and human – to deliver the services and priorities
which these diverse users have determined.
The first problem would in part be addressed by capacity building and the devel-
opment of networks and social capital which may equip and empower individuals in
diverse communities to become engaged in the policy process. However, in relation
to social capital, Roche (2004a) observed that although a great deal of political capital
has been invested in the concept, there is little evidence that social capital has
brought anything new to the policy process. Secondly, as I have argued elsewhere
(Cook, 2002), engaging communities in the policy process is capital and labour
intensive and demands a long-term commitment. But the desire for quick wins is a
strong driver of consultation policy, practice and outcomes and so it is rare that LAs
• 133 •
and other partners are willing or able to commit to critical, reflective and participatory
research and evaluation. The constraints of costs and the need to demonstrate quick
wins (and meet government targets) therefore tends to win out over genuine and
long-term community engagement.5 As one SRB scheme officer commented in the
context of a discussion of research ‘benchmarking’ community participation, ‘it pays
dividends over time – it’s a long-term investment, not a quick fix’ (Wilson and Wilde,
2003:19).
A short digression here on agency discourse: firstly, the managerial lexis, including
the use of terms such as ‘benchmarking’, may seem incongruous when discussing com-
munity participation, as does the usage of the notion of ‘road testing’ initiatives (ibid).
But the terminology and practices of managerialism and the private sector are increas-
ingly permeating research and evaluation discourse. Research consultancy firms, char-
itable trusts and other organisations with a background in community development
are playing an increasing role in local and national policy evaluations and some have
an important contribution to make (for instance, Groundwork6). Nonetheless, it is
important to recognise the influence of the (business, organisational and managerial)
conceptual frameworks that often underpin their methods, analyses and recommen-
dations of studies in the field of community consultation.
Secondly, the costs of funding effective consultation is a crucial issue: across the
policy spectrum there are serious doubts about the extent to which the community
engagement, and the deeper longer-term capacity building which is vital to its suc-
cess, are being adequately recognised and resourced. As the JRF noted five years ago
when commenting on the National Strategy for Neighbourhood Renewal:
[it] will place a heavy emphasis on involving communities in the planning,

implementation and management process. But this won’t happen unless it is
properly resourced. It needs: support from central government down to indi-
viduals community development workers; co-ordinated action at national
regional and local level; new, inclusive and holistic forms of local management;
significant shifts in institutional cultures; and targeted funding. (Joseph
Rowntree Foundation, 2000)
But, five years on, these levels of support have often proved elusive or absent and the
processes and outcomes of participation and empowerment remain bounded by fis-
cal and political constraints. Genuine and sustainable consultation is costly, and act-
ing responsively to the issues and needs it identifies is even more so: even if client’s
views and needs are voiced and heard; it is quite another thing to develop and fund
effective policy responses. Consequently, for example in the case of older people:
5
There are welcome exceptions to this tendency: for example, Wolverhampton Crime and
Disorder Reduction Partnership who have funded a three year longitudinal evaluation of their
strategy, incorporating elements of participatory appraisal within one identified neighbourhood.
6
See Groundwork website: http://www.groundwork.org.uk
• 134 •
The voice of older people may ultimately be a demanding one. The challenge is
whether the government and local authorities can meet this demand. (Fenge, 2001)
Finally, we should not forget the costs of consultation for voluntary and commu-
nity sector groups who are increasingly being called upon to deliver more community-
based services which are not provided by statutory bodies (as, for instance, in the case
of refuge and outreach support for victims of domestic violence, where the role of the
voluntary and community sector is vital – see Cook, 2003; Robinson, 2003). But to
survive (and this usually means securing ‘soft’ funding, year on year) such groups
must demonstrate partnership working and influence which, in turn, places addi-
tional stress upon them. As Marilyn Taylor noted:
A key player in the local voluntary (non-profit) sector told us she was partici-
pating in 48 partnership bodies, while a respondent in another case study site
counted 83 partnerships in the locality overall. (2003:135)
Similarly, in my own research experience, those involved in supporting domestic vio-

lence survivors have extremely heavy workloads and some have expressed the con-
cern that the demands of ‘attending meetings’ threaten to pull them away from their
core work in supporting women and families. Once again, the problem of inadequate
resources lies beneath many of the fundamental problems faced by those attempting
to work in communities, in partnership.
4. Participatory Approaches to Consultation and Engagement
Researchers attended a ‘community forum’ in a community centre on the

estate… Thirty-two people were seated around a table discussing crime preven-
tion projects, yet all represented local service delivery agencies. Only two of the
people in the room actually lived on the estate, and they were only present by
virtue of their roles as part-time youth workers. (Squires and Measor, 2001:239)
This scene is typical in some ways and not in others: 32 people is an unusually high
turnout for a community forum, but the ‘rounding up of the usual suspects’ is indeed
typical of many of the activities that pass for consultation. The scene described here
shows all too clearly that there is a real need for more genuine community engage-
ment for criminal and social justice: one way of accomplishing this is through the
use of participatory approaches to consultation and research. As Bennett and Roberts
(2004) cogently argue, participatory research and practice does not so much consist
of an identifiable set of methodologies as offer a very different ‘interactive’, as
opposed to ‘extractive’, way of working. In this context research is seen as part of a
more inclusive project where people are recognised as having authority, control and
influence over the research process, its findings and the ways in which they may be
developed in policy. There is vast expertise in such work, often emanating from inter-
national work in so-called ‘developing countries’ or the southern hemisphere (see
• 135 •
overview in Bennett and Roberts, 2004). The challenge that all researchers now face
is learning lessons ‘from south to north’ and incorporating innovative, interactive
and participatory approaches into mainstream applied social research in the UK
(RRI/CIDT, 2003). This poses several challenges, not least because of (in my experi-
ence) the demands and priorities of those commissioning research who:
1. Often want quick and dirty evaluations as opposed to investing both time and
money in participatory research. Planning timescales allow too little time for com-
munity empowerment before decisions are reached.
2. Usually want numbers: while quantitative data may be generated by such work, it is
usually not its primary focus. (At the same time, qualitative research and participatory
approaches are both seen as subjective, ‘less valid’ and difficult to compare over place
and time – Bennett and Roche, 2000.)
3. Are reluctant to devolve control over the research process to service users and/or
communities.
4. Are unfamiliar with the research tools and outputs from participatory approaches,
which may include spider diagrams, hand drawn street maps, photographs, video
etc. UK policy-makers and deliverers are more used to dealing with formal reports and
statistics (the written rather than the visual or oral).
5. There are, therefore, difficulties for many UK policy-makers in the negotiation and
translation of participatory research into policy recommendations. This can only be
addressed through training, and more joint working and exposure to alternative par-
ticipatory methods and outputs.
6. It costs more to engage in participatory research and practices, not only because of
longer research schedules but because the costs of people’s participation needs to be
recognised and adequately rewarded.
7. Recognition needs to be accorded to participants in other ways too, such as the for-
mal accreditation or certification of research training or workshop attendance.
Despite the problems and reservations that research commissioners may have, the
advantages of participatory approaches are many and varied: academics can climb
down from their ivory towers and engage with people and communities, sharing and
exchanging their differing knowledges; genuine empowerment and sustainable com-
munity engagement becomes a possibility; and research findings and the policy rec-
ommendations which flow from them will be more informed and stand a better
chance of working. At the same time social justice can be enhanced in, and through,
the relations and processes of participation itself.
What of the potential impact of participatory research and enquiry? Where the
issue of poverty is concerned, Bennett and Roberts argue that:
Participatory research on poverty cannot achieve social change on its own; but
it can provide opportunities for people living in poverty to have an influence.
(2004:ix)
The title of the report from which this quote is taken – From Input to Influence – aptly
describes the shift which needs to take place in relation to the contribution of people
• 136 •
in poverty to policy research and enquiry. It also signals the need for a change in the
overall mindset of those funding (and those undertaking) much current research
around poverty and social exclusion.
More broadly still, there is a pressing need for those engaged in policy evaluation
and research to attend much more to ‘the people pieces’ (Foster, 2002). If we are
to avoid policy being driven by managerial imperatives and by government
preoccupation with ‘middle England’ and the tabloids, it is crucial to voice and to
value all the ‘people’ perspectives. Also vital is genuine localism, acknowledging and
attending in research design and practice to the role of local actors and activists
(often from the voluntary, community and charitable sectors) who are working ‘on
the ground’. As Gordon Hughes persuasively states:
… the debate on what might be meant by such notions of ‘community ’ and lately
the seemingly ever-present magic pill of ‘social capital’ is not just an academic exer-
cise for ivory tower dwellers. Rather they are necessarily part of the everyday dilem-
mas – if not explicit conversations – for local activists and ‘community builders’
when they are sent out (or ‘parachuted’) into communities and neighbourhoods
to foster partnership work and ‘community capacity building’. (2004a:9)
It is clearly essential to engage with these issues together with those for whom they
constitute everyday challenges. And so while academics may be fascinated with (and
may build impressive careers upon) high level theorising, we should take care not to
descend into ‘an elitist theoreticism’ (Carlen, 2002). If academics, in addition to, or
working with, researchers, practitioners, local activists and campaigners genuinely
seek to have an impact on social and criminal justice policies, they need to partici-
pate too (as we will see in the final chapter of this book in discussions on moving
‘upstream’ – Sinfield, 2004).
5. The Social Inclusion Agenda
Having addressed issues of community participation and engagement for criminal

and social justice, what follows will look (albeit necessarily briefly) at the complex
issue of policy impact for vulnerable and socially excluded groups and those living
in the most deprived neighbourhoods. To set these policies in context it is useful to
recall the context in which New Labour social inclusion policies were developed and
the key driving role of the SEU. In its first report (Bringing Britain Together: a National
Strategy for Neighbourhood Renewal ) the SEU distanced itself from previous area-based
programmes addressing deprivation and exclusion and committed itself to not making
the mistakes of the past. The problems that it argued had beset previous area-based
programmes were:
Absence of effective national policies to deal with the structural causes of

decline; a tendency to parachute solutions in from the outside, rather than
• 137 •
engaging local communities, and too much emphasis on physical renewal

instead of better opportunities for local people. Above all, a joined up problem
has never been addressed in a joined up way. (1998:9)
Eight years on, we can usefully ask to what extent policies geared to social inclusion have
had positive effects in addressing the issues identified by the SEU – neighbourhood
decline, engaging local communities, providing local opportunities and ‘joining up’
policy solutions in local contexts? Given the constraints of space, this question will
be answered here by referring to some of the key elements of post-1997 social inclu-
sion strategy which affect issues of criminal and social justice, namely: ICT; ‘partner-
ship’; young people, justice and inclusion; tackling crime and disorder; and the
prevention of re-offending.
ICT and social inclusion?
As Chapters 3 and 4 have shown, an unshakeable belief in ICT as a policy end

(in terms of education, work and opportunity) and a means (for participation, mod-
ernisation and enhanced service management and delivery) has characterised suc-
cessive New Labour governments. Its ambitious e-government strategy aimed to
bridge the digital divide between the information haves and have-nots. ICT thus con-
stituted an important element of the social inclusion agenda, and since 1999 the gov-
ernment has invested £400 million in supporting ICT centres in over 6000 deprived
inner city and rural locations in England. These community informatics initiatives
have aimed to offer tools for individuals, socially excluded groups and communities
to ‘reconnect’ them in social relationships (Loader, 2004). However, a recent review
of research indicates that such initiatives have not yet made ‘significant challenges’
to the social inequalities associated with the adoption of ICT. At the same time, one
crucial e-government target – that all citizens would have electronic access to gov-
ernment departments through home computers with Internet access, or through
community access points by 2005 – has not been reached. In short, the digital divide
remains. The relative failure of policies seeking to reconnect socially excluded groups
and communities through ICT inevitably holds profound implications for participa-
tion and for social justice.
New Labour also envisaged that ICT could overcome critical time and space barri-
ers to learning and enhance local opportunities through further education. But a
recent report on the Adult Learning @ Home project indicated that e-learning was most
often concerned with the technology itself, rather than as a means to learn some-
thing else and so, as the researchers observed, they had ‘met pensioners who had
learned to turn spreadsheets into pie charts then never used them’ (ESRC Press
Release, 30 September 2004). This, and other research, indicates that, in terms of con-
tributing to social inclusion (whether through community informatics or lifelong
leaning), the positive impact of ICT policy initiatives with socially excluded groups
and communities remains limited.
• 138 •
Policy impact – ‘partnership’ revisited
In assessing the impact of policies geared to fostering social inclusion, partnership

and ‘joined-up’ working was acknowledged by the SEU to be a key element. ‘Partner-
ship’ is itself now central to contemporary political discourse – it is significant that
the term was used in parliament 6197 times in 1999 compared with just 38 times a
decade earlier (Jupp, 2000). Partnership is, however, more than just a way of working.
It potentially offers additional benefits in terms of the cost and quality of public
services. As Tom Ling summarises, partnership:
focuses on the mechanisms used by two or more organisations to work together

on a shared agenda while keeping their own identity and purpose. It offers the
prospect of securing greater value for money through the co-ordination activities
and promises better public services. (2000:625)
Despite the political currency and the promises of partnership, there are those who
remain deeply pessimistic about the prospects it holds out for enhancing empower-
ment and social inclusion. For instance, Byrne argues that relations of power prevent
individuals and communities genuinely engaging through partnership because their
efforts are:
that at best attempts to reconcile irreconcilables and at worst, which means

usually in practice, offers the objects of policy, at the very most, some role in
influencing the implementation of strategies which have already been decided
on. This is incorporation, not partnership. (2001:256)
From this perspective, the results of social inclusion polices, as currently constituted,
will be tokenistic at best.
As discussed earlier in this chapter, the proliferation of partnerships has led to con-
siderable ‘overload’ for local agencies – overload in consultation requirements and
overload in terms of the time and resources devoted (by statutory, voluntary and
community sector agencies) to maintaining presence and influence within partner-
ships. Beyond these ‘local’ difficulties there are additional issues in joining up differ-
ing levels of partnership working. In addition to thematic anti-exclusion measures
targeting vulnerable individuals and groups (wherever they live), New Labour devel-
oped a hybrid approach to exclusion which also incorporated area-based initiatives
(notably Action Zones – for Employment, Health and Education). As we have seen,
the SEU clearly wished to avoid the pitfalls of earlier area-based programmes; to what
extent has it succeeded? Recent research has addressed the ways in which wider (the-
matic or people-based) initiatives and area-based (regeneration) schemes have been
able to integrate and to offer a genuinely joined up approach to addressing social
exclusion (McGregor et al., 2003). The authors found that those implementing area-
based and other social inclusion interventions faced many barriers which prevented
them from maximising the benefits of co-ordination and integration of services:
these barriers are summarised in Figure 5.4.
• 139 •
The table summarises some of the key barriers to the more effective integration of area
regeneration and welfare to work initiatives, based on the views of the staff involved.
Area generation Welfare to work

initiatives programmes
1. No one told us to work together

2. Not sure out superiors want us to work together
3. Detracts from meeting our targets
4. Don’t have the time or resources to integrate
5. We don’t know how to work together:
• limited knowledge of each other’s programmes
• tack of skills in development work
• limited skills in partnership working
6. We don’t see it as a priority
7. We don’t know with whom to work
8. They’re different from us
9. They don’t understand us
10. They don’t like us
11. We don’t like there
12. We don’t have any autonomy at a local level
13. There is limited incentive to work jointly
Figure 5.4 Barriers to Integration

(Source: JRF 2003, Reproduced with kind permission of the JRF)
In summary, the research indicated that many programmes were ‘top-down’ and
emanated from central government departments which were over-centralised, inflex-
ible and not responsive to local needs. Different government departments were not
themselves ‘joined up’, often having differing targets, priorities, administrative and
monitoring systems. Proliferation and duplication meant some programmes were
competing with others for local clients to meet their centrally defined targets. The
problems associated with operational and spatial boundaries (discussed earlier) also
hampered effective partnership and joint working, which was also in need of incen-
tivisation, integration and much development to make anti-exclusion policies
‘work’.
Young people, justice and inclusion
Some of the issues raised in relation to the integration of national and local levels
of anti-exclusion interventions similarly apply to ‘thematic’ initiatives – for example,
joined up working for youth inclusion and youth justice. The Chief Executive of
a county council commenting on a YOT felt that while, from the perspective of
the Home Office or YJB ‘the patchwork quilt of distant operations’ looks perfectly
rational:
• 140 •
you also have to live in the real world of these institutions, be they schools, pri-
mary care groups, social services managers, and realise that they are actually
having a set of agendas imposed on them from a whole range of ‘silos’ where
this particular issue is actually a long way down the hierarchy… (Chief execu-
tive, quoted in Burnett and Appleton, 2004:45)
Crucially, these ‘silos’ may work on the basis of differing boundaries, remits and ICT
systems, and institutions may have competing priorities and targets (Cook and
Roberts, 2001: Cook and Vallely, 2003; Cook et al., 2004). These issues are also raised
in Marian Fitzgerald’s research on the experiences and patterns of street crime among
young people in London (Fitzgerald et al., 2003). This study went on to argue that
the governance and practices of multi-agency ‘partnership’ working may actually
present barriers to tackling street crime by young people because of:
The different priorities of the potential partners and the imperative of each to
meet individual targets which are not necessarily compatible with each other
and which militate against achieving the co-ordination strategy which [is]
needed. (2003:8)
Frustratingly, many of the answers to questions around effective youth justice inter-
ventions are already ‘known’, but they raise doubts about the privileging of individual
(as opposed to social) models as the basis for policy responses. Authors of this research
conducted for Youth Justice Board (YJB) in the year 2001/2 confirmed that interaction
between social, economic, environmental and individual factors all affected patterns
of offending among young people in London, notably in relation to street crime
(Fitzgerald et al., 2003). The authors found that four recent developments had particu-
larly influenced the extent and patterns of youth offending. These were, and are:
• Technological advance (as symbolised by the mobile phone)

• Patterns of consumption (with increasing and ever changing numbers of items seen
as essential by young people, in large measure driven by fashion)
• Social fragmentation (seen especially in neighbourhoods where social ties are weak
and in the increasing numbers of families experiencing various forms of disruption in
relationships); and
• Economic polarisation (in contexts where the proximity of others heightens a sense
of relative deprivation among those who have least).
(Source: Fitgerald et al., 2003:69)
It is therefore counter-productive to eschew technological, economic and social

factors when addressing youth crime and promoting youth inclusion. The interplay
between these wider dimensions of exclusion with individual and peer group factors,
and the ways in which these are played out in deprived communities, are well
described in the following extract:
The criminogenic factors in their environment add to the individual risks for
young people in these [deprived] areas – not least because of the peer group
• 141 •
norms they produce; and the problems may further be exacerbated in areas
where social cohesion is weakest. In these areas the need for support from the
statutory sector is therefore likely to be most acute, for example in terms of
social services support, health care and educational opportunities. Yet it is here
also that the relevant agencies may themselves be at their weakest, with high
vacancy and turnover rates reflecting the stress of work in these types of area
and adding in turn to the stresses of staff in post. All of this may have a knock
on effect to lowering the quality of services available to young people in areas
where disproportionate numbers are in need of them. (Fitzgerald et al., 2003:5)
Positioning anti-exclusion interventions in thematic and area-based ‘silos’ will fail to

address the multi-faceted and the economic factors which contribute to youth exclu-
sion (see also Webster et al., 2004). Significantly, the period of Marian Fitzgerald’s
YJB-sponsored study overlapped with the launch of the national Street Crime
Initiative (SCI) in 2002 which sought to address many of the same issues: indeed the
authors ended their report with the fervent hope that the SCI would sustain and
underpin those collaborative strategies essential to address youth crime (Fitzgerald
et al., 2003:84).
The Street Crime Initiative (SCI)
The SCI itself offers a revealing insight into the politics of crime control and the gov-
ernance of crime, which is worthy of lengthier discussion than is possible here. The
phenomenon of ‘street crime’ brings together political and popular concerns around
crime and disorder which predominantly focus on young people as the root of
the problem, and sees multi-agency partnership working as the focus for solutions.
In the spring of 2002, Tony Blair declared that street crime was ‘a national emer-
gency’ and went on to invest significant time and resources working at high and
cross-departmental levels with the aim of tackling the problem in just six months.
Unsurprisingly, six months later the SCI Joint Inspection Report enabled the gov-
ernment to claim that the problem was indeed ‘under control’ at the end of
September 2002, with a 25% reduction in street robbery and a 16% reduction in
‘snatch thefts’ as a result of the SCI. However, the joint inspectors assessment, taken
in its entirety, is rather more circumspect. Reflecting on the initiative in its report –
Streets Ahead – they noted that although it had ‘re-invigorated’ some dormant partner-
ships, it had not achieved its full potential, ‘in particular as a partnership initiative’
(Home Office, 2003g:10). Moreover:
the quality of communication, both within and between organisations, was

often poor. Clear rationale rarely reached the practitioner levels whilst progress
reports fed back up through the command chain put an over-optimistic slant
on achievements, in some areas. (ibid:11)
They did find examples of good practice – ‘in isolated pockets’ – but highlighted the
persistence of problems including flagging and tracking certain (SC) cases, lack of
• 142 •
shared ownership and accountability of partners, failure to learn lessons from relevant
previous initiatives (notably the Persistent Young Offenders scheme) and a feeling,
even among the police, that street crime was not a high priority or a suitable vehicle
for partners to ‘own’. The SCI can be seen as a clear example of knee-jerk politics, and
although it clearly had enormous political impact, its ability to shape policy and multi-
agency practice ‘on the ground’ appears to have been very limited.
Social inclusion and ex-prisoners
The final example of policies geared to social inclusion is ex-prisoners. Tony Blair
defined this as a priority area for the SEU in New Labour’s second term and in July
2002 the SEU published its weighty final report Reducing Reoffending by Ex-prisoners.
It included a comprehensive analysis of the profile and multiple needs of people
released from prison together with 60 action points designed to address them and,
in so doing, reduce reoffending. Figure 5.5 below, based on the SEU report, together
with additional Prison Reform Trust data, summarises some of the main issues raised
by comparing the social characteristics of ex-prisoners with those of the general pop-
ulation. It is worth bearing in mind that these analyses now apply to a dramatically
increased prison population, which currently stands at 76,297. This figure marks an
increase of 1400 on the previous year and, overall, a 20% increase since 1997 (Prison
Population and Accommodation Briefing, 8 July 2005; Home Office, 1998). The latest
Home Office projections envisage the ‘high’ scenario of a potential prison population
of 91,500 in 2010 (Home Office, 2005c)
As Figure 5.5 demonstrates, the SEU report confirmed that ‘many prisoners have
experienced a lifetime of social exclusion’. Moreover the report argued that: these
experiences of exclusion have a profound effect on the risk of reoffending; despite
high levels of need they have been denied access to services to meet these needs; and
a prison sentence might make matters even worse. Based on a comprehensive analysis
of social and criminological research on patterns of reoffending the report concluded
that nine key ‘risk’ factors were at work:
1. Education
2. Employment
3. Drug and alcohol misuse
4. Mental and physical health
5. Attitudes and self-control
6. Institionalisation and life-skills
7. Housing
8. Financial support and debt
9. Family networks.
(Source: SEU, 2002:2)
It went on to suggest ways of addressing these risks through a wide-ranging and long-
term strategy for rehabilitation and the reduction of reoffending. Despite the SEUs
• 143 •
General Prison
Characteristic population∗ population∗ Additional information∗∗
Ran away from 11% 47% male

home as a child sentenced
prisoners, 50% of
female sentenced
prisoners
Taken into care 2% 27% Over half of prisoners aged 5–17

as a child years old have been in local
authority care
Regularly 3% 30%
truanted from
school
Excluded from 2% 49% male, 33% of Almost three quarters of young

school female sentenced people in prison (18–20 year
prisoners olds) had been excluded from
school
No qualifications 15% 52% of male, 71% Half of all prisoners do not have
female prisoners the skills for 96% of jobs
Numeracy at or 23% 65%

below Level 1
(level expected
of an 11 year
old)
Reading ability at 21–23% 48% Only 1 in 5 prisoners can

or below Level 1 complete a job application form
Unemployed 5% 67% Remand prisoners are even

(before more likely to be unemployed
imprisonment) before entering custody
Homeless 0.9% 32% Around 1 in 20 prisoners was

sleeping rough before they went
to prison
30% of all prisoners (and 49% of
prisoners with mental health
problems) have no fixed address
on leaving prison
Suffer from two 5% of men and 72% of male, 70%

or more mental 2% of women of female
disorders sentenced
prisoners
Psychotic 0.5% of men and 7% of male, 14%

disorder 0.6% of women of female
sentenced
prisoners
• 144 •
Figure 5.5 (Continued)
General Prison
Characteristic population∗ population∗ Additional information∗∗
Drug use in the 13% of men and 66% of male, 55% In 2004 there were 95 suicides in
previous year 8% of women of female prisons in England and Wales. Of
sentenced these, nearly two-thirds had a
prisoners history of drug misuse
55% of prisoners reported their
offending as drug related
Hazardous 38% of men and 63% of male, 39% The Prison Services’ Alcohol
drinking 15% of women of female Strategy for Prisoners (2004) has
sentenced not been supported by any
prisoners additional resources
Figure 5.5 Social Characteristics of Prisoners

∗
(Sources: SEU, 2002; **Prison Reform Trust, 2005)
strategy, a 60 point action plan, and the admission that a more effective cross-
government strategy was ‘urgently’ needed, two years on very little action had been
taken as the recommendations were gradually ‘killed off’ (Guardian, 22 June 2005). One
of the SEU report authors – Julian Corner – resigned, dismayed at the ‘failure of strat-
egy and joined up working’ that this represented (Corner, 2004). Key recommenda-
tions in the following areas were not implemented: housing entitlement for prisoners
(to be deemed a vulnerable person); access to housing benefit; faster benefit payments;
increases in the prisoner discharge grant; access to GPs on release; funds for detoxifi-
cation and treatment programmes in prisons; Sure Start targeting prisoners’ children;
and social services to target reuniting prisoners’ families. However, a recommendation
on employment advice in prison has been acted on, with Jobcentre Plus services now
available in prisons, signalling the government’s stress on paid work. For Corner, the
policy response to this plank of the government’s social inclusion strategy represents ‘a
catalogue of indifference’ which begs the question ‘Are prisoners really so unpopular
and stigmatised that we have to resist acting humanely and rationally on their behalf?’
Sadly the answer appears to be ‘yes’ (Corner, 2004).
To summarise this section on the impact of social inclusion policies on vulnerable
groups and those living in deprived communities, it is worth returning to the quote
from the first SEU Report which opened this section. The SEU had seen the errors of
its predecessors in the following terms:
Absence of effective national policies to deal with the structural causes of

decline; a tendency to parachute solutions in from the outside, rather than
engaging local communities, and too much emphasis on physical renewal
instead of better opportunities for local people. Above all, a joined up problem
has never been addressed in a joined up way. (1998:9)
• 145 •
Although there have been pockets of success and exemplars of good practice at local
levels, I would argue that the fundamental problems identified here by the SEU at its
inception – and which it was committed to address – have yet to be resolved on the
ground. The establishment of the SEU was a very welcome response to an awareness
that ‘wicked’ problems demanded innovative and integrated solutions. There have been
successes in some policy areas (for instance, rough sleeping) but in others (for instance,
Reoffending and Ex-prisoners) the SEU has offered ways forward towards integrated solu-
tions but New Labour’s realpolitik,7 together with the power of the treasury, has pre-
vented their full adoption. Taken together, the arguments presented here suggest that
the impact of anti-exclusion policies ‘on the ground’ has been patchy at best. To return
to the original analogy in the title of this chapter (the upside-down duck), this analysis
would suggest that, in terms of the social inclusion agenda, there was evidence of the
frantic activity of flaying webbed feet (at all levels of policy making and implementa-
tion), but relatively little change in the muddy waters of the local pond beneath.
6. Summarising Policy Impact – ‘For Better or Worse’?
The final section of this chapter will briefly outline the available evidence on the
effects of post-1997 social policies across a range of areas. Space does not permit
detailed analyses and critical comment on specific policies here and, in any event,
this is a task which has been performed admirably by others, notably the LSE’s Centre
for the Analysis of Social Exclusion (CASE) (Hills and Stewart, 2005) and Polly
Toynbee and David Walker in their book Better or Worse? Has Labour Delivered? (2005).
The aim here is to offer the current ‘headlines’ in terms of the achievements of, and
gaps in, policy, in order to better understand to what extent social and criminal jus-
tice have been enhanced (or not) over the past eight years and thereafter (in Chapter 7)
to position the possibilities for change.
Figure 5.6 reproduces the main findings of JRF-sponsored research conducted by
members of CASE which surveyed evidence of the impact of policies geared to
addressing poverty, inequality and social inclusion (Hills and Stewart, 2005). Clearly
there have been some successes, although they need to be both qualified and con-
textualised. Firstly, the improvements which have taken place have done so against
a background of economic growth which has inevitably made the achievement of
some targets easier. Secondly, and at the same time, the extent and depth of poverty
and inequality facing New Labour in 1997 meant that the ‘bar’ for success was
inevitably set low and it would have been difficult not to succeed to some extent.
Thirdly, positive changes need to be assessed in relation to expectations of change
which were raised in 1997, and this issue will be discussed further in Chapter 7.
7
‘Realpolitik’ refers to the belief that the pragmatic pursuit of self-interest and power, backed
up by force when convenient, is the only realistic option for a great state. The term was coined
in 1859 to describe the policies of the German chancellor Bismark.
• 146 •
Recognition, targets
Issue and policies Impacts Problems and gaps
Child poverty Prominent reduction Fall in relative child Still above EU

target. Major tax benefit poverty 1996/7 to average. Long way to
reforms benefiting low 2002/3. On or close to be ‘best in Europe’.
income families with 2004/5 target. Falls in Adult elements of
children deprivation, and higher family benefits linked to
child-related spending prices.
by parents.
Working-age Policy focus on Fell against absolute Despite fall in

poverty worklessness not line, but only slight fall registered
poverty in itself. Policies in relative poverty, unemployment, many
aimed at employment which has increased for remain without income
and income at work. those with no children. from work and
dependant on
price-linked benefits.
Pensioner Green Papers and Relative poverty down Lack of take-up

poverty ‘Opportunity for All’ by 2002/3 after allowing of means-tested
indicators. General aim for housing costs, but minimum.
of ending pensioner not before them.
poverty. More focus on Further falls likely by
extending means-tested 2004/5.
benefits.
Income Reduction in overall Inequality has neither Incomes and earnings

inequality income inequality is not risen nor fallen at the very top continue
an aim. Focus on significantly since to increase fastest.
relative poverty for 1997.Gap between Some at the bottom
selected groups and on income at the very left behind through
life chances. Income bottom and very top price-linked benefits
inequality monitored at has increased a little, or lack of take-up.
EU level. but the gap between
those near the bottom
and those near the top
has fallen a little.
Employment Clearest initial priority. Lowest unemployment Initial impact of New

Action through New for 30 years, but Deals has slowed. High
Deals and ‘active’ policy economic activity falling unemployment remains
towards unemployed. only slowly. Jobless for 16–17 year olds.
households still high.
Education Blair declared top three Positive impacts on Large social class
priorities in 1997 were primary level with poor- differences remain.
‘education, education est schools improving Tensions between
and education.’ Targets fastest. More mixed improvements for all
for school attainment. picture at secondary and closing gaps.
Higher spending since level.
low-point of 1999.
(Continued)
• 147 •
Health Unprecedented focus Too early to judge, but Gap between analysis
inequalities of analysis: Acheson few attributable impacts and implementation.
Report and follow-up. yet visible.
However, main thrust of Time trends show little
policy is overall health evidence of narrowing
and NHS spending. gaps.
Political Some aspects of Formal political Many low-income

participation constitutional reform participation continues families feel they ‘have
and SEU agenda for to decline. no influence at all’.
neighbourhood renewal. Better responsiveness Achievements have not
Participation of providers to led to excitement about
requirements participation. participation and
embedded in nearly Positive evidence involvement.
all policy areas. on quality of involve-
Targets for volunteering ment, and on better
and confidence in targeting excluded
institutions. groups.
Poor Major focus of SEU, At aggregate level, Not all poor

neighbourhoods with ambitious overall progress being made, neighbourhoods
target. but not fast enough to improving.
Policies both meet targets. Some improvements
area-based and for Substantial differences perceived as slow.
mainstream services. between low income
neighbourhoods.
Children and Has moved up the Participation of 3 and 4 Despite increases,

early years agenda with reviews in year olds in education spending and childcare
1998 and 2004. increased. More provision remain low in
Large increase in childcare places, but European terms.
resources. short of target. SureStart Quality of childcare
is popular but evaluation remains an issue.
shows mixed results.
Older people – Royal Commission on Shift in care towards Impacts of

services and Long-term Care, but higher intensity and means-testing of a
long-term divided report and private provision. wider range of services
incomes responses in England Falling value of private and potentially of future
and Scotland. pensions for new private pensions.
State Second Pension employees.
and Pension Credit Increase in working
reforms. after 50.
Ethnic Response to Diverse experience Ethnic inequalities

inequalities MacPherson Report between minority ethnic remain large in many
and ‘institutional racism’. groups. dimensions.
Ethnicity generally a sub- Narrowing of gaps in Area segregation
focus within disadvantage, GCSE attainment, but remains a major issue.
rather than focus of not in labour market.
specific policies.
• 148 •
Vulnerable Focus of SEU on Mixed outcomes for Some action less

groups certain groups, targeted groups – most strong than warranted
especially vulnerable success on rough by analysis. Some
young people, with sleeping, less on vulnerable groups
subsequent policy truancy and teenage lower down the
change. Asylum policy conception. agenda, and asylum
involves reduction in seekers expressly
rights. excluded from the
inclusion agenda.
Figure 5.6 Policies Towards Poverty, Inequality and Exclusion Since 1997:
Recognition, Targets, Policies Impacts and Gaps
(Source: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Reproduced with kind permission of the JRF, 2005)
Hills and Stewart emphasise some of the gaps and problems associated with post-
1997 social policies, some of which centre on ‘the conflict between raising standards
for all and reducing differences between disadvantaged groups and others’ (Hills and
Stewart, 2005). For the purposes of this book, some of the critical issues and gaps
identified in, and arising from, the CASE research are as follows:
• Absence of any policy priority accorded to the reduction of income inequality

• The persistence of class-based inequalities (notably in income, education and in
health)
• Lack of delivery on participation and democratisation
• Inattention to the problem of working age poverty
• Persistence of ‘old’ problems, for example:
• Economic inactivity (worklessness)
• Means-testing (especially for older people)
• Benefit take-up
• The (ab)use of differing poverty measurements (BHC and AHC)
• The UK’s relative position in Europe remains low in relation to key policy indicators
(such as child poverty and childcare expenditure, provision and access)
• A gap between policy analysis and implementation (health and some area-based policies)
• Lack of a clear focus on the inequalities suffered by minority ethnic groups
• The exclusion of asylum seekers from the government’s social inclusion agenda.
All of these issues have profound consequences for the lived experiences of criminal
and social justice for the poorest and most vulnerable people in contemporary
Britain (and will be discussed in more depth in the final two chapters of this book).
Conversely, it would be disingenuous and inaccurate to suggest that some positive
changes (for instance steps towards the elimination of child and pensioner poverty)
• 149 •
had not taken place since 1997 – the economic wind was favourable and, as the CASE
authors suggest, we can certainly say ‘the tide has turned’. Nevertheless, Britain has
not yet become a more equal society and certain groups remain untouched by the
tranche of policies surveyed here.
Returning, finally, to the image of the upside-down duck, it certainly needs to be
re-balanced and given a firmer steer and sense of direction. This could be accomplished
by, for example: more effective joined-up working by sometimes-competing govern-
ment departments; a loosening of tight managerial and fiscal reigns to enable the
development of genuine localism; genuine individual and community participation in
policy-making, shaping and assessment; in turn, partnership working that is less a tool
and mode of governance and more a dialogue towards shared aims; and above all, for
all of the above to work, a firm statement and understanding of what precisely those
aims are – pragmatism and electoral success are not enough. It is to this issue – the lack
of a ‘big idea’ – that we will return in Chapter 7.
• 150 •
• six • Locating Middle

England: ‘Otherness’
and Criminal and Social
Justice
Introduction
Much has been said, in recent years, about ‘middle England’. What was once a term
used literally in a geographical context became one loaded with different meanings –
economic, social, political and cultural. The notion of a ‘middle’ constituency borrows
from Richard Nixon’s appeal to ‘middle America’ which helped him to win the US
Presidency in 1968 (Stober and Strober, 1994; Cowie, 2002). In this context, ‘middle
America’ was not so much a place as a state of mind comprising elements of aspiration,
morality, fear and prejudice: many would argue that the notion of a ‘middle England’
demographic deployed by New Labour since 1997 comprises some of those same ele-
ments. As in the US context, the notion of middle England embodies an explicit appeal
to a forgotten or ‘silent majority’ which seeks to engage them in politics: the archetypal
middle Englander is supposedly neither rich nor poor and expresses no firm political
or religious belief. The primary purpose for mobilising the term – and the constituency
to which it refers, whether in a US or UK context – is to engage in politics those who
are seen as apolitical, and so ensure electoral success. This politics therefore seeks to
identify and reflect the key values and interests of a potentially influential, although
allegedly ‘forgotten’, section of the population.
In the UK, the emphasis on middle England coincided with the rise of Third Way
(New Labour) politics and similarly attempted to position itself between ‘Old Labour’
and new right conservatism in an effort to appeal to those individuals and notions of
Englishness (to be discussed below), the concept of middle England sought both to
build and to capture a market for the political ‘brand’ that was New Labour. The resi-
dents of middle England were typified as ‘Mondeo Man’ and ‘Worcester Woman’:
the former term was coined by Tony Blair (when he observed such a man polishing his
car), to convey a stereotypical thirty-something, middle income earning houseowner
whom Labour needed to win over from the Conservatives in 1997. Worcester Woman
was similarly a demographic, an electoral construct of the pollsters who defined her as
middle class, aged 35–44 with two children, earning around £18,000pa (part-time), a
Conservative voter in 1992, and fond of holidays in Florida (Hilton, 2001).
But visions of middle England also draw on an element of nostalgia for a long-lost
England: journalist John Pilger, reflecting on the discourse of New Labour as a kind
of ‘ideological scrabble’, commented on words like ‘stakeholder’, ‘civic society’, ‘gover-
nance’ and then came:
‘Middle England’, a middle class idyll similar to that described by John Major
when he yearned for cycling spinsters, cricket and warm beer. That one in four
Britons lived in poverty was unmentionable. (Pilger, 2003)
The dichotomy between the idyll of ‘middle England’ and harsh reality of ‘poverty’
is a telling one, which also mirrors the political concerns and constituencies of New
and Old Labour respectively: the former regarded the British working class as dead,
and instead saw ‘mass politics’ as ‘middle-class’ politics (Gould, 1998:396).
The purposes of this chapter are to explore these and other dichotomies and to
‘locate’ the meanings and the significance of ‘middle England’ for criminal and social
justice policies in contemporary Britain. In so doing, it will address issues of identity,
place, economy and culture as well as morality, fear and prejudice. All of these com-
plex issues frequently coalesce around the topic of crime. For example, in Crime and
Social Change in Middle England the authors explore the ways in which residents of a
‘middle England’ town (Macclesfield) imagine and talk about crime, control and
order, and found that:
… in speaking of crime people routinely register its entanglement with other

aspects of economic, moral and social life; attribute responsibility and blame;
demand accountability and justice, and draw lines of affiliation and distance
between ‘us’ and various categories of ‘them’. (Girling et al., 2000:170)
It is the drawing of the line between ‘us’ and ‘them’ that marks the boundaries of
middle England and, while these boundaries are strongly influenced by local sensi-
bilities and place, they are not fixed to – or determined by – places alone. Central to
this chapter are the dynamic and complex ways in which these categories – ‘us’ and
‘them’ – are produced and reproduced, and their consequences for criminal and
social justice. These constructions and consequences will be examined through the
following themes:
1. Area
2. Asylum and immigration
3. Anti-social behaviour.
• 152 •
• • • Locating Middle England: ‘Otherness’ • • •
The thematic framework of these three ‘A’s will enable a critical engagement with the
complex social, cultural, economic and political dimensions of middle England
through which national and local identities are re-imagined and re-constructed. In
so doing, the chapter will aim to draw together three sets of concerns: firstly, how,
where and why certain individuals and social groups have been cast as outsiders,
problems, or ‘others’; secondly, how this ‘otherness’ is manifested in twenty-first-
century Britain; and thirdly, the implications that these processes of ‘othering’ hold
for our hopes of reconciling criminal and social justice in Britain.
1. Area
It has already been established that local sensibilities are important in shaping our
understanding of a range of issues, including crime (Girling et al., 2000). The impor-
tance of place also makes it difficult to transfer policies from one area to another
without some level of disconnection (Peck, 1998). Place is also an important (though
by no means the primary) factor in the process of constructing identity – whether
this identity is manifested at local, regional, national levels or based upon cross-
cutting communities of faith or interest. In the case of the latter, certain places (of
worship, of meeting, leisure or living) become, for those outside of them, almost syn-
onymous with the people who inhabit them. This short section cannot deal with all
of complex ways in which place and identity relate to one another, but will instead
focus on the ways in which places acquire meanings or reputations which have
impacts on the relations of power and constructions of ‘otherness’ within their
(often-flexible) boundaries.
Centre and court
In terms of Britain’s geographies of power, discussion almost inevitably starts at the

‘centre’. The centre – of power, wealth and influence – is London and the south of
England, with other regions often suffering deep and persistent inequalities. Those
arguing for a ‘decentred’ approach to identity and policy have observed that ‘British
political life has a distinctive spatial grammar which lies at the heart of its unequal dis-
tribution of power’ (Amin et al., 2003). Centralised modes of policy, fiscal control, gov-
ernance and an almost ‘courtly’ structure all contribute to ossifying a geographical
configuration in which the south-eastern part of England is the ‘home’ for national
policy.
The primacy of the south as the seat of government and power is also reflected in
its economic and social advantages over the diminishing towns and cities of the
north and west. A study based on an analysis of 2001 Census data (Dorning and
Thomas, 2004) concluded that outside of the south and London was ‘the “archipel-
ago of the provinces” – city islands that appear to be slowly sinking demographically,
• 153 •
socially and economically’. This ‘sinking’ gave rise to inequalities which were
manifested in a number of ways, including the health and well-being of a region’s
populations: for instance, in 2004 there were more doctors per person in the south
of England than in the north and Wales, although rates of long-term disability were
over 11% in the population in Merthyr Tydfil (Wales) and Easington (north) com-
pared with 1.5% in Wokingham (south) (ibid). No wonder Britain’s population is
moving slowly south. We cannot, therefore, ignore the importance of space in pat-
terning inequality and power, with the latter residing at the ‘centre court’. But, at the
same time ‘middle England’ is not just or mainly spatially bounded: the imagined
middle England is exclusive, in differing ways, of those ‘others’ who are poor, vul-
nerable or in some way defined as a ‘problem’ (as we have seen in Chapter 2).
Location, location, location?
The spatial dimension is itself more than a map – it represents the outcomes of a
complex interplay of social factors which include class, race, gender, age and so on
(Powell and Boyne, 2001). And so, for example, the ‘postcode lottery’ which often
determines the quality of, and access to, a range of public services, is not literally
because of an individual’s postcode, but because their choices about where to live are
conditional upon a range of economic and social factors. The postcode argument
implicitly argues for greater consistency and equity across locations, regions and the
country. But there is an inevitable tension between spatial equality and local auton-
omy and the latter may be extremely beneficial in terms of taking account of local
contexts in the planning and delivery of services (ibid). Working through the ten-
sions between the two, it becomes clear that ‘equity’ is not ‘sameness’ and so local-
ism will not (and should not) result in precisely the same outcomes in all places, but
those perhaps differing outcomes should be equally just, wherever they are. However,
for me, problems arise when local economies, social policies and resource allocation
(national and local) combine to produce unjust consequences. However, these
‘unjust consequences’ may not be seen as problems by everyone – they may prove
positive for middle Englanders who are best placed to maximise the benefits of pub-
lic and private sector services and opportunities, particularly in relation to housing
and education. In relation to the former, middle Englanders who made vast profits
following the boom in house prices (particularly in the south of England) have a
range of choices: buy-to-let; escape to the country (and own two homes in the
process); or buy a holiday home in Europe.
Where education was concerned, middle Englanders had by the 1990s become
politically vital to electoral success and their concerns were astutely tapped into as
‘education, education, education’ was the key priority for New Labour after the 1997
election. Sally Tomlinson persuasively argues that their policies in this sphere ‘can be
understood as a way of serving the anxious middle classes in an insecure world’.
Highly selective polices which streamed, setted and excluded less able and ‘trouble-
some’ pupils all served to advantage these ‘aspirant groups’ (2001:270). At the same
• 154 •
time, middle Englanders were, and still are, able to circumvent any perceived place-
based disadvantages by moving house or having the capacity – in terms of knowl-
edge, skill and money – to exercise their parental ‘choice’ in other ways (including
opting for the public, grammar, ‘specialist’ schools and technology colleges which
were now open to them).
Middle England is also located in incomes and in aspirations: the former are spa-
tially patterned (Dorning and Thomas, 2004) although differences within and between
locales and communities may be wide and significant. In short, location does matter
and shapes the contexts and the ways in which middle Englanders aspire to, and are
able to, distance themselves from the ‘others’. In defining these others, mythologies
about place are pivotal.
Mythologies of place
The postcode has much more to answer for than the lottery of service provision: it
has also come to indicate and signify a range of desirable and undesirable economic
and social features. For instance, at the touch of a mouse, middle Englanders (who
are more likely to have the required ICT skills and Internet access) have access to
information on crime rates, schools’ test results and other ‘quality of life’ indicators
against which they can judge an area. These indicators and informal notions of ‘rep-
utation’ can reinforce and compound existing disadvantages. Research on urban
inclusion in four deprived neighbourhoods (Teeside, London, Liverpool and
Nottingham) found that these locales were characterised by strong local bonds of
‘reciprocity and mutual aid’, but despite these positive aspects, the residents suffered
a range of disadvantages which they felt were generated by stigma:
In the two Teeside estates, residents felt that they were excluded compared
with the wider population in that: there had been a weakening of their right to
be protected by the police; they were being denied equal participation in the
labour market; they had unequal access to educational opportunity; and they
were being denied access to credit and services. In general, young people
particularly resented the sharp, persistent but often unwarranted labelling that
they experienced. In many cases external people had no idea that positive
changes had taken place on estates. (Forest and Kearns, 1999)
These findings resonate with research conducted in the late 1990s on a deprived
Black Country estate which had received substantial regeneration funding. Here res-
idents felt that the stigma associated with the name of the estate cast ‘a shadow over
new initiatives and people’s daily lives’ (Cook et al., 1998). Although regeneration
initiatives may have many environmentally beneficial effects, they can also have per-
verse and unintended consequences which are yet more excluding for the poorer
groups who live there. For instance, research on local crime prevention work in
London (Hallsworth, 2002) shows the merits and demerits of ‘inner city’ regenera-
tion. On the one hand it made ‘a once notorious inner city area attractive both to
• 155 •
business and to new professionals’. On the other hand, in making the area a desir-
able place to live, regeneration (coupled with the property-owning ambitions of mid-
dle Englanders) pushed up house prices. As a result, poorer populations had no
option but to live in the pockets of serious disadvantage which remained, leading to
spatial segregation and a more ‘criminogenic environment’ than before (ibid:211).
It is also important to recognise the uniqueness of place and, in particular, that not
all ‘inner cities’ are the same: in her research on two high crime urban areas around
Salford, Greater Manchester, Sandra Walklate observed that these areas were ‘less
than two miles apart, yet displayed very different ways of managing their relation-
ships with crime’ (ibid:58). These were ‘predominantly white areas where the tradi-
tional working class historically co-existed with the “social scum” and those who
were endeavouring to better themselves as market forces permitted’ (ibid:60). Her
research supported the contention that for those who do ‘better themselves’, the spa-
tial proximity to the ‘scum’ engenders dislike and disdain and reinforces the social
segregation of ‘us and them’ (Walklate, 2000; Hallsworth, 2002).
‘Otherness’ is also produced where issues of place and ‘race’ intersect and here, too,
proximity can breed tension and contempt. Lemos’s recent research on young
people’s attitudes towards ‘race’ and identity found that ethnically diverse towns and
cities (such as Rochdale and Peterborough) had a greater proportion of young people
with intolerant attitudes compared with smaller ‘monochrome’ towns such as
Stafford. It is of serious concern that proximity is more likely to lead to social segre-
gation rather than tolerance of minority ethnic groups (Lemos, 2005:56). It is to the
issues of ‘race’, space, segregation and exclusion that we now turn.
Parallel lives
On the 1st June the house of the Asian Deputy Mayor of Oldham was fire-
bombed, he and his family only narrowly escaping. A week later the town was
again in the news as the British National Party scored its biggest success ever in
a UK election, taking over 6,500 votes in Oldham West and Ryton, 16% of the
vote, and over 5,000 votes in Oldham East and Saddleworth, or 11%. This con-
firmed the view of many that something was seriously wrong in Oldham, that
there was a community more polarised on racial lines than anything seen in the
UK… (David Ritchie, Chairman, Oldham Independent Review, 2001)
Later that month ‘violent community disorders’ involving an estimated 500 people
took place in Oldham, causing damage estimated at £1.4 million (Ministerial Group
on Public Order and Community Cohesion, 2002:7). In June, 400 people took part
in similar disorders in Burnley. Bradford had experienced disturbances at Easter and
later, in July, up to 500 people were involved in the most serious disorders of the
summer in which over 300 people were injured and an estimated £7.5–10 million
damage cased (ibid). In addition to a Ministerial Group, the government set
up an independent Review Team under Ted Cantle to bring together the views of
local residents on these events and to make recommendations geared to enhancing
• 156 •
‘community cohesion’ (Cantle, 2001). The opening paragraph of the Cantle Report
speaks of a lack of surprise at the physical segregation of housing in the areas, but
goes on to note the surprise of the Review Team at the depth of the polarisation they
found, and the ways in which this impacted on other aspects of daily life:
Separate educational arrangements, community and voluntary bodies, employ-

ment, places of worship, language, social and cultural networks, means that
communities operate on the basis of a series of parallel lives. These lives do not
touch at any point, let alone overlap and promote meaningful interchanges.
(2001:9)
These parallel lives can be understood only in relation to the particular historical,
social and economic contexts in which they are lived: for instance where Oldham was
concerned, the dire economic consequences of the decline of the textile industries,
traditions of owner-occupation and living within particular neighbourhoods along-
side friends and family, availability of only low-skilled, low-paid work, working the
‘night shift’ and so not coming into contact with white society, and the shared expe-
rience of racism all played a part (Oldham Independent Review, 2001:8). At the same
time key commonalities did emerge across those northern towns experiencing dis-
turbance, and the Ministerial Group’s Denham Report concluded that the most impor-
tant common issues included: lack of a strong civic identity; weak political and
community leadership; segregation; inadequate provision of youth services and facil-
ities; youth disengagement; high unemployment; weakness and disparity of police
responses to community issues; activities of extremist groups; and irresponsible local
media coverage (Ministerial Group on Public Order and Community Cohension,
2002:7).
But, in addition to official responses, additional perspectives are available that
stress that the events signified the ‘violence of hopelessness’ among young men who,
in Oldham, suffer 50% unemployment and felt disconnected from their community
leaders or ‘patriarchs’ who, since the 1980s, were seen to have glossed over commu-
nity disquiet and resistance (Kundnani, 2001; Amin, 2003). It is also important to
recognise the damaging consequences of regeneration policies so strongly criticised
by Cantle:
The plethora of initiatives and programmes, with their baffling array of local out-
comes, boundaries, timescales and other conditions, seemed to ensure divisive-
ness and a perception of unfairness in almost every section of the communities
we visited. (2001:10)
In this way the bureaucratic, managerial and essentially competitive regimes of gov-
ernance which characterise urban regeneration initiatives were seen as partly to
blame for community discontent.
What has happened since Cantle, in terms of implementing policies geared to com-
munity cohesion and racial equality? The government’s strategy published in 2005
was entitled Improving Opportunity, Strengthening Society and appears to envisage that
• 157 •
cohesion and racial equality will automatically emerge from existing opportunity-
based strategies across government departments: in terms of employment it speaks of
‘tailored support for jobseekers’ from disadvantaged communities; in health, greater
‘patient choice’; in education, Surestart and Aiming High programmes; in housing,
‘mainstreaming’ cohesion (ODPM, 2004b); and in terms of integration and citizen-
ship, opportunities for volunteering and citizenship ceremonies (Home Office,
2005c). The fundamental problems surrounding skills and the (demand-side) issue of
sustainable, well-paid work have not been addressed, nor do lessons on the problems
of governance in highly deprived and ethnically mixed communities appear to have
been learned.
Finally, it remains to be seen whether the government’s community cohesion and
racial equality strategy offers anything like an appropriate and sufficient response to
the challenges of community cohesion posed by the events of 7 July 2005 in London:
the terrorist bombings on the London transport system, apparently undertaken by
young British Muslim men from towns in the north of England, will inevitably strain
community relations still further. By defining the events of 7 July as ‘a perversion of
Islam’, Tony Blair seemed to narrow down and simplify the complex conditions lead-
ing to such events but, as Salma Yaqoob observed, in blaming ‘shoddy theology’, he
dislocated the violence from deep seated political and foreign policy issues.
Moreover:
No number of sniffer dogs or sermons denouncing the use of violence against

innocents can remove the pain and anger that drives extremists to their terrible
acts. The truth is that shoddy theology does not exist without dodgy foreign
policy. (2005)
At the same time, the events of what is becoming known as ‘7/7’ are leading to fis-
sures within Muslim communities too, with a younger generation refusing to ignore
issues of injustice and castigating some of their elders for not wishing to ‘rock the
boat’ (Aslam, 2005). Taken together, the legacy of (and missed opportunities follow-
ing) Bradford, Burnley and Oldham in 2001, coupled with the first suicide bombings
in Britain in 2005, make it more difficult to prevent ‘us’ and ‘them’ living parallel
lives, though that is no reason to stop trying.
2. Asylum and Immigration
When considering the complex constructions of ‘us’ and ‘them’, one of the most
obvious examples of ‘them’ – where popular discourse and politics are concerned –
is asylum seekers. They perhaps signify the ultimate ‘other’ for middle England:
whether selling the Big Issue or begging on our streets, speaking their strange lan-
guages and buying food in our shops, locked away in detention centres or resettled
in our cities and countryside, they are certainly not one of ‘us’. But the word asylum
has not always conjured up such vile imagery as this. The UK is signatory to the 1951
• 158 •
Refugee Convention under which those people fleeing persecution may seek refuge –
asylum – in the UK. Under this Convention the word ‘asylum’ connotes a place of
sanctuary and safety, in sharp contrast to contemporary popular discourse which
conveys almost entirely negative meanings implying questionable status (if not out-
right fraud) and, consequently, invoking the need to control and exclude rather than
to welcome and protect.
The politics of asylum
The politics of asylum has in the past decade been permeated by many of the dis-
tasteful features associated with immigration policies and discourses in the last half
of the twentieth century. These features include: the racialisation of the issue itself;
playing ‘the numbers game’ to call for controls and reductions; the language of fear
and ‘swamping’, which defines asylum seekers (like immigrants) as ‘a problem’ for
‘our’ culture and social order; and the mantra of ‘no recourse to public funds’ in
response to the charge that asylum seekers (like immigrants) are drawn to the ‘hon-
eypot’ of the generous British welfare state (Cook, 1993). The perceived problems of
immigration, asylum and social security fraud are often homogenised in the registers
used by politicians and media alike, through the usage of the pejorative term ‘bogus’
to refer to asylum seekers and the implication of benefit fraud and abuse. This has
led to a blurring of the boundaries between civil and criminal jurisdictions and serves
to rationalise the control through forcible detention of many asylum seekers; an esti-
mated 30% of whom will be detained by the end of 2005 (Joint Council for the
Welfare of Immigrants, 2005). As already noted in Chapter 5, the work of New
Labour’s flagship Social Inclusion Unit specifically excluded asylum seekers from its
remit (perhaps in order to appeal to the perceived sensibilities of middle Englanders).
But to fully grasp the politics of asylum, it is necessary to explore its connections
with the (perceived) concerns of middle England and, underpinning these, notions
of Britishness and Englishness.
Asylum and imagined identities
There have been lengthy and sometimes vitriolic debates over what it is to be
‘English’: similar debates have surrounded the notion of ‘Britishness’ although the
two terms convey altogether different meanings. Post-devolution ‘Britain’ could be
seen as an umbrella under which the identities of Welsh, Scottish and English can
shelter, although each assiduously protects its own sense of national identity.
Interestingly, the 1998 devolution of powers to the Scottish Parliament and Welsh
Assembly has raised serious issues for ‘English’ national identity, including: the lack
of an assembly for England; rejection or apathy towards regional assemblies in
England; and charges that the only parliament representing the English people –
Westminster – is dominated by what Jeremy Paxman termed ‘the Scottish raj’ (Sunday
Herald, 20 March, 2005). Despite attempts by some, notably the Chancellor Gordon
• 159 •
Brown, a Scot,1 to celebrate the values of ‘Britishness’ (and others celebrating its
constituent identities – see Blunkett, 2005), the term fails to convey the required
positive sense of identity because ‘Britain’ is too closely associated with the racist and
oppressive connotations of ‘Empire’ (Zephaniah, 2003).
Some may argue that relating to an idea of ‘Britishness’ is both difficult and unin-
spiring because notions of national identity are not based upon political boundaries
but, rather, are ‘rooted’ in a sense of place and of heritage:
As Scotland is the land of William Wallace or Robert the Bruce; so England con-
tinues to be imagined as King Arthur’s Isle or William Blake’s ‘green and pleas-
ant land’: a metaphorical, if not a genealogical link to those ‘true’ inhabitants is
established. (Lynn and Lea, 2003:426)
By implication, then, ‘true’ inhabitants of England, Scotland and Wales would not have
parents who were born in other countries, non-white complexions or faiths other than
Christian. This clearly flies in the face of the reality of a contemporary, vibrant, multi-
cultural British society, and one in which Christianity is on the decline: any ‘re-awakened’
sense of national identity is, therefore, predicated on the notion of a common heritage
which is not real at all, but imagined. Lynn and Lea argue that this imagined common
heritage, and the relative ‘fuzziness’ of national identity, will persist so long as visible
differences are minimal and people share geographies and space. But this ‘ “fuzziness”
is soon pulled into sharper focus when it relates to those from “with-out” ; be they
Muslim or Hindu; Arab or Asian; immigrant or asylum seeker.’ (Lynn and Lea,
2003:427). Political events such as the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 in the US
and 7 July 2005 in London are bound to make this focus on those seen as ‘with-out’
sharper still, as distinctions are rarely made, in the popular imagination, between
British Asians, ‘terrorists’ and asylum seekers (Lemos, 2005).
In their research on the social construction of asylum seekers, Lynn and Lea
examined the discourses employed by British national newspapers (and their readers
who fill the letters pages) and identified three overlapping discursive strategies at
work:
• The differentiation of the ‘other’ – distinctions are made between genuine or bogus asy-
lum seekers (or ‘economic refugees’)
• The differentiation of the ‘self’ – differentiating British people, particularly with refer-
ence to the plight of vulnerable and marginalised groups who allegedly ‘play second
fiddle’ to asylum seekers who are seen to enjoy privileged access to welfare services
(and to jobs)
• The enemy in our midst – the enemies here may be twofold. Firstly, asylum seekers may
pose a threat to law, order and national security. Secondly, the State and ‘white liberals’
are also to blame for ‘forcing’ these refugees and asylum seekers on the British public.
1
See for example Gordon Brown’s ‘Britishness’ speeches to the British Council, 7 July 2004
and to the London Business School, 27 April 2005 (HM Treasury, 2004, 2005).
• 160 •
Lynn and Lea conclude that ‘the phantom menace may be just that, but that ‘the “New
Apartheid” is tangible enough’ through the pages of our newspapers (2003:448) and,
one could add, in the detention centres and residual housing where many asylum
seekers are forced to live. At the same time, one seedbed for national identity and
attitudes – sport – continues to offer little hope of enhanced tolerance. For instance,
despite the Football Association’s efforts, racism still permeates ‘the beautiful game’
and, as a result, there were many who expressed disquiet after the 2002 World Cup and
Euro 2004 competitions at the ubiquitous sight of the flag of Saint George, use of mil-
itary metaphors, xenophobic media coverage and the jingoistic sentiments that may lie
behind the fans’ chants of ‘In-ger-land’ (Garland, 2004).
For middle England, the asylum seeker offers a doubly excluded vision of the
‘Other’. While those living in poverty in the UK are invariably constituted as ‘other’
(Lister, 2004:101), the asylum seeker represents someone who is entirely out of
bounds for inclusion in British society. It becomes a label (or ‘master status’) which
is almost impossible to lose: even when a claim to asylum is successful, the negative
connotations for the individual and his or her family is likely to persist. At the same
time, the asylum seeker offers, to those who are in (or on the edge of) poverty, the
prospect of sharing in the values of middle England peddled by the tabloid media:
the asylum seeker potentially offers an ‘other’ from which even the poorest UK citi-
zen can distinguish themselves. In this way, the asylum seeker as ‘other’ helps to sus-
tain the social divisions and paradoxes which are inherent in the mythology of
middle England.
Asylum and immigration policy
There is no doubt that the asylum system is being abused by those seeking to
migrate for other reasons. Many claims are simply a tissue of lies. (Home Office,
1998, quoted in Burchardt, 2005:223)
The discursive strategy through which the ‘other’ is differentiated (as bogus) is clearly
evident in this statement from the Home office: this statement also demonstrates
that, as Tania Burchardt noted with some irony, asylum is an area of policy which is
clearly not evidence based. As we have already seen, asylum policy is not an exam-
ple of ‘joined-up’ government either: while other New Labour policies seek, for
instance, to reduce rough sleeping, encourage paid work and productivity and create
an inclusive society, the Home Office subverts all of these aims through the social
exclusion of a particularly vulnerable group – those fleeing persecution and seeking
asylum in the UK (ibid). Asylum and immigration policy therefore runs counter to
government objectives in a range of areas including: social cohesion and diversity,
equality of opportunity, multiculturalism, pluralism, human rights, co-operative for-
eign policy and international development (Joint Council for the Welfare of
Immigrants, 2005:7). It is also worrying (but indicative of the policy marginalistion
and ‘exclusion’ of the asylum issue), that in the government’s latest strategy to
increase race equality and community cohesion the word ‘asylum’ is mentioned only
• 161 •
three times: once referring, in passing, to it as a ‘distinct but related issue’ and a
future publication; once referring to a reduction in the number of asylum applica-
tions; and one mention in the context of the need for local partnership discussion
on ‘difficult issues such as asylum, economic migration and crime’ (Home Office,
2005d).
Looking back to 1997 when New Labour came to power, no manifesto commit-
ment was made to repeal the Conservative’s controversial Asylum and Immigration
Act (1996). This Act was regarded by many as draconian in excluding asylum seekers
from local authority housing waiting lists and curtailing their rights to work (being
unable to work for the first six months in the UK), and to claim welfare benefits (to
90% of Income Support levels, and even then this reduced rate was only payable to
those who claimed asylum ‘at port of entry’). Now, in 2005, there have been three
further Acts passed under New Labour (the 1999 Immigration and Asylum Act; 2002
Nationality, Asylum and Immigration Act; 2004 Asylum and Immigration Act),
which have led to a further ‘tightening of the screws’ on asylum seekers (Burchardt,
2005). Worryingly for human rights and campaigning groups, the provisions of the
latest Asylum and Immigration Act (2004) include:
• A new offence of entering the UK without valid passport/immigration documentation:

punishable by a prison sentence of up to two years, and applying to all aged 10 years
or over. There are concerns that this law applies to children; that those fleeing oppres-
sive regimes are unlikely to have sought to obtain a passport from those regimes; and
that it may also penalise victims of human trafficking (often women and children).
• Withdrawal of basic support for families: a failed asylum seeker with dependent
children is not eligible for any support (from local authorities, social services, etc). In
the event of a child’s welfare being compromised, support under the Children Act
(1989) may be provided to under 18s and, if necessary, they will be separated from
their families. Critics argue this undermines the principles both of the Children Act and
Human Rights.
• Electronic monitoring: those over 18 who have restrictions (to report or reside, or
where immigration bail is granted) may be subject to monitoring either through elec-
tronic tagging (only used so far in criminal cases) or voice recognition reporting (by
phone).
(Refugee Council, 2004, 2005a; Amnesty International, 2005).
These provisions in themselves create asylum seekers as ‘others’ who are not entitled
to the same rights (to welfare, jobs and homes) as ‘us’. They also enable physical
exclusion (through detention). Critics argue that the ‘blanket’ provisions of the
Act (particularly in relation to risk and detention) prevent cases being dealt with on
an individual case basis, thereby opening up spaces for injustice. For example,
Amnesty expressed concern that the government was using the risk of absconding to
justify detention ‘without a detailed and meaningful assessment of the risk posed by
each individual, if any’ and, moreover, they found particularly unacceptable the
detention of families, including mothers with very young children and victims of
torture. In summary, an Amnesty report on the plight of those seeking asylum in the
• 162 •
UK – United Kingdom: Seeking Asylum Is Not a Crime – concluded that ‘detention is not
being carried out according to international standards, is arbitrary and serves little
purpose in the majority of cases where measures short of detention would suffice’
(Amnesty International, 2005).
Asylum postscript: the ‘five year plan’ and the 2005 general election
The government’s strategy for immigration and asylum for the next five years –
Controlling Our Borders: Making Migration Work for Britain – was published in February
2005 (Cm 6472 (2005)). The Joint Council for the Welfare of Immigrants (JWCI) com-
mented that the strategy was designed to persuade the British public that immigration
is ‘heavily controlled’ and to reassure them with statistics on refusals, refused entries
and deportations (2005:7). But despite such ‘reassurances’, the May 2005 general elec-
tion witnessed an uneasy Dutch auction between New Labour and the Conservatives
on asylum and immigration, with the opposition leader, Michael Howard, accusing
Blair of ‘pussyfooting’ on immigration which, he stated, was ‘out of control’ (BBC News,
10 April 2005). While Howard denied that it was racist to broach the subject during an
election campaign, his party’s slogan – ‘Are you thinking what we’re thinking’ – clearly
opened up an unspoken political space within which racist attitudes could flourish.
Perhaps more worrying still was what the electorate was thinking about immigration
and asylum. The British Social Attitudes Survey (2004) had indicated a hardening of
attitudes towards ‘immigrants’ under New Labour which became even more apparent
in the 2005 election. Firstly, in terms of popular priorities, a MORI poll held during the
campaign found that those interviewed placed ‘asylum’ in sixth place as ‘the most
important’ election issue, ahead of managing the economy, unemployment, Iraq,
transport and the environment. Secondly, when asked which party had ‘the best’ pol-
icy on asylum, 52% felt the (hard-line, quota-based) Conservative policies were ‘best’
and only 11% supported the policies of the eventual election winners – New Labour
(MORI, 2005). Although church and refugee organisations and the UNHCR had all
urged politicians to act responsibly and not perpetuate asylum myths, only the Liberal
Democrats demonstrably refused to get into a ‘bidding war’ on these issues (BBC News,
9 April 2005; Churches Commission for Racial Justice, 2005; Refugee Council, 2005b;
UNHCR, 2005).
After the general election (and, inevitably, also following on from the continuing
impact of 9/11 and subsequent shock of 7/7), popular attitudes towards ‘race’ religion
and asylum are all hardening. Recent research shows that children and young people
all too readily stereotype asylum seekers as potential hijackers or terrorists (Lemos,
2005). The full social and personal consequences of ‘bidding up’ ever tougher and
more ‘controlling’ asylum and immigration policies are beginning to emerge. For
failed asylum seekers, who have been deported to states from which they fled, these
consequences can be dire. There has, for instance, been evidence of violence by the
oppressive Mugabe regime against those forcibly returned by the UK to Zimbabwe
(The Times, 4 July 2005). At the time of writing (July 2005) more than 50
Zimbabweans in British detention who had been on hunger strike have called off
• 163 •
their protest, and the deportation of failed asylum seekers to Zimbabwe is suspended
pending a hearing of evidence from the Refugee Council in August. In the meantime,
the implementation of the 2004 Immigration and Asylum Act, and the five year plan
which accompanies it, raises serious concerns not just for social justice but for the
UK’s human rights record and the future of race relations (ECRI, 2005).
3. Anti-social Behaviour
As noted in Chapter 3, the definition of what constitutes anti-social behaviour (ASB) is

broad and inclusive, with the 1998 CDA defining it in terms of behaviour that ‘caused,
or was likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to one or more persons not of the
same household as the perpetrator.’ Although tackling ASB is a major focus of govern-
ment policy (and now forms a Home Office Public Service Agreement , PSA, target), the
definitions of ASB in use on the ground are shifting and ‘pragmatic’, with wide variations
between geographical areas and between social groups (Wood, 2004; Millie et al., 2005).
Evidence from the British Crime Survey suggests falling levels of concern over many of
the aspects of ASB previously highlighted by government (notably drugs, burned out cars,
vandalism and graffiti), and increased concern over public drunkenness and rowdiness
(Wood, 2004). But despite an apparent cooling off of public anxieties about ASB, it
remains a powerful element in the construction of threats of the ‘other’ and remains a
crucial element in the government’s third term ‘Respect’ agenda.
The genesis of the ASBO
As a tool of crime and disorder reduction, anti-social behaviour orders (ASBOs) were
slow to take off: many local authorities and some police forces preferred to use alter-
native methods of regulation and dispute resolution, and some felt that issuing ASBO
indicated a failure to use productive alternatives. In the two years and nine months
to the end of 2001, only 518 orders were issued, much to the dismay of the then
Home Secretary Jack Straw. The perceived under-use of the orders reflected what
Elizabeth Burney described as a ‘talking tough, acting coy’ approach to ASB, although
clearly there has, since then, been a dramatic uptake to almost 5000 orders which
was the number anticipated at the time of legislation (Burney, 2002). Unsurprisingly,
then, in 2004 a total of 4649 ASBOs were issued. The self-fulfilling prophecy which
surrounds the use of ASBOs is also evident in terms of their target group: original
Home Office guidelines envisaged them as applying ‘normally’ to adults, but this was
unpopular with local authorities (ibid:473). Consequently, 44% of the 4649 ASBOs
issued in 2004 were for those aged 10–17 (Home Office, 2005e). For Burney, the ASBO
‘saga’ represented, in 2002, the ‘political processes at work in the contemporary gov-
ernance of crime and disorder’ and given local reluctance to impose orders and cur-
fews which the law enabled, she foresaw the development of local strategies which
diverged from the central vision (Burney, 2002:482). However, there has, in fact,
• 164 •
been a convergence, as those police and local authorities who initially saw the impo-
sition of ASBOs for young people as a failure came to heel and played along with the
politicians and the Home Office. The result has been a dramatic increase in the use
of ASBO and curfew orders.
ASB and policy paradoxes
The fight against ASB is a core theme of New Labour’s third-term agenda. However,
the policy importance accorded to ASB is largely at odds with the priorities of most
(though not all) people in the UK. Research has demonstrated that anxiety about
crime and ASB is not as prevalent as politicians would have us believe: while they can
be acute concerns for a minority of people in some areas (mostly urban and deprived
areas) it is not a big problem for the majority of people in England and Wales (Farrell
and Gadd, 2004; Millie et al., 2005).
At the same time, the strong emphasis on ASB is at odds with goals in other policy
domains, including social inclusion and child protection. Where the former is con-
cerned, discourses around community safety rest upon the rhetoric of participation
and social inclusion. But within the ASB discourse young people are as objects for
policing and regulatory intervention rather than for positive engagement for safety
(Hill and Wright, 2003). ‘Community’ has come to mean a community of adults
only, as the day-to-day behaviours of many young people are marginalised and crim-
inalised. For example, a West Midlands study asked young people (aged 13–19) to
identify what behaviour they considered was ‘OK when out with friends’ and their
responses included: ‘sitting talking and having a laugh’; ‘having a laugh, playing
football’; ‘playing football in the park, hanging outside the shop’; ‘sitting down and
chilling’; ‘walking the streets’; and ‘drinking, but only if you can handle it’ (Holmes,
2003). For many older onlookers these activities, seen by young people as ‘OK’ and
part and parcel of ‘hanging out with friends’, constitute ASB. In the British Crime
Survey (and in other research), the consistent message is that the very presence of
young people in public spaces is seen as a threat: ‘teenagers hanging around’ is most
commonly cited as the top ASB problem (Millie et al., 2005). There is a strong sense
in which community safety becomes ‘a notion to be secured by blaming, isolating
and silencing youth’ (Hill and Wright, 2003:291). Consequently:
Local child curfew orders, child safety orders and anti-social behaviour orders,
supported by increased custodial provisions available to youth courts, indicate
an identification of young people as the true threat to community safety. (Hill
and Wright, 2003:294)
(Although in some locales, prostitution may be regarded as the key problem as we

will see below.)
Where issues of child safety are concerned, campaigning groups point to the con-
tradictions inherent in upholding the principles of the Children Act and tackling
crime and anti-social behaviour:
• 165 •
A child affected by poverty, neglect or abuse is seen as a child in need under

The Children Act, yet that same child, once he or she crosses a boundary into
offending behaviour becomes an object of retribution. (Pam Hibbert,
Barnardo’s Press Release,18 November 2003)
The Youth Justice Coalition report Children in Trouble (which Pam Hibbert co-
authored) went on to express concerns at: the blurring of the boundaries of the CJS,
particularly where ASB was concerned; the tendency to criminalise children at
younger ages; and the dangers of centralised and prescriptive responses to children
in trouble (Monaghan et al., 2003).
Revisiting ‘criminalising the social’
As we saw in Chapter 2, the ways in which certain behaviours are defined as ASB is
widening the net of criminalisation to include more and more young people. But it
is not only troublesome behaviour which is labelled as anti-social, but also informal
codes of conduct and dress. For example, a recent ban on youths wearing baseball
caps or hooded tops from the Bluewater shopping centre in Kent, and similar ban at
the Trafford Centre in Manchester, illustrate these processes of exclusion at work:
both initiatives were lauded by the Prime Minister who expressed ‘total sympathy’
and agreement, going on to state that ‘people are rightly fed up with street corner
and shopping centre thugs’ (Manchester Evening News, 13 May 2005). But here it was
not thuggish or yobbish behaviour itself which generated such condemnation and
exclusionary rhetoric, but the type of clothing (stereo)typically worn by many
children, young men and women. As Richard Garside of the Crime and Society
Foundation wryly commented, the Prime Minister’s comments were:
more in keeping with an episode of ‘What not to wear’, rather than a Downing
Street press conference … It is a strange state of affairs when the sartorial choices
of today’s teenagers provides a focus for the Prime Minister’s proscription for pro-
moting a sense of community. (Crime and Society Press Release, 12 May 2005)
More seriously, it is important to identify the underlying discourses within which it

becomes possible to cast young people as ‘other’ and to identify this otherness so
readily. Recent research has identified and explored three narratives which residents
in differing localities used to understand the causes of ASB in their area:
1. social and moral decline

2. disengaged youth and families
3. ‘kids will be kids’.
(Source : Millie et al., 2005:27–33)
These three narratives are not mutually exclusive, although they do invoke very dif-
ferent policy responses: the first seems to call for enforcement, but the views
• 166 •
expressed by residents conveyed a deeper cynicism over the effectiveness of enforce-

ment (primarily, policing) to address ASB. The second narrative stresses the need for
longer-term, one-to-one youth work and effective community partnership-based
interventions to engage young people in constructive ways. The third focuses on the
relativity of ASB and so the need for better dialogue with older people, and also sug-
gests the need to offer affordable ‘diversionary’ activities for young people to engage
in (ibid). Taken together, a coherent approach to ASB would involve some elements
of all three – enforcement, but balanced with a range of inclusionary measures. In
this sense, the authors conclude, the government needs to tone down the anxious
rhetoric around ASB and be ‘tougher’ on its causes – these causes are social and eco-
nomic as well as individual.
Postscript: curfew orders
Like ASBOs, curfew orders are seen as an essential tool to combat ASB. These orders
enable police or community support officers (CSOs) to forcibly remove anyone under
the age of 16 from designated curfew areas. Despite evidence that they fail entirely
as a deterrent (recent Home Office figures indicate that 75% of the 777 offenders
aged 10–17 years, placed under curfew orders, were reconvicted within one year),
they remain popular with politicians, the media and middle Englanders who have
‘clout’ to demand a police presence in their spaces, whether they need one or not
(Guardian, 20 July 2005). At the time of writing the government has experienced a
severe setback to its ASB policy with the success of a legal challenge to police powers
under curfew orders by a 15 year old boy (who had not been in trouble with the
police and was described as ‘a model student’). Lord Justice Brook ruled in favour of
the young man arguing that:
If parliament were to be taken to have regarded all children found in such areas
between the relevant hours as potential sources of anti-social behaviour, a coer-
cive power to remove them might be a natural corollary. However, to attribute
such an intention to parliament would be to assume that it ignored this coun-
try’s international obligations to treat each child as an autonomous human
being. (Lord Justice Brook’s judgement, quoted in Liberty, 2005)
In short, young people cannot be subjected to coercive state powers, in breach of

their human rights, simply because they are young and in the wrong place at the
wrong time. This judgement cuts away the core assumptions of the government’s
ASB policy and opens up spaces for future resistance and challenge.
ASB and discourses around prostitution and the ‘others’
Although ASB is overwhelmingly associated with male youth, it is worth stressing

that there are additional vulnerable and socially excluded groups who fall within
its remit and are subject to the processes of ‘othering’ which the term ‘anti-social’
• 167 •
connotes. Stenson (2000) relates these processes to zero tolerance policing (ZTP)
which itself is a policy born of the sensibilities of middle England, although based on
the example of New York. For middle Englanders (and New Yorkers before them) ZTP
is grounded in the fears that ‘others’ in their midst – ‘beggars, muggers, drug dealers,
pimps and prostitutes’ (ibid:222) – are contributing to crime, decline and pessimism.
If we take the example of prostitution, the unequal consequences of ZTP become
clear.
The two parties in the sex trade – the kerb crawler and prostitute – are constituted
very differently in popular discourse: the former may be associated with notions of
‘nuisance’, but the sex worker herself is seen as a moral and physical threat, for
whom there should be either very limited2 or zero tolerance. The ZT approach was
taken by some residents in the district of Balsall Heath in Birmingham. Here the pros-
titutes were described in the local media as ‘human scavengers polluting our streets’
while members of the male ‘Street Watch’ campaign who patrolled the area were
reported as ‘the men who cleared Birmingham of 12 street scum’ (Birmingham Evening
Mail, quoted in Kantola and Squires, 2004:81). More worrying still was the way in
which the Balsall Heath Forum and its Street Watch campaign was cited by the Home
Secretary, David Blunkett, as an example of ‘how far a good mix of innovation and
nous can go’ (Blunkett, 2003:42). This assessment flew in the face of Home Office
sponsored research indicating the pressing need to treat prostitution as a welfare not
a policing issue, in need of holistic not penal solutions (Hester and Westmorland,
2004). As a final observation, the advocates of ZTP in New York have come to regret
the eagerness with which this policy was pursued, at the expense of other social mea-
sures. Michael Jacobson, the former New York Commissioner for Corrections under
Major Giuliani, regarded the mass imprisonment arising from such ‘tough’ penal
policies as ‘public policy gone mad’ and went on to state:
Public safety is not the sole province of the criminal justice system. Accessible
health care, community-based mental health and child care, reasonable school
class sizes and well-trained teachers, well-funded environmental and transport
agencies all protect public safety. Money spent on spiralling corrections cost has
come at the expense of other crucial governmental services. (Jacobson, quoted
in Crime and Society Press Release, 13 June 2005)
It is to arguments such as this – and the need to reverse the process of criminalising
the social – that we return in the final chapter.
4. Summary: Middle England and the ‘Others’
This chapter has attempted to locate and to explore the notion of ‘middle England’
as a lens though which to focus on the complex ways in which certain individuals
2
Or ‘zones of tolerance’ (Gwinnett, 1997).
• 168 •
and social groups have been cast as outsiders, problems or ‘other’. In twenty-first-
century Britain this otherness is manifested in both spatial and imaginary ways: spa-
tially, through inequalities of power, income, employment, health and education
that may be patterned between and within regions, boroughs and neighbourhoods.
In imagined terms, through the construction of ‘others’ who are seen to threaten or
undermine middle England’s social order and interests, including: young people,
unemployed people, lone mothers, minority ethnic groups, asylum seekers and resi-
dents of poor neighbourhoods. But, as Janet Foster notes:
All too frequently high crime communities are perceived to be full of ‘problem
people’, not people who may have problems. (2002:168 original emphasis)
Central to theoretical understandings of how and why only some groups are con-
stituted as problems (and not as people who may have problems) is, as we have seen,
the concept of otherness. The risk and ‘ontological insecurities’ that characterise
postmodern societies have given rise to a pressing need to re-establish a sense of per-
sonal security and identity (Garland, 2001). Central to this sense of self and security
is the casting of somebody else as ‘the other’, the opposite of oneself, whose ‘vices…
are the inverse of our virtues’ (Young, 2002:552).3 When it comes to defining the
‘others’, Jock Young aptly summarises who the usual suspects are likely to be:
Who, by definition, could be a better candidate for such negative ‘othering’

than the criminal and the culture that he or she is seen to live in? Thus the crim-
inal underclass replete with single mothers and living in slum estates or ghet-
tos, drug addicts committing crime to maintain their habits and the immigrants
who commit crime to deceitfully enter the country and continue their lives of
crime, in order to maintain themselves become the three main foci of emerg-
ing discourses around law and order – that is the welfare ‘scrounger’, the
‘junkie’ and the ‘immigrant.’ (2002:265)
The processes of negative othering described in this chapter (in relation to young
people, asylum seekers, minority ethnic groups and residents of deprived neighbour-
hoods) affect both criminal and social justice. As we have seen, middle England
constructions of ‘others’ imply policy responses which seek to individualise (not
socialise) problems, and to deter, discipline, regulate and control problem and ‘other’
groups.
Figure 6.1 below attempts to summarise some of the issues raised here and, at the
same time, to visually represent the ways in which social constructions of welfare
claimants, minority ethnic groups, the young, the undeserving poor, crime (includ-
ing drugs, prostitution and human trafficking), problem places and problem people
are interrelated. The list of people and problems within this diagram is far from
3
It is important, too, to consider who does not count as ‘other’ – for example, tax evaders or
supporters of illegal fox hunting.
• 169 •
‘PROBLEM’ PEOPLE Black and minority SOCIAL JUSTICE

ethnic groups:
Welfare benefit claimants Lone mothers • Asylum seekers Young people
• Refugees
• Economic migrants
The ‘undeserving’ poor Anti-social behaviour

CONSTRUCTIONS OF: Threat to moral order Threat to social order
‘PROBLEM’ PLACES
‘Scroungers’ Street crime

[Bogus] Asylum seekers Drugs – dealers and junkies
Illegal immigrants Prostitution
Illegal immigration
CRIME AND
DISORDER PROBLEMS
CRIMINAL JUSTICE
Figure 6.1 Construction of Relations between Social and Criminal Justice for
‘Other’ and ‘Problem’ Groups
exhaustive, not least because these processes are fluid and dynamic. For instance,
contemporary constructions of the ‘war on terror’ cut across many of the places,
social groups and themes represented in Figure 6.1 (notably those of immigration,
asylum, problem places, young people, ethnicity and religion). But drawing on what
we know of historical continuities, shifts in discourses and the processes of ‘negative
othering’, it attempts to sketch out some of the overarching themes and the com-
plexities involved in understanding the relationships between the criminal and the
social for contemporary middle England. It is the task of the final chapter to seek
ways forward in addressing the inequities and injustices of these relations, and to
work towards reconciling criminal and social justice.
• 170 •
•seven • Reconciling
Criminal and Social
Justice
Introduction
The key concern of this book has been to illustrate the ways in which criminal justice
and social justice are interconnected and interdependent concepts, in theory and in
the day-to-day realities of our lives. At the same time, it has attempted to examine
and critique the ways in which, over the past eight years, policy initiatives within
and across these two spheres have often led to contradictory and mutually defeating
outcomes. The task of this final chapter is to draw together the preceding analyses
to offer positive ways forward to achieving greater justice – criminal and social – in
The chapter will be divided into three parts: the first will offer some personal
reflections on the May 2005 election and the momentous events of July 2005 which
are, at the time of writing, highlighting a range of tensions – global, national and
local – around issues of poverty, human rights, violence and justice. It would be
counter-productive not to acknowledge the importance of these issues as they mould
the socio-economic, political and cultural contexts within which any progressive
change must take place. The second part of the chapter will, in this dynamic context,
build upon the analysis of previous chapters and summarise some of the key issues
and challenges facing us in our attempts to reconcile and advance criminal and social
justice: it will also begin to signal ways in which these challenges could be addressed.
The third part will outline some ‘good enough’ (Williams, 2000) principles upon
which the future reconciliation of criminal and social justice may be based, thereby
offering possibilities for positive challenge and for change.
1. Reflections in 2005
Firstly, a flashback to 2001:
Emblazoned on the hustings and battle buses during the 2001 election were
More Schools, More Hospitals, More Police. These were middle England’s
issues, so Labour calculated. The posters and the party political broadcasts did
not say More Social Justice, Fewer Poor People or, heaven forbid, More Equality.
(Toynbee and Walker, 2005:47, emphasis added)
By the general election of May 2005 little had changed except that, four years on
from this observation, the Conservative Party had sought to claw back these same
middle England issues from New Labour. As if reading the floating voters’ minds they
asked, and then answered, the question:
ARE YOU THINKING WHAT WE’RE THINKING?

More police; cleaner hospitals; lower taxes; school discipline; controlled immi-
gration; accountability. (Conservative Party Manifesto, 2005)
To their credit, the Liberal Democrat Manifesto differed somewhat by including a

strong ‘green’ theme and by stressing ‘fairness’ in its proposal to raise the top rate of
income tax to 50% for earnings above £100,000 a year. New Labour once again did
its homework and then unashamedly appealed to middle England’s concerns, with
its policy pledges reading:
Your family better off; your child achieving more; your children with the best
start; your family treated better and faster; your community safer; your borders
protected. (Labour Party Manifesto Pledge Card, 2005)
It worked. But if in 1997 the champagne flowed freely for the celebrations of the New
Labour party faithful, had been limited to ‘a quarter of a bottle of champagne each’
in 2001,1 it seemed that by 2005 their victory probably merited no more than a tepid
glass of Labrusco. Despite the political priority accorded to democratisation and par-
ticipation the electorate seemed disengaged: election turnout in 2001 had been the
lowest ever at 59.17% and in 2005 this inched up to just 61.5%, though this was
probably due more to the novelty of postal voting than enthusiasm for politics.
Rather than a ringing endorsement of New Labour and high hopes for the policies of
a historic third term, there seemed to be two more plausible – but negative – reasons
for voting in a third Blair government: the first was the feeling that Blair was proba-
bly the lesser of two evils; the second, that opposition leader Michael Howard was
the evil of two lessers. Either way, positive engagement, trust, belief and idealism
were absent from the polling booths.
1
According to Toynbee and Walker (2005) this was the Mill Bank HQ allocation, per person,
in 2001.
• 172 •
• • • Reconciling Criminal and Social Justice • • •
Humbly confessing that he had ‘listened’ to the people during the election cam-
paign, Tony Blair went on to announce the defining issues of his third term as ‘reform
and respect’ – but in that order. The 45 new Bills announced in the Queen’s Speech
were seen by most as ‘quintessentially New Labour’, and included measures on: ID
cards, ‘market-oriented’ reforms in health, education and family welfare and ‘tough’
measures to combat crime, anti-social behaviour and illegal immigration (White,
2005). Both during and after the May 2005 general election the issues of social justice,
equality and the reduction of poverty were conspicuous by their absence – at least until
the build-up to the G8 summit in Gleneagles in July, when this agenda was seized upon
by the Live 8 and the Make Poverty History campaigns to tackle poverty in Africa. Their
three aims – ‘trade justice, drop the debt, more and better aid’ – were only partially
addressed in the final announcement of the leaders of the G8 nations: some debt was
cancelled for the poorest nations, aid to Africa was doubled (from $25 million to $50
million) but the calls for trade justice went unheeded. The campaign leaders noted that
while the people of the world were ‘already on the road to justice… the G8 need to run
much faster to catch up’ (Make Poverty History Team, 8 July 2005).
Less prominent had been an earlier briefing issued by the Tax Justice Network enti-
tled The Price of Offshore (Tax Justice Network, 2005). It noted that in 1998 the Merrill
Lynch/Cap Gemini ‘World Wealth Report’ estimated that one third of the wealth of
the world’s high net worth individuals (HNWIs2) was held ‘off shore’ and so not
laible to tax. The Network went on to report conservative estimates that – in 2003 –
the value of these offshore assetts was between $11–12 trillion, and that the tax lost
on interest accruing on these assets is in the region of $255 billion a year (ibid). The
staggering scale of these figures is put into perspective if we consider that the leaders
of the G8 nations at the 2005 summit doubled the aid pledged to relieve poverty in
Africa to $50 billion (and, incidentially, promised a $3 billion financial package for
the Palestinian Authority ‘over the next few years’ – Financial Times, 8 July 2005). In
other words, the richest individuals in the world, just by moving their financial assets
off shore in 2003, could avoid tax which is worth more than five times the total G8
aid budget for the continent of Africa, two years later. This gross inequity is reminis-
cent of Tawney’s observation that ‘What thoughtful rich people call the problem of
poverty, thoughtful poor people call, with equal justice, the problem of riches’
(Tawney, 1931, quoted in Sinfield, 2004). This is rarely acknowledged as a ‘problem’
at all, though John Christensen, co-ordinator of the Tax Justice Network, argues that
the problem of tax evaison and avoidance, and the norms which underpin it, mark:
… one of the defining crises of our times. One of the most fundamental
changes in our society in recent years is how money and the rich have become
more mobile. This has resulted in the wealthy becoming less inclined to associ-
ate with normal society and feeling no obligation to pay taxes. (Accountancy
Age, 2005)
2
HNWIs have liquid financial assets of $1 million or more and number around 7.7 million
people worldwide (http://www.taxjustice.net).
• 173 •
The lack of attention to this crisis of the ‘overclass’, the justice agenda or, indeed,
any clear ‘flight path’ for New Labour has long been an issue of concern for political
commentators: some felt the tension (or ‘internal combustion’) between Tony Blair
and Gordon Brown explained this absence in the second term (Toynbee and Walker,
2005). If this is an accurate assessment, there may be some hope for genuine engage-
ment with issues of inequality and social justice under any future Brown leadership
in New Labour’s third term of office. But, at the time of writing, politics is dominated
by issues of ‘terror’ rather than justice and, moreover, the Prime Minister and
Foreign Secretary have explicitly rejected any connection between the two – nation-
ally or globally.3 However, there are concerns (expressed by Muslim community lead-
ers and by the Prime Minister’s wife, Cherie Booth4) that civil liberties may be a
casualty of the war on terror in the UK.
Things do not look good. Where the economy is concerned, business is no longer
booming and Industry Watch reports a 3% increase in business failures in the past
year, and predicts this will rise by a further 4% in 2006. Analysts conclude that the
UK consumer boom is over, as falling house prices have undermined consumer con-
fidence (BDO Stoy Hayward, 2005). On the one hand, this time may seem by some
as an inappropriate one to call for radical policy shifts in the criminal justice and
social spheres. On the other hand, it could be argued that the time is right for such
progressive change.
2. Issues and Challenges
Taking the elements of the economic, social and political context just described, this
part of the chapter will, using the analyses outlined in the previous chapters of the
book, attempt to accomplish two things: firstly, to summarise the challenges ahead
in reconciling criminal and social justice in contemporary Britain; and secondly, to
begin to suggest ways of responding positively to these challenges.
2.1. The trust deficit
As we saw in Chapter 3, the vexed issue of trust cannot be addressed merely by politi-
cians and their acolytes ‘getting the message over’ in more effective ways or through
other ‘technical’ means. In other words, we cannot expect trust to just reappear by
doing things better, technically, than we did before. Rather, there is a need to develop
3
While Tony Blair and Jack Straw are correct in arguing that there are ‘no excuses’ for acts of
terror, the automatic de-coupling of the issue of justice is unhelpful. As Tony Benn observed on
the day following the 9/11 attacks, there is a need to be ‘tough on terror and tough on the
causes of terror’.
4
See http://edition.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/europe/07/27/cherie.bombings/
• 174 •
alternative organisational structures and ways of working based on notions of

‘grown-up trust’ (Skidmore and Harkin, 2003). Implicitly this also involves the chal-
lenge of culture change in an especially low-trust British society, a problem which is
not new: Perri 6 argued a decade ago that the new mission for government was to ‘re-
imagine the state so that it can facilitate the society that organises itself in a milieu of trust’.
But, hampered by the short-termism and election timetabled nature of British poli-
tics, this remains, ten years on, an incomplete ‘mission’ for a progressive government
to take up (Perri 6, 1995).
Trust is also a ‘two-way street’: if politicians wish to secure the trust of the elec-
torate; they need to trust the electorate in return. Government therefore needs to
respect and trust local policy actors and communities to engage positively in shared
reform and inclusion agendas, and to trust professionals (whether, for instance, in
the fields of health and social care or criminal justice) to implement policy and
deliver services in the most appropriate and effective ways, taking into account their
clients’ needs. Unfortunately, the discussions of governance in Chapters 4 and 6 and
accounts of processes of consultation in Chapter 5 have demonstrated that there is
little trust flowing in this direction – from government at the centre to communities
and practitioners at the local level. The rhetoric of a new localism is currently sub-
verted by the bureaucratic realities of planning and reporting schedules, targets, per-
formance indicators and the centralised control which these forms of governance
exert (as we will see in section 2.3 below). For a genuine trust and sense of partnership
to develop between and within communities, regions and the centre, there must be
a loosening of the bonds forged through contemporary modes of governance and fis-
cal control, accompanied by a genuine commitment to local participation and
empowerment (as we will see in 2.2 below).
What is also clear from Chapters 4 and 6 is that trust cannot be recaptured with-
out less ‘spin’ and greater honesty (for example, about what works and what doesn’t
in criminal justice and social policies). Equally, trust may be partly restored through
a clearer vision of ‘the good society’ which political parties aspire to, as opposed to
an unseemly pre-election auction of ‘goodies’ to tempt middle Englanders. In any
event, few believe the bidders’ promises, and trust in politicians has been eroded to
such an extent that cynicism and disbelief is frequently the default response of the
public. In this respect, as we will see in section 3 below, the issue of re-engaging with
the politics of belief and conviction is crucial to addressing the trust deficit.
2.2. The democratic deficit – issues of participation and engagement
New Labour has been committed to addressing (what it perceived as) a democratic
deficit, most notably through reforms of local government, devolution and electoral
change. All of these changes were predicated on the engagement of individuals and
communities in the democratisation project – as citizens, voters, service users, carers,
young people, neighbourhood and community groups, voluntary and community
sector actors and so on. But, at national level, the general election turnout of 70% in
• 175 •
1997 had (despite eight years of the democratisation, modernisation and reform
agendas) dropped by 10% in 2005. At local level, the outcomes of initiatives geared
to reform local democracy have been disappointing too: recent research confirms
that New Labour reforms have, so far, largely failed because ‘successful institutional
design… depends on diversity’ and not on central proscription (Leach et al., 2005).
Put simply, you cannot ‘legislate’ centrally for local leadership and vision because
these are the products of context, culture and individual capabilities, and such a pos-
itive coalescence is more likely to occur where there are flexible institutional struc-
tures generating creativity rather than frustration (ibid). ‘Experimentation and
learning’ were and are key factors in effective local political leadership.
While Chapter 5 demonstrated some of the limits of the mechanisms for, and prac-
tices of, consultation and participation at local levels, it also pointed to positive
examples which were similarly predicated on ‘lesson learning’. Participatory
approaches are being learned and successfully adapted from ‘South to North’ and are
having benefits in deprived UK communities (for example, see http://www.oxfamgb.org/
ukpp/work.htm). However, these approaches do involve a long-term investment of
time and resources in training, capacity building and the development of new struc-
tures for engagement, policy-making and feedback. But, as we saw in Chapter 5, the
demands of governance include a requirement to consult across a tapestry of initia-
tives locally and so ‘overload’, under-resourcing and short termism remain chal-
lenges to participation.
However, there is now, at the very least, a powerful momentum for participation
and empowerment in social policy research, policy and practice which is itself
democratising and offers opportunities for positive change. It is recognised that the
participation of users and communities and the engagement of the social policy com-
munity are both essential to counter the negative effects of the reactionary populism
of middle England (Beresford, 2001). Building on the foundations of the communi-
ties studies tradition, Marilyn Taylor (2002:102) argues that academics need to engage
locally in order to ‘address the community language’, and offer more realistic
approaches, and she argues that ‘we need to develop this knowledge base not in ivory
towers, but through participatory research’. Thus any inclusive and anti-discrimina-
tory welfare future will depend upon the discipline of social policy embedding the
principles and practices of engagement and participation in its own research and the-
orising (Beresford, 2001; Taylor, 2002; Bennett and Roberts, 2004; Lister, 2004;
Sinfield, 2004).
2.3 Governance
Much has already been said (in 2.1 and 2.2 above) about the negative consequences of
governance and governmentality on policies geared to enhancing social justice. Where
criminal justice is concerned, the evidence of the preceding chapters has demonstrated
what Rutherford (2001) termed the ‘misnomer of the “whole systems” approach’. It
is true that, in line with the mantra of joined-up-working, a ‘strategic plan’ for the cjs
• 176 •
is produced and issued collectively (by the Home Office, Department for Constitutional
Affairs and the Attorney General). But these departments, and the agencies beneath
them, all have different goals and agendas (see also 2.5 below). For instance, the goals
of the police may conflict with those of the Home Office (as we have seen in Chapter 4,
in the case of ICT decisions) and CPS objectives may be at odds with those of their
police colleagues. For example, where cases of domestic violence are concerned, the
governance of criminal justice gives rise to conflicting goals and policy paradoxes that
may adversely affect victims and their families: the CPS’s PSI target to ‘Narrow the
Justice Gap’ means speeding up cases, and this could have adverse consequences for
some victims who need extra time for support. Their target to ‘Bring Perpetrators to
Justice’ may not be what domestic violence victims themselves want, and may place
them at greater risk of repeat victimisation (Cook et al., 2004).
Target setting and managerialism also undermines independent justice ends of
agencies (notably the CPS) and effectively ‘fetters’ them to policy goals such as
Narrowing the Justice Gap, Bringing Perpetrators to Justice, targeting Persistent
Young Offenders, Street Crime and so on – all of which are essentially politically
determined priorities. This is particularly problematic for the CPS who, therefore,
must work to political targets but are in fact constituted as an independent prosecuting
authority. In this sense, the separation of powers – the judicial from executive – is
potentially threatened by the current governance of criminal justice.
Taking a step back and looking at the issues raised in broader terms, it is clear from
the examples cited already that frameworks for governance in the criminal justice
arena lead to a stress on issues of technical/systems and means to deliver policy tar-
gets, rather than addressing basic questions about the ends to which these policies
are directed – that is, ‘What [and who] is the criminal justice system for?’ At the same
time, the decision to focus on means (and not on ends) is, again, a political one.
Rutherford (2001) contends that the ‘whole systems’ approach therefore obscures the
need to articulate the tensions and choices inherent in debates over the purposes of
criminal justice. Instead, the ‘reforms’ of criminal justice under New Labour have
been ‘mesmerised’ by the idea of efficiency and assume that legitimacy is merely a
function of the ‘accuracy’ of the system itself (Sanders, 2002; Morgan, 2002).
However, it is important not to entirely deny the possible benefits of new forms of
management and governance in enabling organisations to develop more creative
approaches as, for instance, in the case of youth justice (Newburn, 2002). Here
Newburn argues that the ‘corporatist’ model of youth justice does offer these positive
opportunities, mainly because of values and commitment of staff (who are not, as
critics suggest, part of a conspiracy of punitive exclusion). Similarly, Burnett and
Appleton argue, in relation to the work of YOTs, that staff engage creatively with new
initiatives and modes of governance, and pick out ‘their favourites from the “smor-
gasbord”… of aims, principles and interventions and then concentrate on making
those selections work’ (Burnett and Appleton, 2004:51).
In terms of ways forward to more progressive criminal justice futures, the creative
role of practitioners (in the public, private and not-for-profit sectors) is vital. For
• 177 •
instance, Hilary Somerland sees value in the ‘political lawyer’s project in developing
a partnership with the client which ‘builds and daily operationalizes a discourse
which is empowering rather than commodifying’ (ibid:359). She goes on to argue
that ‘creative lawyering’ is vital to ensuring the citizenship rights of their clients, as
one such lawyer (in the sphere of housing law) confirms:
I see justice as strongly linked to the issue of power and the extent to which
people can achieve their legal rights and the outcomes which flow from those…
You can have all the rights in the world but without the means/wherewithal to
enforce them there is no justice. The law is the mechanism to achieve the aims,
to realize clients’ needs… Its about the homeless maximizing their rights to
housing. (2001:348)
This creative, empowering and rights-based approach can equally apply to profes-
sionals in the spheres of social work, health and social care and community justice,
many of whom are more interested in collective problem-solving than the reduc-
tionism which accompanies the politics of behavioural control and ‘blame’.
2.4 Rights and justice
In Chapters 2 and 6, tendencies towards the criminalisation of the social were traced,
with particular reference to constructions of ‘problem’ people and areas and to anti-
social behaviour. But the inexorable rise in activities defined as ‘anti-social’ signals
only one example of this tendency: government legislation created over 600 new
criminal offences between 1997 and 2003 (Faulkner, 2003:296) and, at the same
time, generated a more punitive climate, which was bound to shape judicial practices
in relation to a range of offences (Millie et al., 2003). As a consequence, Morgan
(2003) rightly observed that ‘More offenders are getting mired deeper and deeper
within the criminal justice system for doing less and less’ and so the prison popula-
tion has now risen to unprecedented levels. These observations seem to indicate that
while we have more laws, we have less justice.
This punitive climate involves a lowering of thresholds of tolerance for certain
behaviours which frequently runs counter to the spirit of human rights. These
human rights, according to Lord Goodhart, include the right to be ‘bloody-minded’
and ‘make a bit of a nuisance’ of yourself because, after all, we are not in an author-
itarian state (quoted in Hopkins-Burke and Morrill, 2004:235). As we saw in Chapter 6
in relation to ASB, there is evidence that a significant proportion of the public agree
that ‘kids will be kids’ and so would not wish to invoke the enforcement of the crim-
inal law in a ‘zero tolerance’ fashion (Millie et al., 2005).
Where ‘rights’ are concerned, the ‘sales pitch’ for the 1998 HRA was impressive,
but recent research by Luke Clements examining the impact of the Act, on the
ground, for socially excluded groups, was less so. He suggests that the HRA is having
little impact on the most excluded groups, for many reasons. In the first place, the
• 178 •
legislation is used selectively: local authorities are only likely to undertake human
rights reviews of policies which are seen to benefit the majority, or ‘an influential
minority’. As a result, many are left ‘stranded victims’ of social exclusion, an impor-
tant element of exclusion being access to the law. What he terms ‘fear of the conse-
quences’ of human rights reviews acts as a barrier to proactive use of the legislation
and thus leaves stranded victims outwith the benefits of the human rights agenda
(Clements, 2005:43). Clements argues these are the same (broadly three) groups who
have also failed to benefit from social inclusion policies, namely: people with physi-
cal or mental disabilities or chronic health problems (together with their carers);
people with poor skills and no qualifications; and people from some minority ethnic
groups (notably travelling people).
How can the compounding effects of social exclusion and differential access to
human rights and the law be tackled? One answer would be through the ‘creative
lawyering’ enterprise suggested by Sommerland earlier. A more sustainable solution,
however, lies in cultural change:
the promised rights revolution cannot take hold without a cultural shift in the
way public service organisations operate… [and] no such cultural shift in atti-
tudes has yet occurred. (Clements, 2005:49)
Public services have over the past eight years endured rafts of changes associated with
the New Labour modernisation agenda – some have had positive effects; others not –
and now, in its third term, more ‘reform’ is promised. Whilst in 1997 Blair famously
proclaimed that the choice was ‘modernise or decline’, the choice now is less about
modernisation for its own sake, and more about finding ways to encourage deeper,
positive, cultural change.
But the context – in terms of human rights discourse – for driving forward such
cultural change is a challenging one. Here it is useful to draw on the framework out-
lined by Francesca Klug (2005) who identifies three ‘waves’ of rights: the first is asso-
ciated with the Enlightenment and what came to be termed ‘the rights of man’ [sic];
the second wave (as we saw in Chapter 1) developed following the Second World War
with the birth of the international human rights movement; and the third wave, fol-
lows on from the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and subsequent trends towards glob-
alisation (outlined in Chapter 3). Klug argues that this third wave of ‘evolution’ in
the human rights discourse is proving difficult to sustain after 9/11:
Since the President of the US has declared war on terror (not on a state but on
a noun), human rights standards are once again at the mercy of the whim – not
so much of the great powers – but of the one great power and its cohorts.
(2005:11)
War on a noun is inevitably an endless war, but it remains essential for its duration
to hold on to the principles and the momentum of human rights, and not yield to
calls for suspensions of these rights in the face of ‘new enemies’.
• 179 •
2.5 Money matters
The values of the Third Way, as Chapter 3 explained, centre on rights, responsibilities,
democracy and inclusion. The New Labour project incorporated these values when
defining what it was ‘about’: opportunity, inclusion, radicalism (defined in a non-
ideological sense, as ‘new’ ideas – such as ‘what works’) and, perhaps above all,
responsibility. The principle pathway to opportunity, inclusion and responsibility is
paid work, and the welfare-to-work strategy proved the cornerstone of the first New
Labour government. What is missing from this list of what New Labour ‘is about’ is
any reference to equality, justice or worth-without-work – and in all of these respects
money matters.
Chapters 1, 2 and 6 have attempted to demonstrate the ways in which an individ-
ual’s experiences of citizenship and of criminal justice in contemporary Britain can be
patterned along lines of income, wealth, gender, ‘race’, age and ‘otherness’. For many
people the currency of this experience (literally) is money5 – whether they can afford
to pay for the rent or mortgage, utilities, council tax, insurance, cars, food, leisure,
clothing, birthday presents, toys, holidays… the list is endless. In this respect, money –
referring here to income adequacy – is an important issue.
Income adequacy is a crucial issue for those who argue that current levels of welfare
benefits are insufficient to enable those living on them to experience fully social cit-
izenship (see Chapter 1). It is also important for those who work for their poverty:
the problem of low pay is a chronic one. While the national minimum wage has
been an important step forward, it fails to address deeper-seated structural issues:
If the reduction of extreme poverty is our goal, what most needs reforming is
the labour market itself and particularly the spread of low-wage unstable work.
We will not sever the links between poverty and crime by increasing the num-
ber of poorly paid stressful jobs and forcing low-incomer parents to take them…
A far more rational approach is to boost the rewards and the stability of work,
in order to strengthen families and stabilize local communities. (Currie, 1998,
quoted in Young and Matthews, 2003:15)
The compulsion of the welfare-to-work strategy and stresses of living on inadequate

incomes is seen here to (potentially) affect levels of family breakdown and/or crime.
While many people would argue with the poverty-crime linkage implied by Currie,
the picture painted here does, however, indicate that rational policy approaches to
poverty, crime and social exclusion would stress the need for sustainable, meaningful,
5
This is not to deny the priority of valuing the ‘ethic of care’ (which is largely absent from
discourses centring on the ethic of work) but to argue that income adequacy (for workers, car-
ers and those dependent on welfare benefits) should meet standards of adequacy which reflect
wider social norms and aspirations.
• 180 •
well paid work rather than leaving individuals compelled to succumb to the vagaries
of the ‘flexible’ low-pay labour market.6
Research on young adults’ experiences of social exclusion within derived
neighbourhoods supports this view, concluding that the current policy emphasis on
training, advice, work incentives and childcare is having only marginal impact on
social exclusion. Instead, the authors argued that ‘good quality training and reward-
ing and secure employment’ was crucial and that this involved a ‘more comprehen-
sive and generous’ redistribution – of both resources and opportunities (Webster
et al., 2004). However, while much is said of ‘opportunities’, the issue of ‘resource
redistribution’ remains off limits for New Labour policy discourse.
Although the adequacy of incomes – whether in welfare benefits or wages – is vitally
important, we should not lose sight of those at the ‘top’ end of the scale whose
incomes are far beyond ‘adequate’. Chapter 1 indicated the dramatic rise in incomes
at the top, where the top 10% of British earners received 28% of total income in
2003/4 compared with a 2.8% share of earnings for the bottom 10%. While govern-
ment policy has focused on floor targets and a minimum wage, it has failed to broach
ceiling targets or the idea of a maximum wage. The result is a society in which any deci-
sion to raise the highest rate of income tax above its current rate of 40 pence in the
pound is regarded as politically unthinkable, and where the Duke of Westminster,
Richard Branson and David Beckham (when he is at home) all pay the same rate of tax
as I do. Personally, I am more than happy to pay (and to pay more). The problem is
that the current top rate of tax applies to all income above £32,400, whether you are a
bricklayer, sales representative or a school teacher earning £40,000 a year, or a Premier
League footballer earning £100,000 a week. For me, this gross inequality in income
coupled with a Conservative7 tax policy towards the top earners raises issues of both
equity and responsibility (to be discussed further in section 3 below).
It is widely accepted (outside the sphere of New Labour politics) that poverty can-
not be adequately tackled without addressing inequality at national and interna-
tional levels and that rising inequality is ‘not inevitable’ (Lister, 2004:53). The
government’s commitment to end child poverty and pensioner poverty (discussed in
Chapters 1 and 6) would therefore imply a need for redistribution, although what
redistribution has occurred since 1997 has done so by stealth, not declared policy. For
6
Where ‘the flexible labour market’ is concerned, recent research by COMPAS (Centre on
Migration, Policy and Society, Oxford University) suggested that migrants made up to 50% of
those working in the areas of the economy most liable to forced labour and exploitation. These
areas include: agriculture, fisheries, contract cleaning, hotel work, construction, work in care
homes and the sex trade. The squalor and violence that often characterise their lives constitute
an important (though invisible) feature of a British economy which is able to be competitive
and ‘flexible’ by driving wages down, partly through dependence on exploiting migrant labour.
Ironically, these workers are then cast as ‘others’ and often subjected to harassment and the
vitriol of the tabloid press and middle England (see Chapter 6).
7
Recall, in Chapter 1, that the top rate of tax was reduced to 40% by the (Conservative)
Thatcher government in 1988.
• 181 •
New Labour, increases in tax remain ‘the great unmentionable’. The received wisdom
for this decision derives from the general election defeat of 1992 when the then
Shadow Chancellor, John Smith, proposed an increase in the top rate of tax to 50%.
However, as John Hills and Kitty Stewart noted, there was no evidence (from opin-
ion polls or otherwise) that a potential higher rate tax increase figured prominently
in Labour’s defeat (Hills and Stewart, 2005:7) but the party has since held on (defen-
sively) to its predecessors conservative tax policies.
Ironically, the British Social Attitudes surveys conducted since the 1990s have all
indicated that the majority feel the gap between rich and poor is too large (Jackson
and Segal, 2004). Moreover, when recently asked ‘Should the government spend more
or less on health, education and social benefits by raising or reducing taxes accord-
ingly?’, 62.4% favoured increasing taxes8 and spending more (British Social Attitudes
Survey, 2002). But the moratorium on higher tax rates stubbornly persists, even in the
face of more progressive public attitudes and evidence that, with the prospect of
declining revenues, we can ill afford such a policy (Emmerson et al., 2005).
At this point it is perhaps worth stepping back to look at a bigger picture and ask
the ‘utopian’ questions posed by Ruth Levitas:
What is the alternative? Increase the top rate of tax? Certainly. Increase inheri-
tance tax and the baby bond? Perhaps. Renationalise the railways? Definitely.
But these are still piecemeal ameliorative policies. The point of the utopian
method is that we stop and think about where we are trying to go. (2001:449)
In order to understand why and how social policies ostensibly geared to social jus-
tice have side-stepped the core issue of taxation, it is necessary to ask bigger (and
some may say, utopian) questions. If, as New Labour, ‘Where they are trying to go’ is
only back into office (at all costs), then their policy stance is explicable, although not
excusable: social justice and criminal justice, as interdependent goals, both rest upon
notions of fairness and, in my view, current fiscal polices are simply not ‘fair’.
3. Some Principles for Reconciling Criminal and Social Justice
This section will attempt to work towards a sense of ‘Where we are trying to go’ by
sketching some of the key principles that would underpin any attempts to reconcile
criminal and social justice in contemporary Britain. In this task we can build a great
deal on existing theorising from the spheres of both social policy and criminology.
What follows will be based upon this theorising together with the wide-ranging
(though, admittedly sometimes terse) arguments that have been presented in this
book. As a result this final section is inevitably highly distilled. What follows, then,
are ten (good enough – for a start, at least) principles which may usefully inform
8
While extra funding for the NHS has been used to justify recent increases in National
Insurance contributions, income tax increases for this purpose remain off limits.
• 182 •
attempts to address the challenges described here, and to more effectively reconcile
criminal and social justice – in theory, practice and research.
3.1 Recognition&respect
This principle reflects the work of Ruth Lister which marks a fusion of not just two
but three essential preconditions for social (and criminal) justice, as she states:
The struggle for social justice has to involve both redistribution and recogni-
tion& respect. (2004:188)
Where the politics of recognition seeks respect for difference, the politics of redistribu-
tion seeks to remove unjust differences, but the two are interconnected (and discussion
of the material principle of redistribution follows later). This first principle – recognition&
respect – connotes symbolic and relational struggles against injustice. This conjoined
principle encompass the seven components identified by Fiona Williams (1999) as
‘good enough’ principles for welfare, namely: interdependence, care, intimacy, bodily
integrity, identity, transnational welfare and voice (see Chapter 3, page 73). At the same
time, the component of ‘respect’ also recalls criminal justice principles of dignity and
human rights (Sanders, 2002). But, the reading of recognition&respect proposed here
should not be confused with New Labour’s third term ‘respect’ agenda: this latter
version of ‘respect’ is located within the lexis of order and control.
3.2 Redistribution
This principle builds, in theory, on the work of Nancy Fraser who usefully distinguishes
socio-economic injustice (rooted in the political-economic structure of society, includ-
ing economic and social marginalisation) and cultural or symbolic injustice (patterns
of representation, communication implying disrespect, and/or cultural domination).
As discussed in Chapter 1, she goes on to contend that these two manifestations of
injustice have in the past been polarised, as had academic debate. But, for Fraser, the
idea of a purely ‘cultural society’, devoid of economic relations did not reflect contem-
porary social life (Fraser, 2000:111). Following on from this perspective, redistribution
(for me) offers one key means of addressing material injustices which lead to poverty
and marginalisation. Redistribution combined with recognition&respect would also
help to remedy a range of very ‘real’ material injustices suffered along lines of age, gen-
der, sexuality, (dis)ability, religion, ethnicity and ‘race’. As Chapters 1 and 2 have
shown, such injustices may include those of: income, wealth, employment, health and
health care, access to a range of public and private services, pension rights, and access
to (and quality of) criminal and civil justice.
Redistribution could additionally serve the symbolic function of ‘reprimanding
greed’, in addition to encouraging (and funding) a shift in social policies away from
the primacy of the ethic of work and material accumulation, towards a rewarding of
the ethic of care and considerations of what is necessary for a decent life for all. This
• 183 •
principle could also be applied through ‘inequality-proofing’ policies, to ensure that

not only do they not disadvantage poorer and vulnerable groups, but that they do not
advantage richer people (Sinfield, 2004). In all these respects, redistribution is envis-
aged here not as an end in itself, but as a tool, used together with the other princi-
ples described, to address the material basis of many (though, of course, not all)
forms of criminal and social injustice.
3.3 Responsibility
The sense in which ‘responsibility’ is used here is very different from its usual use in
New Labour political discourse and focuses, instead, on the responsibilities of the rel-
atively rich to fully meet their obligations as citizens. As argued in Chapters 1 and 3,
relatively well-off individuals pay less (relatively, in taxation and for everyday goods
and services), have less demanded of them (in terms of behaviour, as they are good
citizens, ‘givers’ to the state) and are less liable to formal and informal censure than
poorer groups. But, as Giddens (2000) acknowledged, ‘mutual obligations must
stretch… from bottom to top’. Put bluntly, if we expect the poor to behave them-
selves, we should expect the rich to do so too. While new discourse has stressed the
responsibilities of the poor and excluded (to work, pay taxes, obey the law and sup-
port their families), it has failed to emphasise and to enforce the same responsibilities
of the rich. The example of the differential treatment of tax and benefit fraud (dis-
cussed in Chapter 2) is a reminder of a double standard applied to rich and poor when
they defraud the state. Differential patterns of criminalisation and sentencing similarly
demonstrate a double standard whereby being relatively well-off is often an exculpa-
tory factor where a crime has been committed (s/he is of good character, hard work-
ing, has suffered enough and so on) rather than an inculpatory one (s/he is well-off
and has no ‘excuse’, should know better and has betrayed our trust). The principle of
responsibility could therefore be used to critique and radicalise the politics of blame
which currently pervades contemporary social and criminal justice discourse.
This principle also applies to the responsibilities of the state itself: for example,
where ex-prisoners are concerned (discussed in Chapter 5), it could be argued that
the state has an obligation to try to address the multiple exclusions they suffer (for
example, by providing drug and alcohol rehabilitation, skills, education and work
programmes, housing and welfare provision, and better services – in every respect –
for looked after children and young people). In this sense the response to those who
break the law should be one resembling ‘state obligated rehabilitation’ (Carlen and
Cook, 1989).
At the same time, responsibility would work alongside redistribution, both materi-
ally and symbolically: in the case of the former, if the rich pay their dues, there will
be more resources available for public services and welfare provision (and for state
obligated rehabilitation too). In relation to the latter, the principle of responsibility
could be beneficial in enhancing a more genuine sense of ‘fairness’ – and ultimately
legitimacy and trust – because responsibilities and duties fall (and are seen to do so)
on the rich and poor alike.
• 184 •
3.4 Rights
In the challenging times which define the ‘third wave’ of rights, it is commonplace
to hear complaints that rights have ‘gone too far’: pub talk and tabloid stories of ‘asy-
lum seekers’, a victim of crime imprisoned for shooting dead a burglar, adults prose-
cuted for hitting their children, and court cases involving accusations of racial or
sexual harassment can all invoke negative responses, critical of the ‘rights’ of ‘others’.
One essential principle for reconciling criminal and social justice would be the re-
assertion of a positive rights discourse.
Recalling from Chapter 1, citizenship can be seen in terms of: civil and political;
social and economic; environmental; and human rights. But these rights of citizen-
ship in contemporary Britain may be undermined by the wide range of inequalities
described in this book. It follows that to address these inequalities it would be essen-
tial to redress the rights imbalance. In practice this would entail countering the fac-
tors described in Chapter 1 (and visualised in Figure 1.1) which currently undermine
rights, by positively stressing the value of:
1. Civil and political rights: civil liberties, freedom from harassment, legal rights, partic-
ipation, trust and empowerment
2. Social and economic rights: good quality, accessible, fair and appropriate services for:
health, education, welfare, housing, leisure, culture, transport and care; adequacy of
income (for those in paid work and those who are not)
3. Environmental rights: water, housing, environmental amenity and minimisation of
pollution (through harm reduction and precautionary policies)
4. Human rights: dignity, recognition&respect, elimination of poverty, ‘voice’, access to
justice, civil and political rights (above).
Stating the need for a positive reassertion of these rights may be seen by some as
unnecessary and by others as utopian. But, as Ruth Levitas argued, we have to take
time to think (and to make clear) ‘Where we are trying to go’ before setting out on
the journey.
3.5 Sustainability
Two of the main factors which undermined the effectiveness of many New Labour
policies (described in Chapters 4 and 5) were failures in consultation and in imple-
mentation. Key reasons for both were lack of resources and lack of community
engagement. Financial and human resources have, under New Labour, often been
allocated to a multiplicity of initiatives and programmes which are time and/or area
limited. This proliferation of initiatives needs to be reversed in favour of integration
into mainstream budgets (Perri 6 et al., 1999). But the principle of ‘sustainability’
here refers to more than persistence over time, and more than mainstreaming bud-
gets – it refers also to the sustainability of community networks and social relations.
But, here too, money does matter: as Fiona Williams, for example, has noted ‘local,
rooted community and self-help groups struggle to survive year after year with little
• 185 •
stable funding’ and yet these groups offer indispensable services and support
(Williams, 2004:419). Chapters 4 and 5 also demonstrated the vital role of voluntary
and community, not-for-profit, sector agencies in a range of policy areas, but the
problems they face in, for instance, sustaining their role within partnerships, given
their constraints of time and resources.
Beyond issues of time and money, the principle of sustainability must also apply
to relationships of trust and empowerment in local contexts and, as we saw in
Chapter 5, a sense of trust and empowerment can emanate from more participatory
methods of engaging those communities. And so, the principle of sustainability
offers a more ‘nuanced understanding’ of the ways in which social and criminal jus-
tice exists within the context of complex community-based relations (Kelly et al.,
2005). This principle, in turn, offers the prospect for a more holistic approach to
policy-making and delivery in complex, community-based contexts.
3.6 Holism
Holistic ways of working attempt to address people and issues in the round, as a
whole. In terms of criminal and social justice, the principle of holism attempts to
challenge the dangers of pervasive ‘silo’ mentalities of lead government departments.
Returning to Chapter 1, the ‘way ahead’ in tackling crime and its causes (Figure 1.7)
indicated a seperating out of measures designed to tackle crime per se from broader
‘social’ measures. The dangers for criminal and social justice evident here (and in
subsequent policies) are that the criminal will be privileged over the social; and that
crime reduction will be seen as disconnected in organisation and delivery from
strategies addressing ‘causes’ (Stenson and Edwards, 2004). Thus far (as Chapters 3
and 6 have shown) there has been a tendency to criminalise the social, but the prin-
ciple of holism would attempt to re-socialise issues of crime and justice.
One example of a holistic approach which encompasses criminal justice and social
welfare interventions is the Specialist Domestic Violence Court. These are largely
based upon principles grounded in what has been termed ‘therapeutic jurispru-
dence’, which signals a move away from traditional adversarial principles and instead
adopts a co-ordinated and problem-solving approach in an effort to meet the needs
of victims, their families and the community (Ostrom, 2003). But for this holistic
approach to work, there must be commitment from all parties – from police and judi-
ciary to health care and voluntary and community sector support workers. It also
requires that we envisage and treat victims, survivors and ‘clients’ as people – not
‘cases’ – and take account of the complex realities of their daily lives. This may mean
acknowledging the potential of the legal system to address crimes (such as domestic
violence), while equally acknowledging (from the victim’s perspective) that it has
many limitations in practice. The holism and flexibility of this approach can be
empowering and very beneficial, and illustrates the ways in which more holistic
interventions may cross and blur the false boundaries between many ‘criminal’ and
‘social’ issues, but potentially offer a truly ‘joined-up’ response to individuals’ needs.
• 186 •
3.7 From managerial to transformative governance
The critique of governance in section 2 concluded that an important component of

more progressive welfare and criminal justice futures depended upon the creative
role of practitioners. Creative professionalism, an emphasis on rights and accompa-
nying organisational culture change offered ways forward to addressing some of the
challenges posed by NPSM modes of governance. But there were also seen to be some
advantages arising from some of the new ways of working implied in the term ‘gov-
ernance’ (Newburn, 2002; Burnett and Appleton, 2004). Many critics may feel that
there is little worth salvaging here, although I doubt that it is either feasible or desir-
able to attempt to disinvent some of the management techniques that governance
currently deploys, and so salvaging what may be positively re-directed to other ends
(other than the maintenance of governance itself) may be a preferable option. This
leads us to the principle of transformative governance.
This term derives from Young and Matthews (2003) who contended that while
New Labour delineated the structural causes of crime, it merely stopped at that. The
way in which the discourses of crime and its causes were subsumed within the over-
arching framework of ‘social exclusion’ could be seen as negating any structural
cause – the policy response it invoked was managerial not transformative (ibid:15
emphasis added). The policy task was thus reduced down to the management of
socially excluded and ‘problem’ individuals, communities and neighbourhoods.
Building on this analysis, I would argue that in order to move towards reconciling
criminal and social justice, there is a need to develop new forms of governance which
are transformative – that help towards achieving just ends and not constitute means
(of governing) alone. This will be essential if transparency, accountability and effec-
tiveness in local (and national) services is to be ensured. At the same time, a better
balance needs to be struck between designing systems to assure these positive aims
are met whilst, at the same time, allowing for local agency, flexibility and innova-
tion. These tensions currently lie at the heart of New Labour’s democratisation and
modernisation projects, and have yet to be resolved. In order to provide the basis for
such a resolution it is necessary to re-think not only structures of governance, but
also styles of leadership (see 3.10 below).
3.8 Embedding
One of the crucial themes emerging from Chapters 4, 5 and 6 was the short termism
of many criminal justice and social policies. This issue is partly addressed by refer-
ence to the principle of sustainability – over time and resourcing. But there is also a
political and ideological dimension to short-termism: that is, the perceived need to
appeal to middle England has led to a desire to tap into their concerns, devise poli-
cies geared to achieving ‘quick wins’ and, thereby, to get (re)elected. But to begin to
reconcile issues of criminal and social justice, there is a pressing need to challenge
short-termism and to advocate for greater societal embedding of policy. In this vein,
• 187 •
Daniel Clegg persuasively argues that a progressive future, rather than just seeking
short-term effectiveness in social policy, would focus on longer-term consensus and
legitimacy over social policy (Clegg, 2005:235). But the mechanisms for building
such a consensus remain unclear and have not emerged under New Labour, despite
the rhetoric of democratisation, partnership and participation.
Similar arguments on societal embedding have been put forward in relation to
anti-poverty strategies, where greater public support needs to be mobilised: here
awareness raising, information and campaigning is seen to be needed to engage an
ill-informed public and win popular support for policy (Bamfield, 2005). One impor-
tant element in this context is coalition building, which largely runs counter to the
New Labour emphasis on wooing the centre – middle England (Gary Younge, Red
Pepper, February 2000). If efforts to more effectively reconcile criminal and social jus-
tice are to succeed, then coalitions will need to be built between policy-makers and:
academics, researchers, campaigners, practitioners, community groups, not-for-profit
groups, service users and many (as yet) voiceless ‘others’. This last point links with
the next principle – what Adrian Sinfield termed ‘moving upstream’ (Sinfield, 2004).
3.9 Moving ‘upstream’
This principle refers to a story rediscovered and quoted by Adrian Sinfield (2004) to
illustrate the need for social policy researchers and theorists to address structural
causes of poverty and disadvantage. It tells of a doctor who feels his professional
dilemma is summed up as follows: standing at the shore of a swiftly flowing river he
[sic] hears the cry of a drowning man. He jumps in, rescues him, applies artificial res-
piration and the man begins to breathe, at which point another cry for help is heard.
Again he jumps into the river, rescues and resuscitates. Another cry, and again, and
again. By this time the doctor is so busy rescuing that he has no time to run upstream
to see who is pushing these people into the water in the first place.
Upstream policies seek to address root causes and to prevent inequalities, rather
than downstream policies which seek to understand and ameliorate them. The shift
to ‘upstream’ thus entails addressing the structural causes and contexts of inequali-
ties – and that would include studying the benefits and subsidies to the rich as well
as those paid out to the poor (Sinfield, 2004). There are lessons here too for acade-
mics. As policy researchers and theorists, this principle suggests we need to move
upstream and to: move from deconstructive to (re)constructive arguments; from
regressive to progressive critiques; and to develop positive policy options to enhance
criminal and social justice. The need for a positive vision underlies the last principle
for reconciling criminal and social justice.
3.10 Idealism
In the principle of idealism, I am referring here to the politics of conviction and

belief. In the past the term ‘conviction politics’ was used disparagingly to refer to
• 188 •
Margaret Thatcher’s strident new right political stance. But here it is seen to refer to
a positive element which is currently lacking in New Labour policy and leadership.
As we saw in Chapter 3, New Labour’s Third Way politics explicitly rejected the con-
viction politics of the left and the right in favour of an essentially pragmatic stance.
In doing so it seemed to concur with this view:
Idealism without pragmatism is impotent. Pragmatism without idealism is

meaningless. The key to effective leadership is pragmatic idealism.
Interestingly, this view was not expressed in recent years by a New Labour politician,
but almost 40 years ago by former US President Richard Nixon (Richard Nixon,
quoted in Strober and Strober, 1994:109). However, Nixon’s advocacy of ‘pragmatic
idealism’ emanated from his ‘brokerable convictions’, which was hardly a positive
attribute for leadership (ibid).
In the UK context, many have accused Tony Blair of a similar variety of pragma-
tism which gives rise to ‘wooing not leading’ the nation, and this failure of leader-
ship, alluded to by Ruth Lister in 2001, was also evident in the 2005 general election
(although perhaps less successfully). Indeed, after the victory Blair likened his rela-
tionship with the electorate as a ‘relationship’, but despite all the wooing, concerns
around the Prime Minister’s sinuousness, pragmatism and leadership style are not
going away. Such concerns around leadership are not restricted to the UK: in the con-
text of Canada there have been recent calls for more ideological leadership from
politicians; greater recognition between rights and responsibilities across the class
divide; a more progressive system of taxation; more analysis of social costs and ben-
efits; and more informed debate on the core issues in globalisation (Faulkner,
2003:293). In the immediate post-2005 election weeks there were similar murmur-
ings in the UK when MPs (some of them even allowing themselves to be named)
called for ‘different leadership’, a ‘progressive consensus’ and ‘conviction politics’
(TimesOnline, 26 May 2005).
The principle of idealism used here addresses these aspirations, but acknowledges
that political conditions – at home and abroad – currently make this difficult. The
war on terror being waged in the UK and globally creates conditions under which
‘if you believe in nothing, fear becomes the only agenda’ (The Power of Nightmares,
BBC 2 television programme, 27 October, 2004). The challenge now is to engender a
sense of belief in something in a time of fear. But, beyond just believing in something,
(anything), the goal in reconciling criminal and social justice must be to take a prin-
cipled and progressive turn, which is underpinned by conviction not pragmatism.
The ‘turn’ envisaged here is one of both inflection and direction. It will be a difficult
one to make in the current political climate and change may come only by inching
our way forward. But we have got to start somewhere…
• 189 •
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•• Index
Entries in italics denote publications and specific initiatives.
16 hour rule, benefits 36 benefit fraud cont.

politics 53–4
access to law 13, 179 public perceptions 49
active citizenship 82, 83 responses 46–60
administrative penalties, benefit fraud 56–7 versus benefit take-up 59–60
African poverty 173 benefit system, 16 hour rule 36
age factors benefit take-up 27–8, 59–60
tax evasion 48 Best Value consultation 132
see also older people; young people black communities
Amnesty International 162–3 consultation 126, 129–30
anti-social behaviour (ASB) 164–8 policing 18–19
definition 79–80 prison numbers 17–18
human rights 178 see also ethnic groups; race…; racial…
policy paradoxes 165–6 Blair, Tony
‘problem’ places 45 criminal justice 75–6
anti-social behaviour orders (ASBOs) 164–5 general election 2005 172–4
area pragmatic idealism 189
otherness 153–8 ‘problem’ families 43
see also place social justice 23–4
area-based partnership initiatives 139–40 Third Way 64–6
ASB see anti-social behaviour see also New Labour
ASBOs see anti-social behaviour orders blame culture 43
asylum 158–64 bodily integrity concept 73
five year plan 163–4 bottom-up approach, consultation 125
identity 159–61 ‘Britishness’ 159–61
immigration policy 161–3 Brown, Gordon 69, 70–1
politics 159 Burney, Elizabeth 164
Asylum and Immigration Acts 162
Auld, Robin 118–19 Campbell, B. 44–5
Canadian welfare policy 113–14
Balsall Heath, Birmingham 168 Cantle Report 156–7
Beck, Ulrich 61, 62–3 capital see social capital
behaviour see anti-social behaviour capitalism 13
benefit fraud care concept 73
agenda 58–60 cautions, benefit fraud 56–7
guesstimating and prosecuting 54–8 CCT see compulsory competitive tendering
identity cards 112 CCTV 116–17
• • • Index • • •
CEBSS see Centre for Evidence Based Conservative party cont.

Social Services ‘what works’ origins 95, 96
ceiling targets, income 181 see also New Right; Thatcher…
centralisation 153–4 constants and dissonants 33–60
Centre for Evidence Based Social consultation 121–3
Services (CEBSS) 97, 99 aims 128–9
child abuse 87–8 empowerment 132–5
see also domestic violence hard to reach groups 126–8
child protection policies 165–6 overload 129–30
Child Tax Credit 36 participatory approaches 135–7
childcare 37 theory and practice 123–31
children consumer choice 96
immigration policy 162 contexts, evidence-based policy 104
policies post-1997 147, 148 contractual governance 118
poverty 25, 147 conviction politics 188–9
see also young people co-production 82
Children’s Trust Fund 70 Corner, Julian 145
Christianity 160 costs
Citizens Charters 96 consultation 135
citizenship housing 26
benefits 11–12 tax fraud 49–51
inequalities 9–12 ‘court’ structure (area) 153–4
rich law, poor law 46–60 CPS see Crown Prosecution Service
social justice 20–2, 82 ‘creative practice’ 177–8
two-way street concept 4–9, 11–12 crime
undermining 7, 9–10 cause and effect 31–2
see also social citizenship as indicator and cause 15
civic duties 49 middle England 152
civil rights 5, 7, 185 patterns of criminalisation 16
CJS see criminal justice system positivistic approaches 95–6
claimant classification 36 ‘problem’ families 38–40
Clements, Luke 178–9 psychological approach 100
client control/prescription 100–1 spatialisation 44–5
Climbié child abuse case 87–8 young people 141–2
clothing, anti-social behaviour 166 crime prevention
coalition building 188 CCTV 116–17
Coleman, James 82–3 Thatcherism 75
Commission on Social Justice (CSJ) 21 ‘what works’ 99–100
communism 63 Crime Reduction Programme
community 71–2, 77–8, 185–6 (CRP) 78, 105–6
community cohesion policy 157–8 Criminal Justice: The Way Ahead
community consultation 121–2, 123–31 (Home Office, 2001) 30–1
see also consultation criminal justice
community informatics initiatives 138 definition 14–16
community safety strategies 77–8, 104–5 social justice reconciliation 171–89
compliance Third Way 74–8, 80
Penalty Notices for Disorder 110 criminal justice system (CJS) 15–17
tax fraud 48, 49–53 exclusion 30
compulsory competitive information and communications
tendering (CCT) 132 technology 89–92, 115–16
Connexions 88 legitimacy 21
Conservative party race 18
asylum attitudes 163 ‘criminalising the social’ 78–80, 166–7
criminal justice 75–6 Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) 89–90, 177
general election 2005 172 CRP see Crime Reduction Programme
• 205 •
CSJ see Commission on Social Justice employment policies post-1997 147

cultural change 175, 179 employment system, 16 hour rule 36
cultural injustice 183 empowerment
cultural issues consultation 132–5
information sharing 89 research 176
realistic evaluation 102 ‘what works’ 106–7
curfew orders 164–5, 167 engagement 120–50
democratic deficit 175–6
decision-making, ‘what works’ 97–9 participatory approaches 135–7
‘delivery’ agenda 66–7, 94 Third Way 70
democracy 21 ‘Englishness’ 159–61
democratic deficit 175–6 enterprise culture 47
Department for Work and environmental rights 7, 185
Pensions (DWP) 53, 55–7, 59 environmental risks 6
dependency culture 34–7, 47 equality
‘deserving’ poor 33–8, 72 Blair 23–4
detention of immigrants 162–3 as inclusion 69–71
devolution 159 law 16–20, 21
digital divide 87, 138 Third Way 91–2
disabled people, New Deals 36–7 see also inequalities
‘disconnections’ (‘what works’) 103–5 ‘equality of opportunity’ 69
disorder 79 see also ‘opportunities for all’
see also anti-social behaviour equity divide 28
dissolution of public services 67 errors, benefit fraud figures 58
dissonants and constants 33–60 ethnic groups 17, 148
distribution of wealth 26 see also minority ethnic groups
domestic violence 11 European Convention on Human
governance 177 Rights (ECHR) 6
holistic interventions 186 evaluation research 102–3, 106–7
‘problem’ families 42 evidence-based policy (EBP) 95–7, 99–100
‘what works’ interventions 98, 99, 107–8 ex-prisoners 143–6
double standards 184 exclusion
‘down-up’ empowering research 106 Third Way 69–70
duties of citizenship 11–12, 49 see also social exclusion
DWP see Department for Work and Pensions exculpatory factors, responsibility 184
EBP see evidence-based policy fairness concept 20–2

ECHR see European Convention families see lone parents;
on Human Rights ‘problem’ families
economic context Faulkner, David 8
criminal/social justice reconciliation 174 feedback loop (community
social capital 83–4 consultation) 125
socio-economic injustice 183 financial lexicon 70
see also money matters five year plan, asylum 163–4
economic rights 7, 185 flexible labour market 181
education football, racism 161
middle England 154–5 ‘fortress Britain’ 45
‘opportunities for all’ 29 Fraser, Nancy 183
policy impact 147 fraud and error 58
tax evasion factors 48–9 see also benefit fraud; tax fraud
e-galitarianism 91–2 Fukuyama, Francis 82–3
e-government strategy 86–7, 138 function creep (identity cards) 111
electronic dossiers 88
electronic monitoring 162 G8 summit 2005 173
embedding 176, 187–8 Garland, David 41–2, 61–2
• 206 •
• • • Index • • •
gender 11, 13–14 inclusion

see also women responsibilisation 122–3
general election 2005 163–4, 172–6 Third Way 69–71, 92
generative approach, ‘what works’ 99, 108 young people 140–2
geographical barriers, information see also social inclusion
sharing 89 income adequacy 180–2
Giddens, Anthony 64–6 income inequality 24–6, 70, 147, 180–2
Gingrich, Newt 92 inculpatory factors, responsibility 184
globalisation 63, 68, 86 independent justice 177
‘the good society’ 175 industrial society 62
governance 176–8 inequalities
consultation 122, 126–8 centralisation 153–4
New Labour 67–8 citizenship 9–12
transformative 187 contemporary 24–9
trust deficit 175 criminal justice system 15
‘what works’ 100–2, 105–6, 117–19 as exclusion 69–70
Grabiner Report 48, 52–3 law 16–20
grand narratives of modernism 62 money matters 180–2
‘guesstimations’, benefit fraud 54–8 New Labour 68–74
policies post-1997 146–9
Handsworth riots 75 social justice 21
hard to reach groups 126–8 see also equality
Hattersley, Roy 66 ‘inequality-proofing’ policies 184
health 9–10, 148 information and communications
Heeks, Richard 87 technology (ICT)
hidden economy 48, 52 criminal justice system 89–92
high net worth individuals (HNWIs) 173 public sector reform 88
historical themes 33–60 social inclusion 138
HNWIs see high net worth individuals technological fix 112–17
holism 186 Third Way 85–92
honesty 175 information sharing 87–9
housing 9–10 Inland Revenue compliance work 49–53
costs 26 institutional racism 10–11
HRA see Human Rights Acts integrated approach
human rights 6–9, 178, 185 barriers 139–40
Human Rights Acts (HRA) 8, 178–9 information sharing 89
Hutton, Will 77 interdependence concept 73
International Covenant on Economic
ICESCR see International Covenant on Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) 6, 8
Economic Social and Cultural Rights intimacy concept 73
ICT see information and communications Iraq War 81
technology
ID cards see identity cards Jobcentre Plus 113–14
idealism 188–9 joined-up government (JUG) 67, 119, 129
identity Joint Review Team (JRT) 132
area 153 Joseph, Keith 39
asylum 159–61 Joseph Rowntree Foundation
welfare policy 73 (JRF) 123–4, 126
identity (ID) cards 111–12 JRT see Joint Review Team
identity theft 112 JUG see joined-up government
illegal immigration 112 July 7th 2005 158, 171
see also immigration justice
imagined identities 159–61 criminal/social justice
immigration 112, 158–64 reconciliation 178–9
implementation failures, ‘what works’ 117 law 12–14
• 207 •
justice cont. measurement, social capital 84–5

tax compliance 52–3 meta-analyses 97–9, 109
Third Way 74–8 middle England 151–70
two-way street concept 4–32 MIG see means-tested minimum
young people 140–2 income guarantee
minimum wage policy 25
Kinnock, Neil 24 minority ethnic groups
Klug, Francesca 179 consultation 126–8, 129–30
knee-jerk politics 109, 111, 143 gender 11
law 17–20
Labour party see New Labour; Old Left poverty 28
Laming Enquiry 87–8 social citizenship 11
LAs see Local Authorities see also race…; racial…
law modernisation, Third Way 63, 68
criminal justice 14 modernism 62
equality 16–20, 21 ‘Mondeo Man’ 151–2
information sharing barriers 89 money matters 180–2, 185–6
justice 12–14 see also economic context
rich law, poor law 46–60 moralisation of families 41
law and order discourse 74–5 mugging 74
Lea, S. 160–1 multi-agency framework, governance 119
leadership styles 189 multipliers (benefit fraud) 55
learning initiatives, ICT 138 Murray, Charles 34, 39
legitimacy 21
less eligibility principle 35 national governance 117
lexicon of finance 70 national identity 159–61
Liberal Democrats 172 National Institute for Clinical
Lister, Ruth 8, 73, 183 Excellence (NICE) 97
Local Authorities (LAs) 55–7, 59 NDLP see New Deal for Lone Parents
local autonomy/spatial equality 154 NDYP see New Deal for Young People
local governance 117, 119 negative othering 169–70
localism see also otherness
crime control 78 neighbourhood renewal 32, 45
‘local solutions to local problems’ 130–1 net-widening effects, Penalty Notices
participatory research 137 for Disorder 110
partnerships 139 networks
trust deficit 82, 175 deciding ‘what works’ 97
location factors 44, 154–5 governance 106
see also place social capital 83, 84, 86
London New Deal for Lone Parents (NDLP) 37
centralisation 153–4 New Deal for Young People (NDYP) 38
July 7th 2005 158, 171 New Deals 36–8
lone parents New Labour
New Deals 37, 38 asylum five year plan 163–4
‘problem’ families 39–40, 42 benefit fraud policies 54, 55
Lynn, N. 160–1 criminal justice 30–2, 75–8
democratic deficit 175–6
McLaughlin, E. 101–2 general election 2005 172–4
McPherson Report (1999) 10 governance 187
Magistrates’ Courts 89, 91 idealism 189
Make Poverty History campaign 173 inequalities 25, 68–74
managerialism 117–18, 134, 187 information and communications
Marshall, T.H. 5–6 technology 86–7
means-tested minimum income middle England 151–2
guarantee (MIG) 27–8 participation and engagement 120–50
• 208 •
• • • Index • • •
New Labour cont. Penalty Notices for Disorder (PND) 109–11

social justice 68–74 ‘people’ perspective, participatory
socialisation of crime 79–80 research 137
Third Way 64–8, 92–3 personal debt 28–9
trust deficit 81–2 PFI see private finance initiatives
‘what works’ 94–119 Pito see Police Information
see also Blair, Tony Technology Organisation
New Poor Law (1834) 35 place
New Public Sector Management mythologies 155–6
(NPSM) 117–19 otherness 153–8
New Right 63, 66 ‘problem’ places 43–5
New York policing 168 PND see Penalty Notices for Disorder
Newman, Kenneth 44 Police Information Technology
NICE see National Institute for Organisation (Pito) 115–16
Clinical Excellence policing
normalisation of families 41 anti-social behaviour 167
‘nothing works’ approach 96 black communities 18–19
NPSM see New Public Sector Management consultation aims 128–9
criminal justice system 15–16
obligations governance 177
citizenship 5–9 hard to reach groups 126–7
rule of law 12–14 information and communications
offshore assets 173 technology 89–90, 115–16
Old Left 66 problem-solving approach 102–3
older people on the spot punishments 109–11
consultation 134–5 zero tolerance 168
means-tested minimum income policy-based evidence-making 109, 112
guarantee 27–8 policy engagement 120–50
policies post-1997 147, 148 policy impact 120, 122
see also age factors partnerships 139–40
Oldham disorders 156–8 social inclusion agenda 137–46
on the spot punishments 109–11 summary 146–50
On Track programme 127 policy implementation, ‘what works’ 117–19
‘opportunities for all’ 22–4, 29 policy research 109
see also equality of opportunity; political rights 5, 7, 185
‘pathways’ of opportunity politics
otherness 151–70 asylum 159
anti-social behaviour 164–8 benefit fraud 53–4
area 153–8 concept-shaping 31–2
asylum and immigration 158–64 idealism 188–9
middle England 168–70 middle England 151–2
prostitution 167–8 social capital 85
Third Way 92
participation 120–50, 175–6 Poor Laws 34–5
participatory research 135–7 positive rights discourse 185
partnerships 139–40 positive welfare 72
domestic violence interventions 107 positivism 95–6
‘local solutions to local problems’ 130–1 postcode lottery 154–5
New Public Sector Management 119 postmodernism 61–4
participation and engagement 121 poverty
Third Way 67, 71–2 Africa 173
‘pathways’ of opportunity 71 asylum function 161
patterns of criminalisation 16 citizenship 11–12
pauperism 34–5 contemporary 24–5, 26–7
Peck, Jamie 104–5 definitions 20
• 209 •
poverty cont. race/racialisation cont.

‘deserving and undeserving’ poor 33–8, 72 ‘problem’ places 44, 45
housing and health 9–10 see also black communities;
human rights 8–9 minority ethnic groups
law 46–60 racial incidents/racism
minority ethnic groups 28 asylum attitudes 163
personal debt 28–9 citizenship 9–10
policies post-1997 146–9 football 161
‘problem’ families 39–42 institutional racism 10–11
‘problem’ places 45 law 16–17
Third Way 70, 72 Rawls, J. 20–1
PPPs see public private partnerships Raynor, Peter 101
practitioner creativity 177–8 realistic evaluation 102–3, 106–7
pragmatism reciprocity 71
idealism 189 recognition 22, 183
Third Way 65–6 redistribution 183–4
‘what works’ 94 reflexive modernisation 63
prison populations reform agenda, New Labour 173, 176
ethnicity 17 regeneration
ex-prisoner social inclusion 143–6 area-based partnership initiatives 139–40
social characteristics 144–5 local partnerships 130–1
private finance initiatives (PFI) 67, 91 middle England 155–6
private sphere (law) 13–14 Oldham disorders 157
‘problem’ families 38–43 Reiman, Jeffrey 4–5
‘problem’ places 43–5 relativity, Third Way 68
see also place reoffending reduction strategies 143–6
problem-solving approach, policing 102–3 replication, evidence-based policy 104
professional autonomy displacement 118 reputation (area) 153, 155
programme fetishism 108 research and evidence
projects, definition 68 empowerment 176
property rights 13 participatory research 135–7
prosecutions, benefit fraud 54–8 university involvement 96
prostitution 167–8 ‘what works’ 95–119
psychological approach to crime 100 resources
public perceptions consultation 134–5
mugging 74 realistic evaluation 102–3
tax and benefit fraud 49 ‘respect’ agenda 173, 183
public private partnerships (PPPs) 67 responsibilisation strategies 122–3
public services responsibilities
dissolution 67 citizenship 11–12
information and communications criminal/social justice reconciliation 184
technology 88 human rights 8
social justice 20 Third Way 70, 71
public sphere (law) 13–14 reverse engineering 124–5
Putnam, Robert 82–3 ‘the rich’
law 46–60
qualifications (education) 29 responsibility 184
quality of life indicators 155 rights
‘quick wins’ 133–4 citizenship 5–9, 11–12
criminal/social justice
Race Relations (Amendment) Act (2000) 10 reconciliation 178–9, 185
race/racialisation rule of law 12–14
criminal justice system 18 Third Way 71
law and order discourse 74–5 riots 43–5, 74–5
place intersection 156–8 risk society 62–3, 80
• 210 •
• • • Index • • •
risks social justice cont.

citizenship 12 definition 20–2
environmental 6 New Labour 68–74
rookeries 43 ‘opportunities for all’ 22–4
‘rubbishing the messenger’ 109, 112 principles 21
rule of law 12–14 social problems, families 38–9
Rutherford, Andrew 29–30, 176–7 social rights 5, 7, 185
Social Security Fraud Act (2001) 57
SCCU see Special Claims Control Units social segregation 156
SCI see Street Crime Initiative see also social exclusion
scientific realism 98 socialisation of crime 78–80, 166–7
scientific reductionism 98, 106 societal embedding 187–8
Scotland 159–60 socio-economic injustice 183
scroungermania 53 Somerland, Hilary 178
SDVCs see Specialist Domestic south of England 153–4
Violence Courts spatial equality/local autonomy 154
sentencing 8 spatialisation of crime 44–5
September 11th 2001 19 Special Claims Control Units (SCCU) 53–4
SEU see Social Exclusion Unit Specialist Domestic Violence Courts
‘shooting the messenger’ 109, 112 (SDVCs) 107–8, 186
short-termism 187–8 state responsibilities 184
‘silos’, youth crime initiatives 141–2 stigma of place 155–6
Sinfield, Adrian 188 street crime 141–3
situational crime prevention 75, 99–100 Street Crime Initiative (SCI) 142–3
skills for realistic evaluation 103 surveillance systems 116–17
social capital suspension of benefits 57–8
consultation 133 sustainability 185–6
definition 84 symbolic injustice 183
information and communications symbolic locations 44
technology 86 systematic reviews 97–9
measurement 84–5
Third Way 82–5 Tawney, Richard 24
social citizenship 5, 9–10, 11 tax avoidance 47
social exclusion 20 Tax Credits 36, 51, 114–15
criminal justice system 30 tax evasion 47–9, 52, 54, 173
human rights 179 tax flight 47
New Labour 79 tax fraud
‘us’ and ‘them’ 156 compliance 49–53
see also exclusion costs 49–51
Social Exclusion Unit (SEU) responses 46–60
78–9, 137–8, 143–6 taxation
social inclusion inequalities 181–2
agenda 137–46 rich law, poor law 46–7
anti-social behaviour 165 social justice 23–4
criminal justice 30 technical challenges, information
ex-prisoners 143–6 sharing 88–9
information and communications technicist view 103–4
technology 138 technology
policies post-1997 146–9 social inclusion 138
‘problem’ places 45 Third Way 85–92
responsibilisation 122–3 ‘what works’ 112–17
see also inclusion terrorism
social justice identity cards 111
active citizenship 82 risk society 63
criminal justice reconciliation 171–89 war on terror 19, 174, 179
• 211 •
Thatcher, Margaret/Thatcherism 66 Wales 159–60

enterprise culture 47 war on terror 19, 174, 179
law and order 74–5 wealth distribution inequalities 26
taxation 23–4 welfare policy
‘what works’ origins 94–5 asylum 162
thematic partnership initiatives 139 postmodernism 63
Third Way 61–93 Third Way 72–3
criminal justice 74–8, 80 ‘what works’ 113–15
idealism 189 see also policy...
information and communications welfare-to-work strategy
technology 85–92 36–8, 113–14, 140, 180–1
middle England 151 ‘what works’ 94–119
narrowness 64–8 dynamics and ‘disconnections’ 103–5
social capital 82–5 empowerment 106–7
social justice definition 69–70 governance 100–2, 105–6, 117–19
trust deficit 80–2 policy research pitfalls 109
Thompson, E.P. 12–13 rise of 95–7
tokenism 126 theoretical and practical issues 97–107
‘tough’ talking 31–2, 75–7, 80 use and misuse 107–17
training opportunities 29 ‘whole systems’ approach 176–7
transformative governance 187 ‘wicked issues’ 67
transnational welfare 73 Williams, Fiona 73
trust deficit 80–2, 174–5 women 11, 42
tutelage, families 41 see also gender; lone parents
two-way street concept ‘Worcester Woman’ 151–2
justice 4–32 work
trust deficit 175 income adequacy 180–2
‘worth’ 22–3, 35–6
underclass concept 33–4, 39, 44 worker classification 36
underpaid benefits 59 workfare solutions 104–5
‘undeserving’ poor 33–8, 72 workhouse test 35
United States (US) Working Tax Credit 36
workfare solutions 104–5 ‘worth’, work condition 22–3, 35–6
zero tolerance policing 168
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 6 YOTs see Youth Offending Teams
university research 96–7 young people
‘unjust consequences’ 154 anti-social behaviour 164–5, 166–7
see also inequalities inclusion and justice 140–2
‘upside down duck’ analogy 120–1, 150 information sharing 87–9
upstream policies 188 New Deals 38
US see United States policy impact 149
‘us’ and ‘them’ categorisation 152, 156 see also children
see also otherness youth justice governance 177
the ‘usual suspects’ 126–7 Youth Offending Teams (YOTs) 119, 177
victim information 90–1 zero tolerance policing (ZTP) 168

violence 42, 156–8 Zimbabwean asylum seekers 163–4
see also domestic violence; riots ZTP see zero tolerance policing
voice (welfare principles) 73
voluntary sector groups 135
vulnerable young people 87–9, 149
• 212 •

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Dee Cook’s new book is important, innovative and

invigorating. Cook makes a powerful case for the

CRIMINAL AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

This is an accessible and lively critical account of the

A cogent demonstration that criminal justice cannot

In Criminal and Social Justice, Dee Cook examines the

This fascinating and engaging book will appeal to

Dee Cook is Director of the Policy Research Institute,

Cover design by Design Deluxe

London • Thousand Oaks • New Delhi

Criminal and Social Justice

Criminal and Social Justice

© Dee Cook 2006

First published 2006

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research

SAGE Publications Ltd

SAGE Publications Inc

SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd

British Library Cataloguing in Publication data

A catalogue record for this book is available

ISBN 17619 4009 X 978 0 7619 4009 8

Library of Congress Control Number available

Typeset by C&M Digitals (P) Ltd., Chennai, India

For Glyn, with love.

1 Justice as a Two-Way Street 4

2 Constants and Dissonants in the Study of Criminal and Social Justice 33

3 Signs, Posts and the Third Way 61

4 ‘What Works’ and Criminal and Social Justice 94

5 The ‘Upside Down Duck’: Participation and Engagement

6 Locating Middle-England: ‘Otherness’ and Criminal and Social Justice 151

7 Reconciling Criminal and Social Justice 171

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At its most symbolic level justice is portrayed, in a classical sculptured form, as a

1. Justice, Citizens and the Two-Way Street

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• Equality between men and women

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Elements of Citizenship Undermining Citizenship

Civil and Political Rights

Social and Economic Rights

Figure 1.1 Undermining Citizenship

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(Source: House of Lords Paper HL183, 2004:7)

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the global/universal promise of human rights and the local/domestic reality of

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Figure 1.2 Poverty, Housing and Health

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3. Justice and the Law

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4. What Is Criminal Justice?

• Regulating criminal, and potentially criminal, behaviour

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What precisely do we mean by ‘the criminal justice system’? In the context of

• The Police Service: comprising 43 police forces

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