Vac Report 2023 Report 9

Kenya’s Journey Towards Protecting Children: A Decade of Change (2010-2019)
Kenya’s Journey Towards Protecting Children:
A Decade of Change (2010-2019) (2023)
Recommended Citation:
Ministry of Labour and Social Protection of Kenya, Directorate of Children’s Services.
Kenya’s Journey Towards Protecting Children:
A Decade of Change (2010-2019). Nairobi, Kenya. 2023.
The Directorate of Children’s Services (Ministry of Labour and Social Protection) provided the technical guidance and coordination of this study were
provided by The Department of Children’s Services (Ministry of Labour and Social Protection) in collaboration with LVCT Health, Evidence and Beyond
and Together for Girls. Any policy recommendations contained within this document with regard to budget allocations or statutory changes are the
recommendations of the Government of Kenya and do not reflect an endorsement of Wellspring Philanthropic Fund, Together for Girls, the USAID
or the U.S. Government. The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position
of Wellspring Philanthropic Fund, Together for Girls, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Health Evaluation and Applied
Research Development (HEARD).
Attribution of support: This study was conducted with funding provided by Wellspring Philanthropic Fund through Together for Girls. The study received
additional funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under cooperative agreement number AID-OAA-A-17-00002
through the Health Evaluation and Applied Research Development (HEARD) and University Research Co., LLC (URC) as prime recipient. This report is
made possible in part by the support of the American People through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents of
this report do not necessarily reflect the views of Wellspring Philanthropic Fund, Together for Girls, USAID or the United States Government.
Design and Production: [email protected]
Images Credit: ShutterStock, Freepik
Additional information can be obtained from: The Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, State Department for Social Protection,
Directorate of Children’s Services. Bishops Road, Social Security House P.O. Box 40326 – 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................................................................................................viii
ACRONYMS.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................x
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS................................................................................................................................................................................ xi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.............................................................................................................................................................................................. xiii
1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................................2
2 BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................................................................................................................5
2.1 Prevalence and consequences of VAC in Kenya.........................................................................................................................5
2.2 Risk factors and vulnerabilities for VAC in Kenya.........................................................................................................................6
2.3 Child protection system in Kenya........................................................................................................................................................... 7
3 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES.....................................................................................................................................9
3.1 Study Goal...............................................................................................................................................................................................................9
3.2 Study Objectives..................................................................................................................................................................................................9
4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK..............................................................................................................................7
5 METHODS.............................................................................................................................................................9
5.1 Study design and sampling.......................................................................................................................................................................13
5.2 Data tools and collection.............................................................................................................................................................................13
5.3 Data analysis....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
5.4 Stakeholder engagement and child participation................................................................................................................... 14
5.5 Ethical considerations................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
6 FINDINGS............................................................................................................................................................17
6.1 Study participant characteristics...........................................................................................................................................................17
6.2 Participants’ perception of factors that led to

the decline of VAC between 2010 and 2019.................................................................................................................................... 18
6.3 Participants perception of factors that affected

VAC prevalence among adolescent girls...................................................................................................................................... 39
7 DISCUSSION..................................................................................................................................................... 42
7.1 Momentum in Ending VAC leading up to 2010............................................................................................................................ 42
7.2 Interpretation of our findings................................................................................................................................................................... 42
7.3 Study limitations............................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
8 IMPLICATIONS................................................................................................................................................... 51
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9 APPENDICES..................................................................................................................................................... 55
Appendix 1: List of Key Government Laws, Policies and Reports.................................................................................................55
Appendix 2: Examples of Strategies and Interventions implemented by

various partners between 2010 and 2019.....................................................................................................................................................56
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................................................. 59
List of Tables
Table 1 Changes in prevalence of lifetime experience and contextual factors of VAC between
the 2010 and 2019 VAC Surveys............................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Table 2: Summary of Study Participants......................................................................................................................................................17
Table 3: Examples of Strategies and Interventions implemented by various
partners between 2010 and 2019..................................................................................................................................................................... 35
List of Figures
Figure 1 Drivers of VAC in Kenya identified in the literature..............................................................................................................6
Figure 2: Comparison of Kenya National Response Plan 2013-2018 pillars and the
INSPIRE strategies and cross-cutting activities........................................................................................................................................11
Figure 3: The study’s conceptual framework..............................................................................................................................................11
Figure 4: VAC-related legal and policy frameworks developed during the study period................................ 20-21
Figure 5: Participants perceptions of the factors that led to the reduction of VAC..................................................... 57
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vi
FOREWORD
As we reflect on the progress we have made and the challenges that persist in our collective journey to
eradicate Violence Against Children (VAC), we stand at a crucial juncture in our commitment to the
well-being and safety of Kenyan children. This report presents the findings of a comprehensive study
on VAC prevention and response in Kenya and serves asa testament to our unwavering dedication to this
paramount endeavor.
Violence Against Children encompasses various forms of child abuse, including neglect, defilement, physical
and emotional abuse, and harmful cultural practices. Its impact is profound, leading to physical injuries,
psychological trauma, and negative health outcomes for our children.
Over the past two decades, Kenya has increasingly focused on identifying effective strategies to prevent and
respond to VAC. In 2010, Kenya participated in the first Violence Against Children and Youth Surveys (VACS),
which revealed alarming levels of violence against children. Subsequently, Kenya developed a National
Response Plan (NRP) for VAC 2013-2018, providing a comprehensive VAC prevention and response framework.
A decade later, The Kenya National Violence Against Children Survey 2019 was conducted demonstrating
significant reductions in the prevalence of VAC, particularly in sexual and physical violence. These positive
changes were accompanied by increased awareness and willingness to access support systems. However,
challenges remain, particularly in addressing unwanted attempted sexual activities among girls aged 13 to 17.
This report delves into the substantial progress made in addressing VAC in Kenya. It examines legal
frameworks, policies, and guidelines for VAC prevention and response and explores the strategies,
interventions, coordination mechanisms, and structures and processes established to strengthen VAC
prevention and response services. Furthermore, it provides valuable insights into stakeholders’ perspectives,
initiatives, and key findings, offering implications and recommendations for enhancing VAC prevention and
response in Kenya.
The findings from this study are instrumental in shaping the future of VAC policies and interventions in
Kenya. Understanding the changes in VAC prevalence is essential for eradicating this pervasive issue. This
report underscores the importance of a multi-faceted approach, collaboration among sectors, data-driven
decision-making, and meaningful child participation in achieving lasting VAC prevention and response in Kenya.
As we look to the future, we remain committed to building a safer and more secure environment for our
children. The journey is far from over, but we are armed with insights and recommendations that will guide us
toward even more comprehensive and impactful approaches to VAC prevention and response.
Hon. Florence Bore

Cabinet Secretary
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The commitment of the Kenyan Government to child protection, highlighted in the Kenyan Constitution 2010,
underscored the importance of child protection. We acknowledge the tireless efforts of our Government
Ministries and Agencies in reforming legal frameworks, policies, and programs aimed at VAC prevention and
response, setting the stage for comprehensive data collection through the 2010 and 2019 VAC Surveys.
We recognise the Directorate of Children Services led by Mr. Shem Nyakutu, for his leadership in coordinating
this study. Special acknowledgement goes to Vivienne Mang’oli for her unwavering dedication and support
throughout the study. This study was conducted through a participatory approach, as a collaborative effort
between the Directorate of Children Services in extensive consultations with a host of Government and
NGO.
Our deepest appreciation to all the participants and key informants whose invaluable insights, shared during
interviews, have enhanced our comprehension on approaches implemented to tackle VAC during the study
period. We extend our gratitude to the children who contributed to this study by validating its findings. Their
insights and experiences were instrumental in enhancing our understanding of Violence Against Children in
Kenya and have been central in shaping the recommendations made herein.
We recognise the team of experts involved in the design and execution of the study, led by Dr Lina Digolo
(Evidence and Beyond), the study’s Principal Investigator. Our gratitude also goes to the co-investigators Anne
Ngunjiri and Jane Thiomi of LVCT Health, Siân Long (Independent Consultant), and Manuela Balliet (Together
for Girls), for their exceptional efforts in ensuring the high quality of the study. We extend our appreciation to
the Study Scientific Advisory Group for their invaluable expertise and guidance.
Lastly, our acknowledgements would be incomplete without expressing our gratitude to Wellspring
Philanthropic Fund, Together for Girls and United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
Health Evaluation and Applied Research Development (HEARD) project through University Research Co.,
LLC (URC), the prime recipient, under the cooperative agreement number AID-OAA-A-17-00002, for their
financial support.
Mogosi. J. Motari, MBS

Principal Secretary
State Department for Social Protection
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CONTRIBUTORS
The Directorate of Children’s Services further wishes to acknowledge the role of all dedicated stakeholders
who played integral roles in the success of this research initiative.
RESEARCH TEAM MEMBERS
Lina Digolo Caroline Njeru

Anne Ngunjiri Marie Djessy Odhiambo
Jane Thiomi Pacific Akinyi
Carolyne Ajema Patriciah Okoth
Cynthia Owino Sian Long
Cynthia Wangamati
SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY GROUP
African Partnership to End Violence Against Children PEPFAR / Office of The U.S. Global Aids Coordinator and Health
Saba Lishan Diplomacy
Janet Saul
Brighton and Sussex Medical School
Anne Gatuguta Together for Girls
Chrissy Hart
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Manuela Balliet
Caroline Kambona (Kenya)
Greta Masseti (HQ) UNICEF Kenya
Laura Chiang (HQ) Yoko Kobayashi
Directorate of Children’s Services University Research Co.

Vivienne Mang’oli Samantha Ski
Steve D. Whittaker
London School of Hygiene And Tropical Medicine
Nambusi Kyegombe USAID Kenya
Jeniffer Wasianga
Population Council
Chi-Chi Undie Wellspring Philanthropic Fund
Krista Riddley
STAKEHOLDER VALIDATION TEAM
Directorate of Children’s Services Office of Attorney General

Derrick Cheburet Nancy Chepkwony
Emily Msengeti
Esther Mugure AMREF
Eunice Moraa Alex Irungu
George Migosi Fidelina Ndunge
Hoyd Isaidia
Josephine Oguye Child Fund Kenya
Judy Ndung’u Eunice Kilundo
Mark Keya
Mwambi Mong’are Childline Kenya
Philip Nzenge Martha Sunda
Rose Mwangi
Stella Ayani Centre for Rights Education and Awareness (CREAW Kenya)
Vivienne Mang’oli Catherine Mailu
Waruinge Muhindi Vivian Sitati
Wenslaus Musindayi
Investing in Children and their Societies (ICS SP)
State Department of Social Protection Ruth Amamo
Fatma Ahmed
Plan International
Ministry of Health Mary Wambui
Catherine Chacha
SOS Kenya
Ministry of Education George Warari
Kemunto Kenani
Terre des Hommes
Kenya Police Service Ruth Awinja Okumu
Florence Anyim
UNICEF Kenya
Ministry of Education Sammy Chale
Stephen Jalanga
National Council for Children’s Services

Mary Thiongo
National Gender and Equality Commission

Lynette Kigotho
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ACRONYMS
AAC Area Advisory Council
ACRWC The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child
APEVAC African Partnership to End Violence Against Children
CAAC County Area Advisory Council
CBO Community–Based Organization
CCI Charitable Children Institution
CDC Centres for Disease Control and Prevention
CEDAW The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
CPC Child Protection Centres
CPiE Child Protection in Emergency
CPMIS Child Protection Management Information System
CPUs Child Protection Units
CPVs Child Protection Volunteers
CPWG Child Protection Working Group
CRCs Convention on the Rights of the Child
CSO Civil Society Organization
CT-OVC Cash Transfer for Orphans and Vulnerable Children
DAAC District Area Advisory Council
DCS Directorate of Children’s Services
DHIS District Health Information System
FBO Faith-Based Organization
FGM Female Genital Mutilation
GBV Gender-Based Violence
GoK Government of Kenya
IPV Intimate Partner Violence
KII Key Informant Interview
LAAC Local Area Advisory Council
LVCs Lay Volunteer Counsellors
MoE Ministry of Education
MOH Ministry of Health
NACOSTI National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation
NCCS National Council for Children’s Services
NCPF National Child Protection Framework
NCPS National Child Protection System
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NRP National Response Plan
OCSEA Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse
OVC Orphaned and Vulnerable Children
PSSB Presidential Secondary School Bursary
SGBV Sexual and Gender-Based Violence
SLAAC Sub Location Area Advisory Council
SOA Sexual Offences Act
SRGBV School-related Gender-Based Violence
TWGs Technical Working Groups
VAC Violence Against Children
VACS Violence Against Children and Youth Surveys
VAW Violence Against Women
VAW/C Violence Against Women and Children
VAW/G Violence Against Women and Girls
WHO World Health Organization
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITION

A child is defined as an individual who has not attained the age of eighteen (Government of Kenya, 2010; the
Republic of Kenya, 2022).
Child protection is measures and structures that prevent and respond to abuse, neglect, exploitation, and
violence affecting children (National Council for Children’s Services, 2011).
Child marriage means marriage or cohabitation with a child or any arrangement made for such marriage
or cohabitation (Republic of Kenya, 2022).
‘Corporal’ (or ‘physical’) punishment is defined as any punishment in which

physical force is used and intended to cause some degree of pain or discomfort, however light (UNICEF, 2014).
Defilement refers to committing an act which causes penetration with a child (Sexual Offences Act No. 3 of
2006, 2006).
Emotional violence refers to ongoing emotional maltreatment or emotional neglect of a child, also called
psychological abuse, which seriously damages a child’s emotional health and development. It can involve
many forms, including threats, humiliation, and exposure to domestic violence (UNICEF, 2014).
Female genital mutilation refers to a harmful cultural practice, a procedure that intentionally involves partial
or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injuries to the female genital organ for non-medical
reasons (Republic of Kenya, 2022; Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act, 2011)
Harmful cultural and social norms, practices, and traditions refer to all behaviours, attitudes and or
practices which negatively affect the fundamental rights of children, such as their right to life, health, dignity,
education and physical integrity (African Union, 1987; Republic of Kenya, 2022; United Nations, 1989; United
Nations General Assembly, 1979).
Orphan and vulnerable children are children who have lost one or both parents as a result of death or a
child whose safety, wellbeing, and development are, for various reasons, threatened, including children who
are emotionally deprived or traumatised (Department of Children Services, 2010; Republic of Kenya, 2022).
They are defined in the OVC-CT programme as (State Department for Social Protection, 2017) children aged
0-17 years old with at least one deceased parent, or a parent who is chronically ill, or whose main caregiver
is chronically ill (State Department for Social Protection, 2017).
Physical violence against children includes all corporal punishment and all other forms
of torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, as well as physical bullying and hazing
(physical brutality or humiliation) by adults or by other children. Most involve
hitting (‘smacking’, ‘slapping’, ‘spanking’) children with the hand or with an implement – a whip, stick, belt,
shoe, wooden spoon, etc. But it can also involve, for example, kicking, shaking or throwing children, scratching,
pinching, biting, pulling hair or boxing ears, caning, forcing children to stay in uncomfortable positions,
burning, scalding or forced ingestion (UNICEF, 2014).
Referred to other Government agencies refers to passing a child’s matter/case to the Ministry of Education,
Ministry of Health, Police, Ministry of Interior & Internal coordination, Probation, or Other Sub-county children’s
officers, which has more expertise or authority for further intervention in the best interest of the child
(Government of Kenya, 2001).
Referred to other non-state agencies refer to Passing a child’s matter/case to other agencies- INGOs,
NGOs, FBOs, CBOs, who have more expertise or authority for further intervention in the child’s best interest
(Government of Kenya, 2001).
Family reintegration refers to the process by which a child is reunited with his/her parents, extended family,
or legal guardian and can integrate back into their family. During this process, activities will equip the child
and the family with the necessary capacity, including resources for proper placement and reintegration
(Government of Kenya & UNICEF, 2014).
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Reintegrated refers to the gradual, result-oriented, and community-supervised process of helping a child
adjust, settle, and adopt the life in his/her family system. Child reintegration is the planned, structured
and result-oriented rehabilitation programme undertaken by the institution to ensure a child’s successful
placement and reunification into their family and community or to another family based on alternative care
placements (Government of Kenya & UNICEF, 2014).
Sexual exploitation and abuse refer to a child’s involvement in sexual exploitation and abuse through
prostitution, inducement, or coercion to engage in any sexual activity, and exposure to obscene materials
(pornography) (Republic of Kenya, 2012).
Sexual violence against children comprises any sexual activities imposed by an adult on a child against
which the child is entitled to protection by criminal law. This includes
(a) The inducement or coercion of a child to engage in any unlawful or psychologically harmful sexual activity;
(b) The use of children in commercial sexual exploitation;
(c) The use of children in audio or visual images of child sexual abuse; and
(d) Child prostitution, sexual slavery, sexual exploitation in travel and tourism, trafficking for purposes of sexual
exploitation (within and between countries), sale of children for sexual purposes and forced marriage.
Sexual activities are also considered as abuse when committed against a child by another child if the
offender is significantly older than the victim or uses power, threat or other means of pressure. Consensual
sexual activities between children are not considered as sexual abuse if the children are older than the age
limit defined by the State Party (UNICEF, 2014).
Violence against children is defined as “the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual,
against an individual who is a minor (younger than 18 years), which either results in or has a high likelihood of
resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development or deprivation” (Krug et al., 2002).
Violence Against Children and Youth Surveys are nationally representative household surveys of adolescents
and young people (age 13-24) that measure the prevalence and circumstances surrounding sexual, physical,
and emotional violence in childhood and young adulthood (CDC, 2023).
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This summary presents the main findings from the qualitative study on VAC conducted to examine the shifts
in children’s experiences of violence in Kenya from 2010 to 2019. The study explored VAC policies and guidelines
established during this period. It also reviewed the strategies and interventions employed and the coordination
and implementation mechanisms, including building service providers’ capacity and strengthening information
systems to reinforce VAC prevention and response services.
Key Highlights:
Factors that contributed to the decline in VAC prevalence

Our research indicates that several factors enhanced the prevention of VAC during the study period. These
factors include:
1. Government Leadership and Multisectoral Collaboration: The Government demonstrated strong
commitment and leadership in addressing VAC through strategic partnerships and developing
the National Response Plan (NRP). This plan served as a comprehensive framework uniting
efforts across various sectors, including health, education, justice, and social services. Over ten
years, there has been significant progress in updating old VAC-related legislation and policies
and introducing new ones. The Government also recognised the importance of strengthening
coordination and collaboration to improve VAC services. However, despite these legal and policy
advancements, challenges persisted in the enforcement and practical application of these
frameworks, with funding limitations posing difficulties in maintaining effective coordination structures.
2. System Strengthening for VAC Prevention Programs: Efforts to enhance human resource
capacities and refine data collection and reporting systems contributed to the improved
quality of VAC services. Investment in training service providers across various sectors, such
as Child Protection Volunteers, improved service accessibility. However, challenges like training
programs geared toward general GBV rather than specific VAC and insufficient staff were noted.
3. Meaningful Child Participation: The study participants emphasised the Kenyan Government’s
efforts to enhance child participation in addressing VAC by introducing child participation
guidelines and initiatives such as Children’s Assemblies and Child Rights Clubs in schools.
These steps aimed to empower children to contribute actively to discussions on their welfare
and protection. Despite these positive developments, participants noted a need to ensure that
children’s contributions are substantial, that all children, including those affected by VAC, are
fairly represented, and that their voices are genuinely considered in participation frameworks.
4. Expansion of VAC Prevention Services: There was an expansion in the rollout of services aimed at
preventing VAC, shifting from predominantly supporting response services to prevention initiatives. The
participants identified the following strategies as key contributors to the noted VAC reduction:
a. Community Awareness creation and mobilisation: Study participants highlighted several
community awareness and mobilisation interventions implemented during the decade. Key
examples include using local radio stations to disseminate VAC messaging to community
members and employing nationwide campaigns to equip children and community members
with information on identifying, reporting, and participating in prevention interventions against
VAC within their communities. Participants believed that these initiatives played a crucial role in
raising public awareness about the various forms of VAC, the norms that perpetuate them, and
promoting collective grassroots action against child abuse.
b. School Enrollment and Safe School Environment: The enactment of the Basic Education Act in
2013, coupled with initiatives supporting girls’ education and school re-entry programs, improved
school enrollment and retention.
c. Household Economic Resilience: The study participants emphasised improving household

financial stability as a vital strategy to improve VAC during the study period. Key interventions
implemented involved government-led cash transfer programmes, notably the Cash Transfer to
Orphaned and Vulnerable Children (CT-OVC), the Hunger Safety Net Programme, the Urban Food
Subsidy Programme (UFSP), and the Presidential Bursary Scheme for Orphans and Vulnerable
Children. These programmes delivered consistent financial support to disadvantaged families.
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d. VAC Response and Support Services: From 2010 to 2019, significant progress was made in
responding to VAC across various sectors. Key developments included the establishment of
Child Protection Units in police stations to provide essential support and safety for children. In
the legal domain, the creation of Children’s Court Users Committees improved public interaction
with judges and access to justice. The Ministry of Health and the Directorate of Children’s Services
focused on providing comprehensive support to child survivors and their families, including
psychosocial services. The national toll-free helpline (116) was expanded to increase its reach.
5. Funding for VAC Services: The Government implemented several strategies to enhance its financial
support for VAC prevention and response during the study period. These measures included advocating
with various stakeholders and funders for the significance of addressing VAC, informed by the findings
of the VACS study, and expanding partnerships with new donors. Additionally, forging collaborations with
local private-sector entities was a key step. There was a noticeable increase in the number and scale of
VAC prevention programs and the expansion of the sectoral workforce, suggesting a rise in investment.
IMPLICATIONS
This study’s findings emphasise the need for the Kenyan Government and its partners to scale up their efforts to
prevent and address VAC rapidly. To achieve this, the following actions are required:
1. Enhancing Financial Investments: Increased domestic funding and collaboration with the
private sector are essential to combat VAC. The integration of VAC programs with initiatives
in HIV, SRHR, parenting, education, and VAW can create a comprehensive approach for
more effective interventions. Core and multi-year funding is crucial for sustainable change.
2. Enforcing VAC Laws and Policies: Kenya has advanced significantly in formulating VAC-related laws and
policies. The prevention of VAC hinges on the rigorous enforcement of these measures. Therefore, the National
Government must integrate these laws and policies within every county’s local framework to guarantee
compliance with legal standards and promote a consistent approach to combating VAC nationwide.
3. Improving Service Provider Capacities: Enhancing the capabilities of service providers is vital. This
includes increasing staff dedicated to VAC services and providing specialised VAC training across
sectors. Training should cover foundational concepts of VAC and focus on prevention programming.
Cross-sectoral collaboration is imperative.
4. Genuine Child Participation: Progress has been made in enabling children to express their concerns,
but there is a need for genuine child participation in policy formulation and program design. This
requires direct communication channels with children, robust feedback mechanisms, dedicated
officials, and accessible online platforms. Policymakers should champion child participation.
5. Evaluating and Scaling Up Effective Interventions: Our research identifies multiple strategies and
interventions that could prevent VAC. Nevertheless, there needs to be a more formal evaluation of these
interventions within their implementation contexts in Kenya. Assessing the effectiveness of these interventions
and understanding the best ways to utilise them is essential. This necessitates a thorough evaluation to
measure their success and, if proven effective, consider expanding them to benefit a wider population.
6. Adopting Programs for Adolescent Girls: VAC prevention programs should consider the distinct needs and
developmental stages of adolescent girls. Data collection should focus on adolescents’ experiences, and
interventions must challenge prevailing gender dynamics that contribute to violence. More investment in
girls’ programming models is needed, including initiatives like school re-entry programs for adolescent girls.
7. Enhancing Data Collection Systems: Equipping service providers with data recording skills
and interconnecting data systems across sectors is crucial. A comprehensive solution is
needed to aggregate high-level data for a broader view of VAC prevention at the national level.
Our research identifies multiple strategies and interventions that could prevent VAC. Nevertheless, there
needs to be a more formal evaluation of these interventions within their implementation contexts in Kenya.
Assessing the effectiveness of these interventions and understanding the best ways to utilise them is
essential. This necessitates a thorough evaluation to measure their success and, if proven effective, consider
expanding them to benefit a wider population.
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1
1 INTRODUCTION
Violence Against Children (VAC) is a global problem which has negative consequences not only for abused
children but also for society. Over the past decade, international interest has steadily increased in determining
what strategies and interventions work to prevent VAC. As a result, since 2007, the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), as part of the Together for Girls partnership, collaborated with various governments
to conduct the Violence Against Children and Youth Surveys (VACS) to measure the prevalence, nature, and
consequences of physical, emotional, and sexual violence against children and youth. VACS findings have
offered high-quality and reliable evidence for governments to make informed decisions regarding allocating
limited resources for developing, implementing, and evaluating violence prevention programmes and child
protection systems.
In 2010, Kenya demonstrated its commitment to eradicating VAC by becoming the third country globally to
participate in the VACS. The findings of this survey were alarming, indicating that a significant proportion of
children in Kenya experienced violence. Among youth aged 18 to 24, approximately 76% of females and 80%
of males experienced violence at least once during childhood. Fewer than 10% of those who experienced
violence received professional help (The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC), Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2012).
Following the 2010 survey, the Kenyan Government and its partners developed a National Response Plan
(NRP) for VAC 2013-2018, which served as the primary framework for designing and implementing the VAC
programme. The NRP focused on six key pillars: addressing legislative and policy issues, ensuring the availability
of quality services, coordinating the child protection sector, identifying and addressing circumstances where
violence occurs, advocacy and communication, information management, and capacity building.
In 2019, the Kenyan Government conducted a second VACS to gather updated data on the prevalence,
nature, and consequences of physical, emotional, and sexual violence against children (Ministry of Labour
and Social Protection, 2019a). The study revealed that VAC remained highly prevalent in the country. However,
there was a noticeable reduction in the proportion of children who experienced violence. Approximately
45.5% of females and 56.1% of males experienced childhood violence.
The 2010 and 2019 VACS utilised a similar sampling approach and measures, enabling analysis of changes
in violence and related factors over time. Both surveys were cross-sectional national household surveys
targeting young people aged 13-24 to provide national estimates of physical, sexual, and emotional violence.
A comparative quantitative study of the two VACS conducted in 2020 revealed notable declines in the
prevalence of lifetime sexual, physical, and emotional violence between 2010 and 2019 for both females and
males (Annor et al., 2022). The study found that sexual violence decreased by 50% for females aged 18 to 24
and 66% for males in the same age group between 2010 and 2019. Additionally, physical violence witnessed
reductions of more than 40% for females aged 18 to 24 years and over 25% for males in the same age group
during the same period. In addition, a higher percentage of females sought and received services for sexual
violence, and a larger proportion of males knew where to seek help in 2019 compared to 2010, illustrating
growing awareness and willingness to access support systems. While the results indicate positive changes
in prevalence across nearly all indicators, it is key to note that there was an increase in unwanted attempted
sex in the last 12 months among girls aged 13 to 17 years. A summary of the key indicators and results can be
found in Table 1.
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Table 1: Changes in prevalence of lifetime experience and contextual factors of VAC between the 2010 and
2019 Kenya Violence Against Children and Youth Surveys (VACS)
Country Profile Statistics
Change in prevalence.
VAC indicator 2010 statistics 2019 statistics
(increase/decrease in % points) *
Boys Girls Boys Girls

Boys Girls
Weighted % Weighted % Weighted % Weighted %
(95% CI) (95% CI)
(95% CI) (95% CI) (95% CI) (95% CI)
Prevalence indicators
Any lifetime
19.7 36.2 11.4 25.2 -8.3 -11.0
sexual
(16.6 - 22.7) (3.15 - 41) (9 - 13.8) (22.3 - 28.2) (-7.6 – -8.9) (-19.15 –-12.8)
violence
Any lifetime
78.7 74.9 52.7 45.9 -26 -29.0
physical
(75.5 - 81.8) (68.7 - 81) (45.5 - 59.9) (42.1 - 49.7) (-30 –-21.9) (-26.6 –-31.3)
violence
Any lifetime
29.8 28.4 11.5 16.8 -18.3 -11.6
emotional
(25.8 - 33.8) (24.6 - 32.2) (8.7 - 14.4) (14.3 - 19.3) (-17.1 –-19.4) (-10.3 –-12.9)
violence
Any lifetime 83.0 82.5 56.6 58.3 -26.4 -24.2

violence (80.1 - 85.9) (78 - 87.1) (49.8 - 63.4) (54.2 - 62.4) (-30.3 - -22.5) (-23.8 –-24.7)
Contextual factors
Disclosure
and service
seeking
31.8 43.0 27.9 46.7 -3.9 +3.7

Told someone
(25.5 - 38.1) (38.1 - 48) (16.8 - 38.9) (38.7 - 54.8) (-8.7 –-0.8) (+0.6 - +6.8)
Knew of a 15.5 25.0 33.1 33.7 +17.6 +8.7

place (9.6 - 21.5) (18.3 - 31.7) (17.2 - 49) (27.9 - 39.5) (+7.6 - +27.5) (+9.6 - +7.8)
Sought 3.8 4.6 6.8 11.3 +3.0 +6.7

services (0.9 - 6.6) (1.6 - 7.7) (0.3 - 13.3) (7 - 15.6) (+0.6 - +6.7) (+5.4 - +7.9)
Received 1.9 3.0 6.0 10.0 +4.1 +7.0

services (0.2 - 3.5) (0.8 - 5.1) (0 - 12.4) (5.8 - 14.1) (+0.2 - +8.9) (+5 - +9)
Adapted from Kenya National Bureau of Statistics et al., 2012; Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, 2019c.
*All data has been controlled for covariates.
The comparative data provided valuable insights into the progress achieved over the years, shedding light
on areas that required additional attention. The observed decreases in the prevalence of VAC, along with
improvements in disclosure and seeking services for sexual violence, signified noteworthy accomplishments
in public health.
It was recognised that sole reliance on quantitative surveys would be inadequate to understand the reasons
behind the decline in VAC in Kenya. In response, the Kenyan Government, alongside LVCT Health, conducted
this qualitative study, engaging a wide range of stakeholders to explore the factors contributing to this
decline. The research sought to gather insights that could be used to refine existing policies, interventions,
and strategies for VAC prevention.
3
4
2 BACKGROUND
2.1 Prevalence and consequences of VAC in Kenya
Violence against children is highly prevalent globally and in Kenya. Recent estimates indicate that over
one billion children aged 2-17 years worldwide, representing more than 50% of all children, have experienced
at least one form of physical, sexual, or emotional violence in the past year (Hillis et al., 2016). Similarly,
approximately 50% of the African child population have encountered or witnessed some form of violence,
encompassing physical, sexual, or emotional abuse (Hillis et al., 2016).
Like other countries, Kenya faces the challenge of high rates of VAC. From birth to adulthood (0-17 years),
children in Kenya experience and witness alarming levels of violence (Ministry of Labour and Social Protection,
2019a). For instance, in 2019, just under half of all girls and 56.1% of boys reported experiencing at least one
type of violence.
Childhood violence manifests in different forms, with neglect, defilement, physical abuse, emotional abuse,
and child marriage being among the most prevalent, according to a report by the Ministry of Labour and
Social Protection State Department of Social Protection (Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, 2019b).
The prevalence of these different forms of violence is influenced by age. For example, infants and young
children aged 0-5 are particularly vulnerable to physical violence and neglect by their caregivers, while
school-aged children aged 6-11 years face risks of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse by caregivers and
schoolteachers, as well as bullying in schools and communities. On the other hand, adolescents aged 12-18
report experiencing similar forms of violence, including sexual violence, child marriage, and human trafficking
(Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, 2019b).
Gender also plays a significant role in the prevalence of various forms of violence in Kenya. According to
the 2019 VACS (Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, 2019a), females in Kenya are more likely than males
to experience sexual violence in childhood, with a lifetime prevalence of 25.2% compared to 11.4% in males.
This highlights the alarming rate at which females are subjected to sexual violence during their formative
years. Additionally, females also face other common forms of violence, including intimate partner violence
(IPV), harmful cultural practices such as early/forced marriage, genital mutilation, and trafficking for sexual
exploitation, among others (Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, 2019a). On the other hand, males in Kenya
are more likely to experience physical abuse. This includes corporal punishment from parents, caregivers,
and other authority figures, peer bullying and youth violence (Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, 2019a).
VAC has profound and wide-ranging consequences for the affected individuals and society. It leads to
physical injuries, psychological trauma, and even fatalities, highlighting the severity of the issue. Moreover,
VAC is associated with negative health outcomes, including an increased risk of HIV infection, substance
abuse, and mental health disorders, further exacerbating the challenges affected children face. The
repercussions of VAC extend beyond the individual child, impacting families and communities. Those who
experience VAC often struggle to form healthy relationships, succeed in school, and find adult employment.
Additionally, studies in Kenya have found that children who witness violence are more likely to become
victims or perpetrators of violence later in life (Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, 2019c). Child marriage
profoundly impacts girls’ exposure to violence and is multi-generational (Girls Not Brides, n.d.).
Finally, the economic costs of VAC are substantial, with estimates suggesting that globally, child maltreatment
accounts for up to 8% of GDP, with 2% being the lowest estimate for low- and middle-income economies
(dos Santos Pais, 2015; Pereznieto et al., 2014). In addition, indirect costs burden the economy, such as lost
productivity, increased healthcare expenses, and reduced quality of life. Therefore, addressing VAC is a moral
imperative for the well-being and development of individuals and the nation.
5
2.2 Risk factors and vulnerabilities for VAC in Kenya
Kenyan children face multiple risk factors and vulnerabilities that increase their likelihood of experiencing
violence. According to a study by Wangamati et al., community members from one region in Kenya identified
poverty as a key factor exacerbating children’s vulnerability to sexual violence (Wangamati et al., 2018). This
finding aligns with the Report on Child Vulnerability and Social Protection in Kenya by the World Bank, UNICEF,
and the State Department for Social Protection and Senior Citizens, which identifies household poverty as a
significant indicator of child vulnerability to violence (Gelders, 2018). Additionally, parental alcohol and drug
abuse have been identified as significant risk factors for VAC in Kenya (UNICEF, 2014).
Other risk factors contributing to VAC include harmful social and gender norms, such as cultural practices
that are based on and /or exacerbate gender inequality and the belief in corporal punishment of children
as a form of discipline perpetuated by authority figures like caregivers/parents and teachers. Children living
in violent neighbourhoods and unsafe communities, those experiencing unequal access to household and
community resources and services, those facing barriers to participation and voice in the workforce, and
those not in school are also at an increased risk of violence. Further, children with disabilities are also more
vulnerable to violence, as their families or communities may see them as burdensome or less valuable (King
& Chittleborough, 2022; Rodríguez et al., 2018). Finally, children in areas affected by conflict and displacement
are also at higher risk of violence, including sexual violence (Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA), 2015; Sapiezynska, 2021; UNICEF & Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General
for Children and Armed Conflict, 2009).
Figure 1 Drivers of VAC in Kenya identified in the literature. Box 1: Actors with a responsibility for
child protection in Kenya.
Household
poverty Directorate of Children Services
National Council for Children services
Lack of access to
household and Family alcohol • Ministry of Education
community and drug abuse
• Ministry of Health
resources and
services • National Police Service
• Office of the Director of Public
Prosecution
VAC Harmful social
• National Legal Aid Service
drivers
Out of school
and gender • National Government
norms
in Kenya
Administrative Officers
• Judiciary
• Probation
• Charitable Children Institutions
Conflict and Neighbourhood • Non-governmental
displacement and community
violence organisations
Disability and • Community-based
harmful attitudes
towards disability
organisations
• Faith based organisations
• Private sector
• Kenya Prisons Service
Given that VAC in Kenya is a complex issue with multiple risk
Sources: (Department of Children’s
factors and vulnerabilities, it necessitates a comprehensive
Services, 2019; National Council for
approach that targets risk factors at different levels, engages
Children’s Services, 2011)
multiple sectors and builds effective social welfare and support
systems, including child protection, education, and health.
6
2.3 Child protection system in Kenya
Kenya has made impressive progress in developing a comprehensive and effective child protection system to
safeguard children from exploitation, abuse, and neglect. The Kenya Child Protection System is a multi-sectoral
approach encompassing national and county-level laws and policies, bringing together Government and
NGO service providers at all levels. This system contributes to establishing procedures, policies, regulations,
and standards, enhancing and coordinating service delivery for child protection services, and expanding
networking and collaboration across various sectors (Department of Children’s Services, 2019a). In addition, it
aims to promote the well-being of children by preventing and responding to violence, discrimination, abuse,
and exploitation.
The Directorate of Children’s Services (DCS) is the key entity responsible for implementing child protection
services in Kenya. According to the Children Act of 2022, the DCS, under the guidance of its director, has the
mandate to establish, promote, coordinate, and supervise services and facilities to advance the well-being
of children and their families (Government of Kenya, 2001).
In addition to the DCS, other sectors and service delivery providers contribute to the Kenyan child protection
system. These include Government agencies and NGO working in health, education, social welfare, and justice
(Box 1). Through their collective efforts, these entities collaborate to provide comprehensive child protection
services and support to vulnerable children and their families.
Overall, the child protection system in Kenya aims to address violence, abuse, and exploitation against
children comprehensively. Multiple agencies and stakeholders work together to achieve this goal. One
notable component is implementing a centralised Child Protection Information Management System (CPIMS)
introduced in 2016 and progressively rolled out to all Counties. This system enabled regular data collection on
the prevalence and incidents of child protection issues, fostering standardised data analysis and informed
decision-making. However, data collection remains patchy, as illustrated in the 2016 DCS child protection
data, which shows huge variations in the quantity and quality of routine case management data between
counties (Department of Children Services, n.d.). However, the system faces challenges and gaps that hinder
its effectiveness. Limited resources, including funding and personnel, create obstacles in providing adequate
services. Insufficient capacity in terms of training and infrastructure hampers the system’s ability to meet
the diverse needs of children. Weak coordination among service providers leads to fragmented efforts and
difficulties in delivering child protection services seamlessly (Department of Children Services & UNICEF
Kenya, 2021; Government of Kenya et al., 2015). Addressing these challenges and strengthening the system’s
capacity and coordination is essential to ensure the effective protection of children in Kenya.
7
8
3 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES
3.1 Study Goal
This study aimed to explore the perspectives of VAC stakeholders on the factors that contributed to the
changes in children’s experiences of violence in Kenya between 2010 and 2019
3.2 Study Objectives
The objectives of the study were:

1. To identify the VAC prevention and response legal frameworks, policies and guidelines developed and
implemented between 2010 and 2019.
2. To explore the VAC prevention and response strategies, interventions, and services developed and
implemented between 2010 and 2019.
3. To identify the VAC coordination mechanisms in place across relevant sectors between 2010 and 2019.
4. To identify the implementation mechanisms, structures, and processes (including service provider
capacity building and information system strengthening) instituted between 2010 and 2019 to strengthen
VAC prevention and response services.
9
10
4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The study’s conceptual framework draws on Kenya’s National Response Plan to Violence Against Children
(2013–2018) (NRP) as a reflection of the Kenyan context at the study’s outset in 2010. It also incorporates the
INSPIRE framework established in 2016, derived from evidence with the highest potential for reducing VAC.
The NRP embraced a system-strengthening approach, aligning with the country’s child protection system
framework. It was key in shaping VAC prevention and response policies and programmes in Kenya between
2010 and 2019 and addressed VAC through six main pillars while the WHO INSPIRE framework – Seven strategies
for ending violence against children highlights seven strategies, each grounded in the best available evidence
to reduce VAC significantly. Moreover, INSPIRE includes two overarching activities: multisectoral actions and
coordination and monitoring and evaluation, which facilitate the connection, enhancement, and assessment
of progress across the seven strategies.
As illustrated in Figure 2, both frameworks share considerable similarities, with most of their components
aligning directly.
Figure 2: Comparison of Kenya National Response Plan 2013-2018 pillars and the INSPIRE strategies and
cross-cutting activities.
Response plan 2010-2018 INSPIRE Framework
1. Legislative and policy issues (INSPIRE 1) 1. Implementation and enforcement of

Laws
2. Availability of Quality services and
2. Norms and values
coordination of the child
protection sector (INSPIRE 2-7) 3. Safe environment
4. Parenting and care giver support
3. Circumstances in which violence occurs
5. Income and economic strengthening
4. Advocacy and Communication 6. Response and support services
5. Information Management (INSPIRE 7. Education and life skills

crosscutting)
8. Crosscutting Activities
6. Capacity Building ▪ -M&E
▪ -Coordination
The study’s conceptual framework thus builds on the VAC Response Plan’s six pillars, which guided policy and
programmatic actions from 2013 to 2018. Additionally, the framework examines how initiatives implemented
during the study’s scope align with evidence-based strategies known for their effectiveness in reducing VAC
prevalence and risk (Figure 3).
Figure 3: The study’s conceptual framework
Study conceptual framework

Response plan 2010-2018 Study conceptual framework
1. Focus of research questions development,dissemination

1. Legislative and policy issues 1. implementation and enforcements of laws
implementation ,and enforcement of polices and laws
2. Availability of quality services and 2. Norms and values
2. VAC prevention and response strategies,interventions and
coordination of child protection services 3. Safe environment
services implemented,and at what scale
3. Circumstances in which violence occurs 4. Parenting and care giver support
3. Circumstances in which violence occurs
4. Advocacy and communication 5. Income and economic strengthening
4. Strengthening of VAC advocacy and communication
5. Information management 6. Response and support services
systems
6. Capacity building 7. Education and life skills
5. Strengthening of the IM systems (including M&E
8. Crosscutting activities M&E
6. Efforts to strengthen service provider capacities in VAC
9. Coordination
preventions and response services,including
7. Coordination mechanisms and processes put in place put in
place to strengthen the VAC
REDUCTION OF VAC IN KENYA
11
12
5 METHODS
5.1 Study design and sampling
This exploratory study was conducted between February and June 2023 and employed a qualitative
approach, utilizing key informant interviews and desk reviews to gather data. It covered both the national
and county levels. The county-level participants were chosen from Nairobi, Kisii, Kilifi, Kirinyaga, Makueni,
Kakamega, Narok, and Nakuru. The selection of these counties sought to accommodate counties with varying
VAC prevalence levels.
5.2 Study sampling
The study utilised a maximum variation purposive sampling method to ensure the inclusion of participants
with diverse experiences relevant to the study (Collingridge D.S. & Gantt, 2008). The participants consisted
of individuals representing Government agencies, NGO’s, the private sector, and donor agencies who were
actively involved in VAC-related policy, programming, research, and/or funding activities between 2010
and 2019. In addition to this initial selection, further respondents were identified through the snowballing
technique. Study participants were asked to recommend others who could contribute additional insights
and information to the research (Palinkas et al., 2015). This process allowed for including individuals who may
have been overlooked and ensured a comprehensive exploration of the topic.
5.3 Data tools and collection
Interview guides
Key informant interview guides were employed for national and county-level Government actors, non-
government implementing partners, funders, and private sector partners. The guides were designed to
understand the stakeholders’ perspectives on the strategies implemented during the study period and to
assess their perceptions regarding the factors they believed could have contributed to the observed changes
in VAC prevalence between the two surveys.
Key informant interviews
Primary data was obtained through 39 key informant interviews conducted via Zoom between March and
April 2023 by trained research assistants using structured KII guides. In situations where virtual interviews
were not feasible, face-to-face interviews were conducted.
Before commencing data collection, a pretest exercise was conducted to refine the interview protocols and
ensure their appropriateness.
Research assistants were trained to conduct the interviews privately to uphold privacy and confidentiality.
This measure was taken to maintain the confidentiality of the participant’s responses and protect their
privacy throughout the research process.
Desk review
Secondary data collection involved a rigorous desk review using an exploratory framework (Stebbins, 2001)
to identify pertinent information on preventing and responding to VAC in Kenya. This review encompassed a
range of data sources, such as laws, policies, strategies, guidance, standards, programme strategies, case
studies, and peer-reviewed articles developed and implemented between 2010 and 2019.
A total of 195 documents were carefully reviewed. These documents were gathered from various reputable
13
sources, including websites of relevant Government sectors, materials provided by the Department of
Children’s Services (DCS), and scientific databases like PubMed, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Google Scholar.
Information was also sourced from websites of United Nations agencies, non-governmental organizations,
advocacy groups, research centres, and legal databases. Additionally, to ensure accuracy and relevance,
experts from different organizations were consulted to obtain materials that might not have been accessible
online.
During the review process, specific search terms were employed. These terms included “violence against
children,” “gender-based violence,” “violence against women,” “VAC,” “Kenya,” “effective,” “policies,” “laws,”
and “programmes.” Additionally, the review focused on interventions aligned with the seven INSPIRE strategies.
Relevant search terms included “Kenya” AND “violence against children”, AND “social behaviour change” OR
“social norms”, OR “safe environments” OR “parenting”, OR “caregiver support”, OR “economic support” OR
“social protection” OR “household economic strengthening” OR “education” OR “life skills” OR “response and
support services.”
5.4 Data analysis
A comprehensive data analysis process was employed using QSR NVivo 14, a specialized software designed
for qualitative data analysis. To develop the initial code book, the research team engaged in a collaborative
effort. Four co-investigators independently coded similar transcripts, employing deductive coding based
on the key study questions and inductive coding by immersing themselves in the data through repeated
readings. This approach allowed them to generate initial codes that captured meaningful patterns, ideas, and
concepts. Subsequently, a meeting was held to consolidate their codes and establish a coding framework
that reflected a consensus among the team members.
A qualitative research expert was then engaged to identify, organize, and interpret themes within the data.
Through a systematic process of comparison and refinement, the codes were organized into themes and
sub-themes, facilitating the identification of recurring patterns, unique perspectives, and key findings.
The emergent themes underwent extensive review and discussion among the co-investigators to ensure
their coherence and alignment with the research objectives. This resulting thematic framework served as a
robust foundation for the subsequent analysis and interpretation of the qualitative data.
Finally, data triangulation was utilized to enhance the credibility and validity of the KII findings. This approach
integrated information from a desk review, which provided a broader contextual understanding and
complemented the perspectives offered by the study participants.
5.5 Stakeholder engagement and child participation
A plan to ensure the uptake of research findings was established alongside the research study, engaging
key stakeholders to influence the design of research questions and to use the results to enhance policy and
practice. This plan involved proactive collaboration with stakeholders at various levels, such as policymakers,
service providers, child rights organisations, community figures, and children.
LVCT convened an initial meeting with key national and county Government officials to introduce the study
and outline its aims and objectives. It also pinpointed ideal respondents for key informant interviews at the
policy level. Following data analysis, a stakeholder meeting was convened to discuss the preliminary findings,
scrutinise these results, and provide feedback for further strengthening. Participation and feedback during
this session led to a supplementary desk review and an in-depth analysis of the emerging results.
14
LVCT also organised discussions with eight adolescents ages 10 to 13 and 14 to 17, including boys and girls
from the Homa Bay, Kiambu, and Kilifi regions. The purpose was to directly capture children’s perspectives on
the draft findings’ relevance and accuracy and assess if insights from policymakers and programmers align
with children’s real-life experiences. The main goal was to engage these young individuals in conversations
about their understanding of VAC and their knowledge of available services from teachers, police, healthcare
professionals, and their community regarding VAC prevention and support. This engagement was measured
against the study’s preliminary findings to ensure consistency with children’s actual experiences of information
and support sources. LVCT facilitators, adhering to strict safeguarding protocols, including comprehensive
consent procedures and focusing on group discussions rather than personal disclosures, led all sessions with
the children.
5.6 Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance
The study protocol was independently reviewed and approved by the AMREF Ethical and Scientific Research
Committee and the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, and a research permit was obtained from
the National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation (NACOSTI).
Informed consent
All research assistants received training in the ethical conduct of research and consenting processes before
data collection began. At the beginning of each interview, the research assistants facilitated an informed
consent process. They sought permission to conduct the interviews and record the session using the
informed consent protocol. The consent was read to the participants in English. They were informed that
the interview was voluntary and that the information provided would be kept confidential and anonymous.
Participants were also informed that they could skip any questions they did not feel comfortable answering
or end their participation at any time and for any reason. At the end of the consent process, an informed
consent statement was read to each participant, and they indicated verbal consent, which the interviewer
noted on their computer. The participants were also allowed to ask questions or seek clarification.
15
16
6 FINDINGS
This section provides the study findings derived from an in-depth qualitative analysis of the perspectives of
various stakeholders. It explores the factors that potentially influenced the observed changes in children’s
experiences of VAC between the 2010 and 2019 surveys. Additionally, drawing upon the desk review, the
section delves deep into these factors, offering insights into the implemented measures.
6.1 Study participant characteristics
A total of 39 KII participants were interviewed for the study. As shown in Table 2, the interviews included
an almost equal number of male and female participants. Among the participants, the majority (49 per
cent) were Government policymakers from the national level and eight selected counties, followed by VAC
implementing partners. A significant proportion (72 per cent) of the participants reported having worked in the
field of VAC for more than ten years, reflecting a wealth of experience and expertise among the interviewees.
Table 2: Summary of Study Participants
Participants socio-demographics Participant Distribution
Sex
Male 16 (41%)
Female 23 (59%)
Level of Engagement
Government (Policymakers)
National 8 (20%)
Regional 4 (10%)
County 7 (18%)
Implementing partners 16 (41%)
Donor 3 (7%)
Private sector 1 (3%)
Experience in VAC prevention and response (In Years)
0-4 7 (18%)
5-9 10 (26%)
10-14 18 (46%)
15-19 3 (7%)
20-24 0
>25 1 (3%)
17
6.2 Participants’ perception of factors that led to the decline of VAC between 2010 and 2019
Strengthened VAC legal and policy frameworks.
Between 2010 and 2019, Kenya made substantial advancements in developing and implementing legal and
policy frameworks to prevent and address VAC. An important milestone noted to have had a profound impact
was the enactment of the Constitution in 2010. An important achievement of the new Constitution was that
it explicitly included a section that recognized the significance of protecting children from diverse forms
of harm, affirming their right to be safeguarded against maltreatment, neglect, harmful cultural practices,
violence, harsh treatment, corporal punishment, and exploitative labour.
“ If you recall, when we did the first VAC, that is when we launched our Constitution. ...The
Constitution spoke about the protection of children from abuse, which means looking at violence
against children…. And with the 2010 Constitution, we have the protection of children from abuse,
integrated into our Constitution and law, addressing issues around harmful practices.
Funder “
“ …the Constitution gave a little more or better structure for Child Protection, that assisted
both Government and other players to set up structures, implementation policies and plans to
respond to child protection better.
Implementing partner “
The constitutional provision played a key role in prompting the review and establishment of various laws and
policies about VAC, as illustrated in Figure 4 below. Notably, the Children’s Act of 2001 and its subsequent
amendments and the 2010 National Children’s Policy offered essential guidance and a legal framework for
safeguarding children’s rights. These advancements marked important milestones in shaping interventions
for preventing and addressing VAC.
“ ... the National Children policy developed in 2010...I think that was the beginning of child
rights clubs in schools and all that, and we had, you know, children understanding their rights,
survival rights and rights to education...

Another significant achievement mentioned by several participants was the introduction of the Basic
Education Act in 2013, which mandated free and compulsory education for all children. This was accompanied
by the Ministry of Education’s implementation of a policy to reduce school-related violence and establish the
National School Safety Framework between 2014 and 2016. These initiatives sought to equip schools with the
necessary tools to address various forms of violence and ensure the safety of students.
“ The enactment of the Basic Education Act in 2013. It addresses every child’s fundamental right
to education because it spells out that basic education is compulsory and should be free to some
extent or subsidized by the government. And we’ve seen the production of Government capitation in
schools per student, which is progress. So, most students can now continue their learning, especially
day scholars in secondary school from unprivileged backgrounds could not afford fees.
County Policymaker “
18
“ There’s no doubt that the enactment of the Basic Education Act has gone a long way in
improving school enrollment and retention. … There’s increased enrolment and retention, and
even girlchild admission and retention in school has improved so that it can be partly attributed
to this enactment of the act.
Another notable achievement was the amendment of the Sexual Offences Act (SOA) in 2016. This act
strengthened the legal framework for addressing sexual offences and providing better victim protection.
The changes broadened the definition of sexual offences to encompass crimes against children, like sexual
exploitation and abuse. They made using child pornography and engaging in its production, possession, and
distribution criminal acts. Stricter penalties were introduced for sexual offences, particularly for defilement,
based on the age of the victim.
To ensure effective handling of sexual offences cases, including those involving children, the revised SOA
emphasized establishing specialized sexual offences units within the police and judiciary. These units adopt
a survivor-centred approach, focusing on safeguarding and supporting victims throughout legal processes.
Additionally, the updated SOA included provisions for safeguarding child victims during court proceedings.
Measures like closed-circuit television were introduced to enable child witnesses to provide evidence without
facing the accused directly. These steps aim to prevent the re-traumatization of child victims during court
proceedings and prioritize their well-being.
In addition to the SOA, accompanying regulations were formulated to provide detailed guidance on specific
aspects of sexual offences in Kenya. For example, the Sexual Offences Medical Treatment Regulations of 2012
established comprehensive guidelines for treating and examining sexual assault survivors. These guidelines
outlined protocols for healthcare providers to ensure necessary medical care, including emergency
contraception and HIV prophylaxis. These regulations also emphasised the importance of training healthcare
professionals to care for survivors and having proper medical equipment for forensic examinations.
Importantly, these regulations exempted survivors of sexual and gender-based violence, including children,
from medical service charges. This exemption aimed at improving the violence survivors’ access to essential
services at public health facilities.
Furthermore, the Sexual Offences Rules of the Court of 2014 introduced procedural guidelines for managing
sexual offence cases within the court system. These rules encompassed various aspects, including the
admissibility of evidence, protecting survivors’ and witnesses’ privacy, and ensuring fairness for all parties
involved in sexual offences cases.
For a comprehensive list of key Government laws and policies developed and implemented during the study
period, please refer to Appendix 1.
Despite the rapid expansion of VAC laws and policies during the study period, participants explained that
challenges persisted in disseminating them and ensuring effective implementation. One participant cited
inadequate capacity and a lack of financial resources as major barriers to achieving widespread awareness
and understanding of the established laws and policies.
“ We had a big challenge regarding disseminating the policies and the VAC [study report]. We did
not have capacity building on the same. We did not have enough resources to implement all policies
and guidelines properly... So, what was lacking was the dissemination of these key policies to various
stakeholders. That was maybe what we’re not able to achieve.

The transfer and reshuffling of public sector officers, including police and healthcare providers, also posed
challenges to policy enforcement efforts. Trained service providers were occasionally replaced by untrained
individuals, disrupting the continuity of implementation. As one participant expressed:
19
“ I think over the years, there has been a lot of extensive training, capacity building sessions,
capacity sharing sessions, in terms of the law and its application, but the one problem that remains
is the attrition rate of people like the police or Government officers because they are rotational,
they’re never permanent. So, you train these, and then next year, half of them have been transferred,
especially the police. So again…you have to start fresh.
Figure 4: VAC-related legal and policy frameworks developed during the study period.
VAC Policy Frameworks • National Plan Of

Action For Children
in Kenya
• Education and
Training Sector
Gender Policy
• Guidelines for Child • National Standard
• National
Protection Case Operating Psychosocial
Management and Procedures Support Guidelines
• Guidelines on Child
Referral in Kenya or Managing Child for Orphans and
friendly justice • Child Labour Poilcy Vulnerable Children
Survivors of
2019 2017 2015

• National School
Violence
Safety Framework
2018 • Prevention of
Torture Act No 12
2016 • Protection Against
Domestic Violence
of 2017 Act
• The Computer misuse • Sexual
and Cybercrimes Act, Offences Act
No.5
VAC Related Legal Frameworks
Strengthened workforce to deliver VAC services.
The study participants highlighted the strengthening of workforce capacity as an important strategy
implemented by the Government during the study period to enhance the quality of VAC prevention and
response services across relevant sectors, consequently reducing VAC. Primary focus areas included
ensuring adequate staff dedicated to VAC services at national and county levels and equipping them with
the essential information and skills to deliver quality services following national guidelines.
Increase in number of service providers dedicated to VAC.
Between 2010 and 2019, participants noted a substantial rise in the number of dedicated staff supporting VAC
services across various sectors.
20
“ The year 2006, when I joined it, I was a one-person staff in an entire district… This is a very vast
County, but from 2010 up to 2019, there was growth in the workforce for the Department of Children’s
Services, which was a plus for children and is one of the greatest contributing factors to the reduction.
Because with more workforce, the ratio of children officers was increased, which means more officers
could reach more people and now some services were taken to clients’ doorsteps.
• Guidelines for Child • Kenya National Plan

Protection Case of action Against
Management Child • National Children
Sexual exploitation • Kenya National Plan
• National Guidelines Policy
and Abuse of action Against
for Alternate Family • Standards of
• National Guidelines Child
Care of Children Practices for
on Child Sexual exploitation
• National Guidelines Children Protection
Participation and Abuse • National Standards
on Management of Centers
• County Child • National Guidelines onBest Practices
Sexual Violence • Standards for
Protection Sytems on Child in Charitable
• Guidelines on Child Quality
Guidelines Participation Institutions
Protection and Child Improvemnet for
• County Child
Safeguarding for Orphans and
2013 2011
Protection Sytems
Schools and Other Vunerable Children
Guidelines
Learning Instutions Services
2014 • Basic Education

ACT No.14
• Media Council Act
2012 • Female Genital
2010
Mutilation Act No.32
No.46
• Child Act • Counter-Trafficking in
amendment bill Persons Act
• Protection Against
Domestic Violence Act.
“ The department also took deliberate measures to employ more officers. Between 2010 and
2019, several officers were employed in the department at the entry-level, at the entry cadre as
children’s officers II. I cannot comfortably say the number, but I know there are many because we
received officers …to help boost our capacity. Almost every sub-county is now manned by its officer
whereas in the past they ...one officer would man around seven sub-counties.
The staff expansion wasn’t confined to organizations alone; it also reached out to community service
providers. For example, during that period, the Department of Children’s Services introduced a fresh cadre of
service providers known as Child Protection Volunteers (CPVs), and the Department of Social Development
introduced Lay Volunteer Counsellors (LVCs). These individuals were recruited from the community and lived
among those they served. They played a pivotal role in educating the community, raising awareness about
violence, and offering initial services and referrals for cases of violence against children.
21
“ We made an extra effort to recruit CPVs with the support of our partners. These CPVs were
responsible for educating and raising awareness about violence within the community. These
CPVs live within the community and are drawn from it.
“ from the Directorate of Social Development, we enlisted 1,800 Lay Volunteer Counsellors who
are spread across the country in all the sub-counties to ensure that they address, or they sensitize the
communities where they come from on issues of maybe violence, family support systems, to provide
psychosocial support and …general information to the public.
However, despite the increased number of VAC service providers during the study period, the participants
acknowledged that the staff dedicated to VAC services remained insufficient. The workload for these staff
members remained heavy and challenging, as they had to manage multiple responsibilities. This included
responding to complaints, attending court sessions, conducting investigations, and raising community
awareness about VAC.
“ …we have the challenge of human resources. The Directorate has that mandate to preach
prevention and response, but we are not everywhere, and where we are, it may be one officer per
sub-county. This officer should be in the office to listen to the many cases that are reported… is
expected to be in court, …to go to the field to create awareness and investigate all child-related
issues. So, that’s why we are encouraging everybody who has time to be a child protection
volunteer, at least to bridge that gap on human resources…
Enhancing the Capacity of Workforce Across Various Sectors for Responding to VAC Services
During the period between the two surveys, sectors addressing VAC widely recognized the necessity of
delivering quality and comprehensive services. In response, substantial efforts were devoted to workforce
training from various sectors, arming them with the necessary knowledge and skills to respond to child
survivors of violence effectively.
“ Training was targeting all agencies that handle children at some point. So, it brought on board
the police, the judiciary, prisons, probation, and children. Yeah. So, this was taken through some
three-year training just to prepare them for response in the event of violence against children.
“ n terms of the number of trainings, I must say that different partners sponsor trainings. And these
different partners coming together to sponsor training on VAC has a huge impact.
A notable example was the Ministry of Education, which took proactive steps to create safe learning
environments by implementing the Beacon Teachers programme. This programme provided specialized
training and ongoing support to teachers, equipping them with the necessary skills to identify signs of violence,
support affected children and foster a safe and nurturing school atmosphere. A County Policymaker shared,
22
“ There was something started by Plan International quality teachers…These are teachers who are
trained specifically on child rights so that they can be able to detect child abuse in schools….sometimes
when the teachers detect cases of child abuse, they immediately refer to us because… they know that
there are people who can make the follow-up. So, there are many referrals from schools, from the
education office to the children’s office and even the police.
Similarly, the Ministry of Health took significant steps towards addressing VAC by expanding training for
service providers in public health facilities. Initially, the training focused on disseminating the 2014 national
guidelines for addressing sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV). Subsequently, after introducing the
National Standard Operating Procedures for Managing Child Survivors of Violence in 2018, specialized VAC-
specific training was introduced, homing in on the unique needs of child survivors of violence. The primary
objective of this specialized training was to equip clinical teams and law enforcement personnel with the
necessary knowledge and skills to adeptly handle cases and collect evidence when dealing with child
survivors of violence.
“ We would also look at the other side of health care providers, where we would create
awareness, in terms of training, in terms of how they would manage these children if they were
brought to their facilities. …we would teach them … how to provide clinical management of
children who’ve been violated.
“ Our clinical team has been trained severally on how to handle cases, but more also, more
importantly, how to handle the evidence, because sexual violence cases are either won or lost from
the strength of evidence. So, a lot has gone into ensuring that our clinical teams have been trained….
Even the police have been trained in how to handle some of these cases that are being reported.
The Department of Children’s Services also invested efforts in training child protection teams through their
country heads, focusing on child abuse and child protection matters. The goal was to disseminate this
knowledge to children’s officers, enabling them to share it with community members at the sub-county level
subsequently.
“ Training the county heads was with an expectation that they would train their sub-
counties. Then when resources were available, the department would call regional meetings of
children officers to train them on the documents [Policies and laws]...
Furthermore, a training model targeting juvenile justice actors (JJS) was implemented, encompassing
children, probation, police, the judiciary, and prisons. Officers were trained collaboratively, with everyone
selecting critical components relevant to their department. One participant explained that this collaborative
approach enhanced services for children, enabling a more effective advancement of their rights within the
judicial system.
23
“ We had a training model that was targeting juvenile justice actors. These JJAs included the
children, probation, police, judiciary, and prisons….who were trained jointly. And that enabled us to offer
more services to children because you knew if I go to court with this case, there is so and so from the
judiciary who have been trained to assist me in advancing the child’s rights
Local administrators, including chiefs, also underwent capacity-building on child protection principles and
laws, empowering them to effectively intervene in cases of abuse and advocate for children’s rights.
“ We were working closer with other duty bearers. Like we were enhancing the capacity of
chiefs, we ..and volunteer children’s officers to ensure…they know the law…., they understand
what support they can give to children and what happens when people report to them because
they are the first level of report.
Strengthened coordination and collaboration of VAC services.
National-level coordination and collaboration
Throughout the study period, deliberate efforts were invested in enhancing the collaboration of partners and sectors
at the national level. Study participants elaborated on the positive outcomes of this collaborative approach:
“ The collaboration, the coordination between the various

actors who are involved with violence against children, both
Case Study 1: Beacon Teachers
Initiative
Government bodies, NGOs, the community-based organisation
and development partners…has made sure that we can see
some of the gaps through which some of these [VAC] cases The Beacon Teachers Movement
were disappearing or not been addressed [offered services]. was started by Plan International
“
together with the Teachers Service
Commission in Kenya in 2018.
County Policymaker
Beacon Teachers are identified from
among in-service MoE teachers
for their outstanding community
“ The cooperation we have enjoyed over time with our sister

departments in the judiciary, police, and probation… has contributed
service and dedication towards
protecting children. There is a
immensely to the awareness of children’s rights.
County Policymaker “ strong focus on preventing sexual
abuse of students by teachers.
They also promote non-violent
This heightened coordination was attributed to several factors, discipline in school and support
including a good partnership between CSOs and the government, children who disclose family abuse.
The programme has trained 3,000
educators.
“ The success in terms of planning was because of our

good partnership with the Ministry of Health, Ministry of Source: ‘The journey to Beacon
“
Education and Directorate of Children’s Services. Teachers Africa: the power of
teachers to end violence in schools’,
Implementing Partner
30 March 2022. https://www.
end-violence.org/articles/journey-
beacon-teachers-africa-power-
teachers-end-violence-schools
24
Furthermore, coordination structures were introduced that encouraged collaboration among stakeholders.
For instance, the National Council for Children’s Services (NCCS) was established in 2012, providing a central
agency tasked with coordinating child protection efforts at the national level. Additionally, participants
acknowledged the significance of well-organized Technical Working Groups (TWGs) that convened partners
at the national level to deliberate on VAC-related issues:
“ And I think one thing that happened between VAC 2010 and 2019 is the strength of the
National Technical Working Group. I think it became even stronger, and the aspect of devolved
responsibility to the counties because this is the period when
we also saw devolution. We have that devolved process
of ensuring we also have technical working groups at the Case Study 2: IMPower and
regional level. So that worked very positively.
Funder “ Empowerment Transformation
Training (ETT) programmes for sexual
violence prevention, intervention, and
The desk review highlighted the success of various technical recovery
working groups, some initiated from the local level, such as local
child protection technical working groups through AACs in some IMPower was launched in 2010 by
counties and sub-counties, and others being formulated at the Ujamaa. The programme comprised
national level with a policy environment. The National Gender- two curricula, aimed for girls and boys
Based Violence Technical Working Group, established in 2017, and young people between 12 and 22
was housed in the National Commission for Gender Equality years: Girls Empowerment Self Defence
and supported the extension of coordination in many counties. (GESD) and Hero in Me (HIM).
A Technical Working Group for VAC was convened after the 2010
VACS to develop the NRP 2013-2018, and the 2015 National Plan of GESD empowered girls with abuse
Action for Children also mandated a coordinated working group avoidance techniques, including
at national, sub-national and local levels. In 2018, the VAC TWG boundary setting, verbal assertiveness,
was again mobilised to support the imminent 2019 VACS findings negotiation, and physical self-defence
into the NPRP 2019-23. There was considerable adaptation to skills.
the local context at the county and sub-county level. However,
the desk review also noted that implementation did vary, with The HIM curriculum focused on
many counties having little or no active coordination mechanism reshaping harmful attitudes and
(Nassimbwa et al., 2022; Nalianya, 2013). behaviours among boys, addressing
gender, sexuality, consent, and
County-level coordination and collaboration encouraging intervention on behalf of
girls and women.
Similarly, various coordination structures were established at the
county and sub-county levels. One notable example was the The programme was taught in school
institution of Area Advisory Committees (AACs) across counties classes over 6-week cycles, five times
and sub-counties from 2001. These committees served as per school year, with student numbers
dedicated platforms for coordination, addressing child protection ranging from 10,000 to 15,000 per cycle.
concerns within their respective geographical areas.
Six groundbreaking scientific
studies were conducted in Kenya,
“
demonstrating the effectiveness of
We used to have an Area Advisory Council (AAC).
the programs. Rates of rape, teen
It was the body mandated by the Children Act of 2001 to
pregnancy, and school dropout were
coordinate children protection activities in the county or the
halved where IMPower and ETT were
sub-county…So, this was the body which was coordinating
taught.
all partners because if you see the membership of the AAC is
almost all people or all sectors are brought in religious/faith[- Sources: Sarnquist, et al, 2013, 2016,
based], organizations, civil society organization[s].
National Policymaker “ 2021; Sinclair et al., 2013; Keller et al.,
2015, Baiocchi, et al., 2016).
25
Additionally, various sectors introduced TWGs at the county level to facilitate partner coordination and
programme alignment. These groups played an integral role in promoting effective communication and
collaborative problem-solving.
“ And because of this technical working group, there is more coordination. We were able
to collaborate better, and we’re able to discuss certain bottlenecks that happen along the
continuum of providing care.
“ And we have also come up very clearly on improved coordination, and that is why we have
various structures from the sub-county to the county where we have technical working groups
that can work on implementing services at that county level.
However, participants identified persistent challenges despite acknowledging the key role of collaboration
and coordination. These included limitations in securing consistent resources for regular meetings, high
turnover of members within the TWGs and AACs, discrepancies in sectoral priorities, and difficulties in aligning
partner and Government strategies.
“ Challenges or coordination were like in group decision making. It’s different from when you
have to go [lobby with the Government ] as an individual organization because organisations
have interests and priorities at the end of the day. And then we know that collaboration will take
time, decision-making processes are likely to take longer, mobilization for resources is likely to
take longer, and then some of these issues on child protection might not really be aligned to the
Government strategies, per se.
Implementing partner. “
Increased funding for VAC Services
During the study period, the participants noted a significant increase in funding for VAC services. The
funding sources for these initiatives varied. Grants were received from both multilateral and bilateral donors.
This boost in funding was attributed to the results of the 2010 VACS that promoted urgent action and the
Government’s development of a national response plan (the NRP 2013-2018) to guide VAC prevention and
response interventions.
“ Within that time, we saw the funding for the VAC Survey had increased because we had a GBV
response plan… We also saw the international organisations doing child protection work for a long
time coming up strongly. There was a lot of money for responding to violence against children.
Implementation partner “
“ Grants came from multilateral donors and bilateral donors. We have been in close
collaboration with UNICEF and the country, and… had funding from USAID and other multilateral
donors for short-term programmes between three to five years, others one year, to run prevention
and response interventions.
26
The increased funding led to an expansion of evidence-based VAC prevention and response interventions
implemented across various counties in the country.
“ Even when you look at the DREAMS programme, there’s a lot of money that is going to
oversee DREAMS across the country... The DREAMS programme was funded by PEPFAR through the
CDC. So, we were working in Kisumu Migari and Homa Bay.
“ Child rights governance was funded by Save the Children. The child labour project was
funded by ECO Netherlands, and child participation in East Africa was funded by TDH.
“ USAID was one of the other big donors along with UNICEF to make sure that DCS has CPMIS
rolled out and the capacity to utilize that input to determine quantities.
Funder “
“ So, there is a direct connection between the cash transfer scale-up and the reduction of
violence against children… As a result of the same evaluation, we had more funding. The World Bank
came in with a lot of funding. Also, our other development partners – Sweden UNICEF – added more
resources and the Government of Kenya, through the Treasury. Ad, so we increased our enrollment.
We were able to increase the enrollment of the cash transfer.
Regional Director “
Despite the gains from increased funding during the study period, participants stressed the importance of
the Government enhancing its domestic funding due to the observed decline in external funding over the years.
“ But I believe there have been some adjustments (of (domestic funding) upward… from the
development partner point of view, there seem to be declining resources because of a push to ensure
that we have sustainability.

Funder “
To ensure sustainability beyond the lifespans of donor projects, a key proposal was to integrate VAC services
into other health programmes, notably HIV. This approach was deemed critical to achieving long-term
sustainability. Funding support for systems strengthening and integrating services was instrumental in
enabling the uninterrupted delivery of VAC services.
“ I know they’ve been declining resourcing across the board, both for HIV programming and
violence programming. But again, despite the decline in resources for GBV towards implementation,
I believe there are many things in terms of systems strengthening that have been done in the County
to ensure that they remain operational. And I also know […] CDC […] integrated post-violence care
into healthcare service delivery. And so even as the resource envelope goes down, we are certain that
some of the services would continue to be implemented, given that they are already integrated.
Funder “
27
Increased community awareness of VAC
Efforts to create awareness and mobilize communities were recognized as key in promoting child protection
during the study period. Participants noted that efforts were placed on continuous sensitization within
communities. Through these initiatives, community members were informed about the various forms of VAC
and educated on the importance of preventing and addressing such acts.
“ The sustained efforts to sensitize the communities against the vice. We can say that
between that period, there were a number of activities geared towards sensitization and
informing the community on vices of VAC.
“ From 2010 to 2019. I think the campaign that we were running. Yeah, at some point, and we
had resources, so most of us were out in the field doing a lot of public awareness.
Some participants credited the reduction in VAC during the study period to increased awareness among
various groups, including parents, companies, and others, about children’s rights:
“ I would attribute it [the reduction of VAC] mainly to more awareness. Initially, I mean, if you
remember the years before, you will find that when a child is abused, you will find that the parents
want to keep it hashed so that their embarrassment or the stigma associated with it does not occur
in their family. But with more awareness even among corporates, because I remember in 2016, our
former CEO convened a roundtable to drum up support from other corporates on children’s rights
specifically. So even among the private sector, or among other stakeholders, there has been over
the years in between what the period you are reporting… increased awareness in terms of children’s
rights and their role, even stakeholders who are seen as not having necessarily any impact, like
corporates on the same.
Private Sector Partner “
Several strategies were employed to raise awareness within the community. Notably, local media emerged
as an effective platform that partners used to disseminate messages on VAC, significantly amplifying the
issue and bringing it to public attention.
“ We used to have radio programmes as well. Where we invited the county coordinator of
children’s services or the sub-county Children’s Services to give a talk on how to report cases of
sexual abuse or do’s and don’ts…and then we had members of the community call in…and ask
questions. You’ll find that sometimes even a police [Officer] called in and asked a question.
Implementing Partner “
“ There’s been a lot of awareness on what constitutes VAC and its consequences. So, the
media has done a good job, and I know some NGOs have trained the media to highlight these
cases, report on them, and follow through with them. I think the public awareness of how great
[widespread] this matter is contributed a lot to the reduction. So, many cases received media
attention, and people began to see it as a problem, and that It’s possible to report., and when you
report, action can be taken.
Implementing Partner. “
28
Another noteworthy effort was implementing a community mobilization strategy called “The Nyumba
Kumi.” This initiative was introduced in 2013 by the Kenya Police Service as a nationwide community policing
program. It aimed to foster safer local communities by facilitating regular gatherings among clusters of ten
households involving residents and stakeholders. Although primarily focused on community policing, this
initiative inadvertently served as a platform to address various issues impacting the communities, including
matters related to child protection. As a result, the community took it upon themselves to establish measures
for child protection, effectively ensuring the safety and well-being of children at the grassroots level.
“ And I think that just because there was that limelight, a lot of the community now
started realising the importance of children within their communities and the importance of
safeguarding, and to some extent through the Nyumba Kumi, they formed their child protection
for the children or child protection safe measures within the community the grassroots level, just
ensure that children within the community are taken care of.
Working together with religious leaders was another approach used. Programmes were designed to
include discussions about stopping GBV, especially concerning women and children. Religious leaders were
encouraged to incorporate these messages into their teachings. This led to the messages reaching many
people attending services in various places of worship and the broader communities.
“ We would also have programmes with the faith-based organisations, you know, the FBOs,
the pastors... So, we would also take advantage of the core pastor meetings to discuss GBV
prevention, of course, our focus areas being women and children… we would even encourage the
pastors, the imams, the sheikhs…to make sure that when they go back to the pulpit, to the msikiti
(mosque)…that they make sure that they mainstream a prevention message and response on
how to address women and children when it comes to GBV.
“ Some churches in Murang’a that we got involved with, faith-based organisations, churches
that we trained, churches that we had with the programmes against VAC…I know after that, they
had several meetings with fathers in Muranga County and…had conversations about how to reduce
violence against children…. the faith-based organisations began to have many more meaningful
discussions. I think that played a key role in things turning around.
These awareness efforts didn’t just inform communities about VAC and its effects; they also inspired children
to take action against VAC. One such campaign, the “‘Piga Nduru’ Campaign,” was introduced during the
study period. This campaign emphasized the importance of sounding an alarm whenever a child’s rights
were violated. Children were encouraged to scream continuously if they faced abuse at school, home, or
any other location. This strategy established an efficient response mechanism and promoted a sense of
collective action to combat child abuse effectively.
“ I remember we came up with a slogan ‘Piga Nduru’, whenever you [children] are abused
or rights are violated, ‘Piga Nduru’. And we even trained children on how to scream. So, it became
a very good response. Wherever there was an issue of child abuse, be it in school, at the beach,
at home. We advised that the child should scream continuously and told all children to join in
screaming to let everyone know that there is a problem and that a child is being abused.
29
“ We used to call them volunteer children officers. We had given their numbers to various
community members, opinion leaders, school heads and teachers. So, when a child screams,
you get hold of the wazee wa mtaa [village elders], who get hold of the child and report to the
volunteer children officer, who relates the information to us. We then liaise with the police, chief,
and assistant chief, take action, and do an intervention. If it is a matter of rescue, we will rescue
the child and offer treatment, and we see that the perpetrators have been brought to book.
“
Community members also initiated awareness efforts:
“ We also saw…a good number of community members who declared publicly that they are
the champions of children’s rights, or they are the agents of change, and they were able to take the
initiative…to conduct awareness activities within their communities through the Chiefs barazas.
Increased knowledge of rights by children and their participation in VAC matters
Significant strides were made during the study period to enhance child participation in policy and advocacy
activities concerning children’s rights. One key initiative was the establishment of state-funded children’s
assemblies across all 47 counties, introduced in 2011 (Department of Children’s Services, 2019a). These
assemblies provided an official platform for children to actively contribute to shaping policy decisions.
“ We achieved quite a lot regarding children’s issues at that time. That was also when we
formed the Kenya Children’s Assembly, a springboard for the child rights clubs. And for the first
time, we had a junior Government that took place as the head.
Simultaneously, local children’s rights clubs were introduced in schools nationally (initially introduced before
2010 but adopted increasingly over the study period), encouraging empowerment and proactive child
involvement in matters of child protection.
“ In schools, we established Child Rights Clubs, where children are taught life skills. We have
a guide on that. Then, they were trained to be peer-to-peer educators, and those child rights club
members then go and educate others on life skills.
Further, numerous NGOs and organizations played a crucial role in empowering children. They conducted
focused programmes and training initiatives to educate children about their rights and responsibilities,
equipping them to become catalysts for positive change:
“ There’s been a lot of work by NGOs, including ourselves, on empowering children on

their protection, because they are the survivors of this, the different forms of violence, so many
organizations continuously train, empower, support children to know their rights, their responsibilities,
so that now they can be agents of their change, or protect children around them, because now we see,
children also reporting cases of other children who have been violated, etc.
Implementing partner. “
30
These initiatives went beyond simply including children; they also acted as mentoring opportunities, nurturing
young advocates for inclusive policies and champions of child participation. Participants provided inspiring
stories of how children transformed into advocates against violence.
“ I remember practical situations where children themselves were becoming their advocates.
Chapters of the children’s assembly forums were being established within schools. And I proudly
remember that at times it’s the children themselves would come and raise the alarm that a girl is being
married off today or next month, or there’s a plan for FGM going on in some place, or there’s a girl or a boy
who has been removed from school and who’s now been hired as a shepherd someone
“ I remember Majengo, where children started telling their parents. This is my right….children
telling teachers…. you can’t keep on canning me on the buttocks, and I’m a girl... Yeah, those are,
those are some of the success stories that, that I can say.
Increased school enrollment and retention and a safe school environment
Between 2010 and 2019, the Ministry of Education (MoE) made significant strides to ensure the comprehensive
enrollment and retention of all children in schools. These efforts gained momentum after enacting the Basic
Education Act in 2013, which mandated free and compulsory education for every child. Participants believed
the increased attendance of children in educational institutions could have contributed to the decreased VAC.
“ I think, also, keeping our children in school, ensuring that they’re in conducive learning
environments, has been an area that we can say that led to the decline in cases. High school
enrollment ensures that children learn more in the learning environment than in the community,
where some cases happen. So, I think that has also led to some of these cases declining over
the years. We have a very high primary school enrollment rate. And that has, in an indirect way,
reduced violence against children.
The MoE also placed considerable emphasis on implementing policies that enhanced girls’ access and
retention in schools, especially among those who had experienced early pregnancies. They achieved this
through enforcing the National School Health Policy and implementing the school re-entry program.
“ I remember that the ministry then came up with the issue of re-entry of children who may
have experienced the early pregnancies…and they have been denied access to school after
delivery. We did implement the re-entry policy that was guided by the Minister of Education.
“ So the school re-entry programme for girls… it grew out of…our realisation that Kenya had…the
school re-entry policy for girls or the return to school policy, which meant that ….pregnancy should
not be a reason for school dropout in Kenya… the fact that the policy exists, and also the National
School Health Policy, which came later…made it even stronger, you know, because it, gave the girl the
right to decide how long she wants to remain in school, you know, even if she did get pregnant.
31
A noteworthy initiative discovered during the desk review was UNICEF’s Child-Friendly Schools initiative,
which embraced a comprehensive approach to children’s education. Introduced in Kenya in 2002, the Child-
Friendly School concept underwent a pilot phase led by the Ministry of Education in collaboration with UNICEF
across 11 districts: Nairobi, Turkana, West Pokot, Kwale, Isiolo, Marsabit, Moyale, Mandera, Wajir, Garissa, and
Ijara. In 2010, the ministry expanded the programme nationwide. In February 2011, education experts, with
UNICEF’s support, launched a manual detailing the implementation of the ‘Child-Friendly School’ concept.
This initiative tackled various aspects of combating school-related violence, encompassing school design,
water and sanitation provisions, classroom teaching methods, curriculum development, inclusivity, gender
sensitivity, school management, budgeting, community engagement, and the roles of education authorities
and governments. It firmly connected the school to the broader community, recognizing the direct influence
of children’s protection and safety within their homes on their ability to attend classes and learn effectively.
Concerning child protection, the initiative advocated for visible teacher-pupil interactions by designing
classrooms with visibility from outside and offering separate and adequate toilet facilities for boys and
girls, including those with disabilities. It aimed to minimize secluded areas where children could be at risk.
It recommended erecting fences around schools to create secure, child-friendly spaces protected from
harmful external influences.
The Ministry also took on a vital role in sensitizing teachers, school administrators, and parents about VAC.
Their initiatives focused on providing schools with the necessary tools to address violence and ensure student
safety.
“ We also sensitise the parents when during the school, you know, the parent meetings, we
also do it through the county education board, where, where the board enacts certain regulations,
and they ensure and oversees the implementation of programmes, where children are not abused
by either the teachers or parents or guardians or people who are in charge of the children.
Moreover, seminars were arranged for education officials to familiarize them with VAC policies and motivate
them to implement them.
“ I know that the Ministry of Education did emphasise the need to protect children against abuse,
and they even organised sensitisation seminars for… education officials on how to implement the policies.
The sensitization initiatives extended to students, educating them about child rights and reporting
mechanisms. This empowerment enabled children to protect themselves and their peers, fostering a safer
environment.
“ One of them was sensitization to the public and schools. It assisted the children to know their
rights and that it is their duty to protect themselves and protect the other children, their teachers, and
their workers in their schools. While the public also was aware of their rights and their duties. We also
told them about the rights of the children. We told them about different forms, where to report, e.g.,
through 116 and the sub-county children’s offices, and how to respond in case of defilement.
In addition to the sensitisation sessions, numerous schools took extra steps to enhance student safety by
setting up measures to ensure a secure school environment. One remarkable VAC prevention initiative
entailed forming “Amani Clubs” within schools. These clubs originated after the 2007 post-election violence
and expanded during the study period. The clubs aimed to foster peace and friendship among students,
particularly those from diverse backgrounds.
32
“ Amani clubs were established to enhance peace and inclusivity among children in our
schools and encourage them to live harmoniously...especially in the light of 2007, post-election
violence. So, they were meant to assist our children, you know, accept other children, colleagues,
and people from different backgrounds.

Another strategy implemented involved the utilization of “talk/speaker boxes” in schools, where students
could confidentially report abuse without revealing their identities. The school management would then use
anonymous messages to identify and address VAC-related issues.
“ We had those talk boxes in school. The talk boxes enabled children to report anonymously on
cases of child abuse so that the teachers could know what was going on within their communities
or families or the school. So, this was being done in partnership with the Department of Children’s
Services. Once the talk box was opened, the children’s officer had to be there so that they could pick
issues that are related to child abuse and respond to them.

In specific counties, the children’s officer actively participated within the Education Board, enabling them
to express concerns regarding children who were either not attending school or facing mistreatment by
teachers.
“ the children’s officer was a member of the Education Board, and in those education boards,
they could raise issues of children out of school children who are abused by teaching staff… and
we could work with schools to create awareness on VAC through the school.
Strengthen household economic resources.
Between 2010 and 2019, various interventions actively enhanced the stability of households’ economic
situations. A particularly noteworthy effort was initiating the Cash Transfer for Orphans and Vulnerable
Children (CT-OVC) programme in Kenya 2004. This programme aimed to consistently provide financial
assistance to disadvantaged families with identified vulnerable children.
According to the Kenya Child Protection Report for 2016–2019, there was a significant rise in the number of
children benefiting from the CT-OVC program. Over the fiscal years 2013/14 to 2017/18, the count of children
receiving support through the programme increased from 468,066 in 156,022 households to 1,059,000 in
353,000 households. Participants perceived this initiative as contributing to decreased instances of VAC
within the country.
“ one of the main reasons why VAC went down in this country is because of cash transfers
for vulnerable groups, because cash transfers, as much as we don’t sometimes look at it like that,
most of this VAC we are talking about is more prominent in the households with vulnerable or
rather poor or rather poor and vulnerable children and they are the ones who tend to benefit from
the cash transfers more than the other category of people
33
“ then the cash transfers Inua Jamii program, it’s a programme which started around 2004 with
some seed money from UNICEF, but later on the Government around 2007 put some little money, and
that money has been growing, is trying to address shocks within families caused by poverty, where
maybe children may miss out on education, on nutrition, we are trying to support these families live a
dignified life….. It’s a programme which has 1 million plus beneficiaries. It’s a big programme, and the
Government has been good enough to support it. We pay every two months we pay at least 2000 to
4000 to the beneficiaries so that payroll is bigger than any Government payroll.
National Policymaker “
The Directorate of Children Services also utilized the opportunity to raise awareness among families
participating in the cash transfer programme about VAC.
“ the directorate of services is the one that started cash transfer programmes, and at that
time, it was mainly having the name OVC Cash Transfer…. any time we were meeting, we did a lot of
sensitisation and a lot of enrolment of those people who are vulnerable within the community and
any time they were seeing that we are involved and that we were concerned with the vulnerable
community I think this also changed the mindset of the community and it also came in as a buy-in
when we are giving information on Violence Against Children because any time this community
would come to collect money for the children or the old people, we were sensitising them to take care
of the children and also reduce violence against children.
National Policymaker “
Table 3 presents other household economic strengthening initiatives identified through literature and
implemented during the study period.
34
Table 3: Income and economic strengthening programmes for violence prevention implemented 2010-2019
Programme name Summary of the programme
Cash Transfer to Orphaned The Cash Transfer for Orphans and Vulnerable Children (CT-OVC) programme was
and Vulnerable Programme initiated in Kenya in 2004 to provide regular cash transfers to impoverished families
(CT-OVC) who had identified vulnerable children.
From the fiscal years 2013/14 to 2017/18, the number of children receiving support
through the programme rose from 468,066 residing in 156,022 households to 1,059,000
children living in 353,000 households (Department of Children’s Services, 2019a).
The Hunger Safety Net This unconditional cash transfer programme of KES5,100 every two months was
Programme (HSNP). provided to households living in extreme poverty in four arid counties of Kenya:
Mandera, Marsabit, Turkana, and Wajir. This programme reached 100,000 households,
equivalent to 25% of the population in these counties. The initial pilot programme
expanded into a national safety net program, and the coverage of cash transfers
increased from 1.65 million recipients in 2013 to 5 million in 2019, exceeding the original
target of 4.28 million beneficiaries. (HSNP, n.d.).
Additional targeted social UFSP began in 2012 as a pilot programme reaching 10,200 extremely poor urban
assistance payments during households in Mombasa with KES2,000 per month; plans are to expand to Nairobi and
2010-2019 Kisumu.
Urban Food Subsidy
Programme and Cash PWSD-CT focuses on adults and children with severe disabilities who require full-time
Transfer Programme (UFSP) support (HSNP, n.d.).
to Persons with Severe
Disabilities (PWSD-CT)
Presidential Bursary Scheme The Department of Children’s Services supported the implementation of the
for OVCs in secondary school Presidential Secondary School Bursary Scheme, which provided bursaries for an
average of 22,000 children per year to attend public secondary schools. The initiative
was established in 2013, and by 2019, 123,465 children had received bursaries
(Department of Children’s Services, 2019a).
Increased and improved VAC response services
Between 2010 and 2019, significant advancements in strengthening VAC response services across different sectors
(see Table 4 ). For instance, Police departments took the initiative to set up Child Protection Units (CPUs)
within police stations, providing crucial support to children in need. By 2015, 14 CPUs had been established
(Government of Kenya et al., 2015), and numbers continued to grow. These units created a safe space for
children, ensuring their well-being until appropriate assistance could be arranged. Moreover, introducing
gender desks in police stations further enhanced efforts to address VAC and offer support to victims.
“ And I think also having the CPUs in the police stations at that time.. was very good because even
children brought in late in the night were placed there until you come in the morning.
The progress made in addressing VAC was also reflected in the justice system. Court Users Committees
emerged as a significant progress, bridging the gap between the courts and the public. This concept gained
prominence with the introduction of the new constitution in 2010, and Court Users Committees were mandated
in the Judicial Service Act No.1 of 2011. People could engage with the judiciary more readily, discussing relevant
matters directly with judges.
35
“ I remember it was as early as 2011 because we had a court users committee when l was there in Lamu.
These court user committees were developed by the new constitution towards the progress of the term of
Justice Mutunga. He said that courts are so far from common Mwanainchi (Citizens), So that is how the court
users committee came for the people to understand... We will not address the judge in the chamber or the
court. We address you in the body and tell you this issue.
“ And then when it comes to the judiciary because we also established the children court users’
committees, we had the member of the Judiciary chairing and as being part of it actively attending and, and
the children department as well.

The MOH and the Directorate of Children’s Services made efforts to ensure that child survivors and their
families received comprehensive services, including psychosocial support.
“ The staff that we had seconded at the Children’s Services were also counsellors. So yeah, they provided
mental health support to children and their families.

“ And we offer psychosocial support for any other basic needs that the survivor will want. And we also
offer educational support to the girls who have gone through sexual violence.
Furthermore, the MOH also made substantial efforts to ensure that health facilities were adequately prepared
to respond to survivors of sexual violence. For instance, a noteworthy innovation was the introduction of
locally assembled post-rape care kits in 2012 (Ajema et al., 2018). This enabled the provision of high-quality
services to survivors of sexual violence at a larger number of public health facilities throughout the country.
“ One of them being, you know, the development of, you know, locally assembled rape kits, using those
rape kits, you know, across Kenya and public health facilities. Now for the longest time, and I think that may still
be the case, it was the only rape kit available in public health facilities in Kenya.
Another noteworthy example was introducing and expanding a national toll-free helpline, 116, initiated by the
Department of Children’s Services in 2006. Over the study period, this helpline witnessed substantial growth,
escalating from receiving 20 calls per month in 2006 to handling a remarkable 3,000 calls daily by 2015.
The study participants believed this initiative played a role in responding to and preventing VAC. By utilizing
this helpline, concerned individuals could swiftly connect with child protection officers and law enforcement,
ensuring prompt interventions to rescue endangered children. This mechanism proved effective even across
geographical boundaries, emphasizing its significant impact on safeguarding children.
“ Remember the issue of the 116, as our toll-free line. It helped a lot because this matter will go there,
and they will link up with the relevant children officer to see how best to rescue the matter
36
Efforts were also directed towards ensuring that communities were well-informed about the available
services and how to access them.
“ other interventions were strengthening the referral pathways, making sure that we people in
communities, or villages, have information on the referral pathways when you are, when, from the time
you become a victim until the time we call you a survivor.

Table 4: Examples of VAC response interventions implemented during the study period (see Appendix 2 for
additional details on these and additional interventions)
Intervention Sector
Child Help Line 116 Programme (established in 2006 by DCS; moved from independent The Department of
initiative to national oversight by the 2019 NPRP) Supported by PEPFAR USAID/OVC and others. Children’s Services
Child Protection Centres (CPC) (mandated in 2010, supported by Terre des Hommes (TDH)
and Comitato Internazionale per lo Sviluppo dei Popoli (CISP) initially)
Child protection Units in police stations (date of establishment not known, 14 functioning by Police
2015, Children Act of 2022 requires each police station to have one)
Legal Aid services (mandated in the 2010 Constitution but in practice limited availability; Legal
supported by NGOs such as The Cradle) with an increased number of pilot projects over the
study period
Children’s Courts (mandated in the Children Act, but pilot courts were slowly established Judiciary
over the project period; currently established in five courts (Ministry of Labour and Social
Protection, 2020).
Establishment of SGBV services across public health facilities, including one-stop GBV centres Ministry of Health
(see Section 6.2.9 below)
Strengthened VAC data collection and reporting system.
Significant progress was achieved in enhancing data collection systems across various sectors to address
VAC. Notably, the Ministry of Health made headway in improving the routine collection of data related to SGBV.
The literature revealed the introduction of data collection tools such as the Post Rape Care Form (MOH 364)
and the age-disaggregated Sexual Violence Register (365) during this period. These tools were distributed
for utilization across public health facilities.
“ We know some facilities could still lack the tools [MOH 364/5] because the production was a little
bit too low. However, we participated in ensuring that several facilities received the new tools. And….there
was also the aspect of incorporating the tools training as part of the clinical management training.
Funder “
Furthermore, participants expressed appreciation for incorporating SGBV indicators into the District Health
Information System (DHIS). This integration facilitated the identification of frequently reported cases and
service uptake at the national level, guiding the Ministry of Health to enhance its efforts to address SGBV
effectively.
“ I also think from the Ministry of Health, just having deliberate indicators included within the HIS
[health information system]…also goes a long way in helping us see from a health perspective…what are
the frequently reported cases, the uptake of some of the services, and guiding the Ministry of Health on
where is it, they need to strengthen their efforts.

37
Similarly, the child protection sector introduced the Child Protection Management Information System (CPIMS)
in 2016. This system documented, monitored, and supervised child protection support and related matters.
CPIMS provided invaluable data for evidence-based decision-making and comprehensive supervision of
child protection efforts. The participants lauded the system for facilitating access to case information from
various locations and allowing data analysis to identify areas of focus and intervention needs.
“ We got a platform, the CPIMS, where we could report the cases we handled. So that is a
system that is there now, which is accessible to the public…We can retrieve data from there and feel nice
about it because now we can account for every service we offer at any time.
“ CPIMS is a game changer in that where I am right now. I am not even in my region. If I want
to check on cases filled into the system where I am right now, I can do so. […] I can analyse the data for
each sub-country and get to know what is happening in that sub-county and areas of focus that maybe if
somebody wants to make or give intervention what to do […]So the CPIMS is good.
Moreover, participants observed that diverse service providers underwent training and received essential
skills and equipment to utilize the CPIMS effectively.
“ There are a number of trainings that were carried out to introduce the stakeholders to information
and data management. And I want to talk about the CPIMS specifically…We did train our officers and
some stakeholders... Most officers and stakeholders have been trained on it.
“ Yeah, but I’m happy with the continuous training. At least as we speak now, we
are somewhere. Though a few who joined recently are yet to be trained, you have gotten
a request for them to be trained…I can talk about equipment, we were provided with the
equipment and also training on the same. The capacity for the officers was built. I can talk
about partnerships. Because, like, the equipment was mostly from UNICEF.
Availability of local evidence – research and programme
The importance of data availability in guiding national efforts to prevent and address VAC was emphasized
by study participants. The VAC 2010 report highlighted the challenges faced by children, underscoring
the necessity to tackle child protection issues. The survey findings played a pivotal role in catalysing the
implementation of measures to prevent and respond to VAC.
“ You know, the survey brought the issues that are affecting the children to the public’s attention,
and from that time, the Government developed strategies to ensure that they address these issues.
38
“ I think earlier on, people were just saying child protection is a big problem... But that
first survey was a big eye-opener to many people, including the government, that this is a
big problem. Therefore, it raised a lot of attention to child protection, violence prevention and
response, and more investments came in in terms of time and resources from donors from
governments from NGOs. I think that is why we can see a reduction; with that first survey, people
saw this as a big problem. And more investments started coming in, more solutions were now
being sought.
In addition to the VAC surveys, the desk review identified several studies conducted during the study period to
assess the quality of services for children (Ajema et al., 2018. Wangamati et al., 2016; African Child Policy Forum
& African Partnership to End Violence Against Children, 2014; Mathenge et al., 2022; Ministry of Education, 2018;
Cheruto et al., 2021; Kenna, 2017). These studies and data from routine collection systems provided valuable
local, real-time evidence. The findings guided continuous improvement and enhancement of programmes.
6.3 Participants perception of factors that affected VAC prevalence among adolescent girls
The comparison of the 2010 and 2019 VACS findings survey revealed that despite overall efforts to reduce
VAC, some forms of sexual violence against adolescent girls remained high. Study participants believed
that sexual violence remained a particularly challenging issue mainly due to the stigma and silence that
surrounds it in most Kenyan communities. Unlike other forms of violence, they believed that sexual violence is
enveloped in shame and secrecy, making it more difficult for survivors to speak out.
“ [Sexual violence is] just more difficult to tackle, you know, because it’s associated with
issues such as shame, secrecy, in a way that physical or maybe emotional violence is not. […] It’s
the kind of violence that you can’t talk about, even though things have improved. Now, you know,
what I mean, it’s the kind of violence that you can get shamed for, you know, if you think about
survivors of different kinds of violence, you know, when it comes to sexual, there’s something
different about it, because society still has not fully changed, you know, what I mean? So, yes, we
still fight continues.

“ Actually, in communities where I work, a parent would not want to disclose that a child has
gone through sexual violence, and also, you look at the girls that we have, around 79% of these
girls are incest, violence that happens in the house […]it is done silently that unless you probe
and you probe, you use tactics, you cannot sometimes uncover that this girl is going to sexual
violence. And because people don’t want to be associated with, […] we started talking about
sexual violence when we saw a girl is pregnant […] but there was no pregnancy, so there is no
stomach that is becoming big, people will not talk about that.
The normalization of violence and harmful social norms that cultivate a culture of silence were cited as further
obstacles to mitigating sexual violence among adolescent girls. In certain societies, girls are conditioned to
accept violence as part of their existence, often overlooked due to entrenched patriarchal norms.
39
“ [Women and girls] are expected in many areas, not all areas, but in many areas, they’re
expected to endure certain things, […]that is normal they know, I don’t know how else to put it.
So, even when oppressed, they might not recognize that they’re being oppressed. […] And so they
continue being taken advantage of easily, and also because we are largely a patriarchal society,
who are you going to report to? To the male? That you’re being violated? How? Okay, and how
are they supposed to, unless they have a purpose in their mind and they’re convinced that this is
wrong, they will most likely say, go fix it, that is just how men are or something like that.
Moreover, poverty was also recognized as a key factor, at times compelling families to use their adolescent
daughters for economic gain. This sexual exploitation is not always seen as violence but rather as an
opportunity for income
“ It is just normal that when it’s also a source of income, and so many people are also looking
at it as not violence as such, it’s like an opportunity. So, like, in our, in our forums, we have come
across girls whose parents have used to go and look for money. ... And some of them, it’s the
parents who are organizing for the meetings and these girls getting violated.
Lastly, the study participants reported that the institutional response to sexual violence against adolescent
girls was problematic. There was a gap between policy and practice, often leaving girls without the needed
support. A participant provided evidence of disbelief and victim-blaming attitudes from officials.
“ When you find that a girl has been sexually violated, then you go to the children’s office or
the police, they look at those girls, and they don’t believe that the girls have gone through sexual
violence. They say, but you take yourselves there, you have bad manners. […]
People are not taking this seriously.
40
41
7 DISCUSSION
Our study occurred within the context of notable progress in reducing various forms of VAC in Kenya. However,
amidst this progress, there remained a concerning lack of improvement in some aspects of VAC, particularly
in reducing some forms of sexual violence in adolescent girls. In this section, we delve into our study findings,
interpret them, and explore their implications for enhancing VAC prevention and response in Kenya. This
study is the first of its kind worldwide to investigate the underlying factors influencing the observed shifts
in VAC prevalence between two survey periods over a decade. By focusing on stakeholders’ perceptions
from multiple sectors, actors and areas across Kenya, the study has gained insights into both intended and
unintended outcomes for VAC prevention and response. It has retrospectively gathered information on child
protection prevention and response actions in Kenya, thus catalysing the potential for effective action against
VAC. The data shed light on initiatives that may not have focused initially on VAC prevention and response
but were widely acknowledged to have had an unanticipated impact.
7.1 Momentum in Ending VAC leading up to 2010
While the study timeframe began in 2010, one significant finding from key informant interviews and
stakeholder meetings was the importance of events immediately preceding 2010. This section focuses on
factors described by many informants as a consequence of the events described below.
While the Kenyan Government has been addressing VAC for several decades, a marked increase in
commitment arose in the lead-up to 2010, fuelling the momentum observed during our study period. Our
validation meetings with stakeholders revealed several factors influencing efforts to address VAC in Kenya.
Following the contested elections in 2007, a wave of post-election violence ensued, exposing the extensive
GBV endured by women and children. This revelation underscored the urgent need for immediate action.
Largely in response to this post-election violence, the new Kenyan Constitution in 2010 highlighted the critical
importance of safeguarding children from harm. It also laid the groundwork for reviewing and developing
laws and policies related to VAC.
Furthermore, there was a critical need for comprehensive, population-level data on VAC in Kenya. This
data was imperative for informing evidence-based strategies and policies to address VAC. The availability
of data from the 2010 VACS provided the first invaluable insights into the scope, prevalence, and specific
characteristics of VAC, thereby facilitating the development of targeted interventions and fostering a more
informed and impactful approach to mitigating the issue.
7.2 Interpretation of our findings
What contributed to the reduction of VAC?
The increasing focus on researching VAC prevention interventions in recent years has led to a solid body of
evidence supporting their effectiveness (Jewkes et al., 2014; Hillis S. et al., 2015; World Health Organization,
2016).
Our study highlights several factors that contributed to the prevention of VAC during the observed period.
Notably, it wasn’t just individual strategies, but rather their collective implementation that prompted positive
changes at the population level (Figure 5). This aligns with current literature promoting a holistic approach
to VAC prevention, which calls for concerted action from various stakeholders. The approach involves
implementing strategies across various ecological levels — individual, family, community, and societal — to
harness the synergistic effects of multiple prevention strategies, thereby tackling the complex and layered
nature of VAC (WHO, 2016)
42
Figure 5 Participants perceptions of the factors that led to the reduction of VAC
Momentum in
2007 Post-election violence, ending VAC Legal and policyn frameworks,
2010 constitution and VACS leading up to
cordination structures
2010
2010 data
Government
Expansion of leadership,
VAC prevention governance and
Community awareness and mobilisation , school services multisectoral
collaboration Enhancing human resource capacities and
enrollment and safe sschool environment,
refining data collection and reporting systems
household economic resilience, VAC response Reduction
and support services
in VAC
System
Meaningful
strengthing fo
child
Increased awareness raising among children and VAC prevention
participation Increasedn funding by Government, donors and
programmes
empowering them to take action against VAC private sectors for policy dev and programming
Increased
funding
Importantly, the strategies highlighted by our study participants mirror the evidence-based recommendations
for effective VAC prevention as reflected in the literature. Our findings also stressed the vital role played
by various additional crosscutting strategies to ensure the interventions are successfully implemented, as
detailed in Table 5.
Table 5: VAC prevention strategies implemented in Kenya between 2010 and 2019 compared to those in the
WHO INSPIRE framework.
INSPIRE Strategies Strategies identified by study participants to have led to reduction in

VAC between 2010 and 2019
Cross-cutting strategies
Cross-cutting strategies Enhanced coordination and collaboration structures
Coordination mechanisms Enhanced coordination and collaboration structures
Monitoring and evaluation Strengthened VAC data collection and reporting system.
mechanisms Availability of local evidence
Expanded specialised workforce for VAC services
Implementation and Strengthening and harmonising legal and policy frameworks for VAC
enforcement of laws
Norms and values Increased community awareness and mobilisation

Increased knowledge of rights by children and their participation in
VAC matters
Safe environments Increased school enrollment and retention and a safe school
environment
Parent and caregiver support
Income and economic Strengthened household economic resilience.

strengthening
Response and support services Increased and improved VAC response and support services
Education and life skills Increased school enrollment and retention and a safe school
environment
Government leadership, governance and multisectoral collaboration
Strong Government commitment, leadership, and strategic partnerships were key to designing and
implementing strategies to fight VAC collaboratively. A notable demonstration of this commitment came
with the creation the multi-sectoral National Response Plan (NRP) for 2013-2018 by the DCS (Ministry of Labour
and Social Protection, Department of Children’s Services, 2019b).
43
The NRP established a central framework for guiding the VAC programme, presenting a unified strategy
across key sectors, including health, education, justice, and social services. It was anchored on six essential
pillars: addressing legislative and policy issues, ensuring the availability of quality services, coordinating the
child protection sector, identifying and addressing circumstances where violence occurs, advocacy and
communication, information management, and capacity building. Furthermore, the NRP delineated the roles
and responsibilities of all stakeholders in VAC prevention, recognising the efforts of both statutory bodies and
community actors in a single, comprehensive plan. This inclusive, multi-sectoral approach cultivated shared
ownership and accountability, significantly improving the collaborative fight against VAC over the decade
and marking a departure from previous, less integrated practices.
Consistent with the NRP strategic objectives, the period between 2010 and 2019 saw significant progress in
developing and enforcing laws and policies to prevent VAC. Strengthening legal and policy frameworks is
acknowledged as a vital step to protect children, offering a clear and structured approach for both prevention
and intervention (WHO, 2016). Over the decade, lawmakers enacted and updated a suite of VAC-related laws,
some outdated for many years, and introduced a range of new policies across diverse sectors. The universal
consensus on the need to reinforce and execute these legal and policy frameworks is well-documented
as a paramount element in the fight against VAC (Hillis, et al., 2015; WHO, 2016). Robust policies set precise
standards and accountability, encourage best practices, and ensure effective stakeholder collaboration
(WHO, 2016). Moreover, they ensure legal protection for children, deter potential offenders through prescribed
punitive measures, and create a safer environment for children (UNICEF, 2017).
Despite the significant advancements in laws and policies, it is important to acknowledge that challenges
remain in enforcing them and translating policies into effective actions. Study participants highlighted that
continued efforts are necessary to ensure that these frameworks lead to tangible outcomes in protecting
children from violence. Further discussions with children highlighted the need to expand the platforms used to
disseminate the laws and policies to reach a wider child audience. These included providing VAC education
into the school curriculum through activists and peer counsellors as educators and interactive methods like
role plays and dramas. They also highlighted the relevance of various media platforms, including television,
magazines, radio, and social media, in effectively disseminating information. They suggested placing
awareness-raising posters in schools and communities to innovative ideas like composing songs about VAC.
During the study period, the Government recognised the need to enhance coordination and collaboration
structures as a key strategy to improve services for VAC. Notably, the Government acknowledged the crucial
role of coordinating authorities at both national and county levels to ensure a uniform approach, standardise
protection services, and supervise policy execution. The National Council for Children’s Services (NCCS),
founded in 2002, was praised by the study participants for effectively coordinating with various stakeholders
in meeting the NRP goals. Equally, at the county level, the Area Advisory Councils (AACs), now called Area
Advisory Committees, proved instrumental in coordinating and implementing child protection initiatives. In line
with our findings, WHO emphasises the significance of robust sectoral systems and their effective coordination
for the success of VAC prevention programmes, as outlined in the INSPIRE framework (WHO, 2016).
Despite these advances, our findings highlighted significant challenges in expanding and maintaining these
coordination frameworks, largely due to constraints in funding and staffing. It was noted that the dependence
on unpredictable donor funding often led to discontinuities in activities.
System strengthening for VAC prevention programmes.
During the study period, there was a commendable push to improve systems to enhance the provision of
services related to VAC. Participants cited enhancing human resource capacities and refining data collection
and reporting systems as key contributors to the observed decline in VAC cases.
Considerable investments were placed in training service providers across various sectors and expanding
the number and diversity of roles dedicated to child protection services. This move aligns with research
demonstrating the critical role of well-trained service providers in the success of prevention programs (Kerr-
Wilson et al., 2020; Abramsky et al., 2014). The emergence of community-level roles, such as Child Protection
Volunteers and Lay Volunteer Counsellors, marked a transformative step. These roles greatly increased the
accessibility of services and improved service delivery within communities. This approach represented a
substantial shift from previous challenges, particularly the acute shortage of skilled staff, a major hindrance
to delivering high-standard child protection services (Government of Kenya, UNICEF, and Global Affairs
Canada, 2015).
44
Despite strides made in training service providers, key informants identified a critical issue: many training
programmes were geared more towards addressing general GBV, with a particular focus on sexual violence
rather than specifically on VAC. This adult-centred approach made service providers less prepared and less
confident in delivering specialised VAC services, a concern highlighted by two studies conducted in Kenya
(Ajema et al., 2018. Wangamati et al., 2016). Furthermore, although the workforce had expanded, there was still
insufficient staff to manage the caseloads and support survivors adequately, leading to high-stress levels
and burnout among care providers. The frequent reassignment of trained staff to other roles compromised
the effective response to VAC, causing a disruptive cycle of recruiting and training new personnel in already
resource-limited environments.
Local data accessibility proved to be critical in effectively addressing VAC. The Child Protection Information
Management System (CPIMS) played an instrumental role. This system, developed by the DCS, managed
individual cases and generated essential data for national monitoring. Such information was fundamental
for evidence-based decision-making and comprehensive evaluations of child protection initiatives. Including
GBV indicators in the health information management system was a key achievement, supplying the
necessary data to enhance VAC response services. Study participants believed that the consistent gathering
of administrative data, along with local research studies conducted during the period, raised awareness
of the prevalence and complexities of VAC. It also led to better monitoring of intervention strategies and
provided invaluable insights, contributing to developing more effective methods for reducing VAC.
Funding for VAC services
The Government adopted various measures to boost its financial response to VAC during the study period,
such as advocating for the importance of tackling the issue using the VACS findings, expanding partnerships
with new donors and forging partnerships with private-sector entities.
Although exact financial figures for VAC programmes and services from the Government and other
contributors remained unclear, the evident growth in the number and scale of prevention programmes
and sectoral workforce suggests a rise in investment. Notably, key funders like PEPFAR shifted substantial
resources towards targeted VAC initiatives, including the DREAMS project, GBV prevention, and support for
orphaned and vulnerable children (OVC) programmes.
Private sector collaboration further supported these efforts, with entities like the Safaricom Foundation and
Kenya Commercial Bank supporting educational initiatives and broader VAC prevention strategies.
Despite the progress made through increased funding, the key informants underscored the urgency for the
Government to augment domestic funding in response to diminishing external contributions. For sustainable
VAC service provision, the continued integration of VAC services with other health initiatives, particularly
those targeting HIV, was recommended. Such integration is key for enduring support, focusing on system
strengthening and service integration to ensure the ongoing delivery of VAC services.
Meaningful child participation
Child participation refers to the process by which children can express their views, influence decision-making,
and achieve change on issues affecting their lives. It is rooted in Article 12 of the United Nations Convention
on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), which states that children have the right to express their views freely in all
matters affecting them and for their views to be given due weight following their age and maturity (Save the
Children, 2018). Laura Lundy’s model of child participation delineates a structured approach to uphold the
UNCRC’s principle of children’s right to be heard. The Lundy model is built on four key pillars: ‘Space’ (ensuring
children have a safe forum for expression), ‘Voice’ (equipping children with information and support to
articulate their views), ‘Audience’ (guaranteeing the right people listen to children), and ‘Influence’ (securing
a commitment that children’s views prompt action) (Lundy, 2007). Since its introduction in 2014, the Lundy
model has significantly influenced how organizations, agencies, and governments globally understand and
implement child rights-based participation.
Our study highlighted the Kenyan Government’s and its partners’ dedication to enhancing child participation
45
in activities addressing VAC. A significant milestone in this endeavour was developing and implementing
child participation guidelines to amplify children’s involvement in shaping their welfare across various
settings – from family units to larger societal institutions.
A prominent example was the 2011 launch of state-funded Children’s Assemblies in all 47 counties, paralleling
the adult parliament, to give children a structured platform to voice their concerns and engage in decision-
making. Additionally, introducing children’s rights clubs in schools nationwide further promoted active
engagement and empowerment in child protection matters.
Our study found notable progress in empowering children to speak out and drive positive change, protecting
themselves and their peers from violence. NGOs were pivotal, offering programs that taught children about
their rights and roles. Children demonstrated awareness of these issues during validation workshops, though
they used varied terms for VAC. They mainly equated violence with the infringement of their rights, highlighting
issues like the denial of essentials, including food, shelter, education, and personal items. A significant concern
was child labour, especially demanding tasks like carrying heavy loads, as a common rights violation.
Despite this progress, further action was needed to ensure that children’s voices were heard and given due
consideration. Reviews of various programs and documents often showed a lack of genuine child contribution
despite extensive efforts to engage them in numerous activities. Additionally, the challenge of securing
equitable representation for children of all ages, genders, and backgrounds, particularly VAC survivors, in
formal child participation frameworks remained.
Expansion of VAC prevention services
During the study period, there was a noteworthy expansion in the rollout of services to prevent VAC. A major
shift occurred in the funding landscape: previously, investment had predominantly supported response
services, but our study observed a significant increase in investments allocated to VAC prevention initiatives.
Funders like PEPFAR, who traditionally focused on different programmes, reallocated substantial funds to
VAC prevention initiatives, including the DREAMS, GBV, and OVC programmes. Furthermore, the Government
established partnerships with private-sector entities such as the Safaricom Foundation and the Kenya
Commercial Bank. These collaborations supported initiatives like school enrollment, a known protective
factor for VAC, especially with safe schools initiatives, furthering VAC prevention efforts. This broadened
implementation of prevention strategies likely contributed to the decline in VAC cases during the study period.
Community Awareness Creation and Mobilisation In response to the significant prevalence of VAC,
as revealed in the 2010 survey, the Government prioritized community awareness activities in the NRP.
Consequently, substantial efforts were channelled into this strategy, resulting in the implementation of several
interventions. However, study participants highlighted the crucial role played by local radio stations, which
increased in number across the country during the study period, in disseminating key VAC messages in local
languages. Further, the ‘Piga Nduru’ Campaign stood out as a positive initiative, which equipped children with
the means to signal for help if their rights were breached, thus educating communities on VAC and how to
act against it. These initiatives were instrumental in raising public awareness about the different forms of VAC
the societal norms that sustain them, and encouraged collective grassroots action against child abuse. They
also framed VAC as a public health issue requiring urgent action and recognition as a punishable offence.
However, recent studies suggest that such awareness campaigns on their own may not yield lasting change
(Kerr-Wilson et al., 2020). These programs tend to focus on information distribution rather than encouraging
critical thinking or promoting substantial shifts in harmful social norms. Awareness efforts must go beyond
information transmission for effective societal change, especially against entrenched norms. They should
strive to incite activism for real transformation, like the SASA! Programme carried out by PEPFAR partners
within the DREAMS initiative. Moreover, it is generally understood that prevention initiatives require a sustained
effort, typically spanning three to five years, to effect enduring change (Abramsky et al., 2014).
School enrollment and safe school environment: Our findings revealed noteworthy educational sector
46
advancements between 2010 and 2019. The Government enacted the Basic Education Act in 2013, ushering in
free and compulsory education, a key step in improving school enrollment and retention rates. This act aimed
to ensure children had access to a structured and safe educational setting. The growth in school enrollment
was further supported by initiatives like the Presidential Bursary Fund and partnerships with entities such
as the KCB Wings to Fly and the Safaricom Foundation, which offered financial assistance for school fees
to disadvantaged students. Particularly, the focus on facilitating girls’ education, including those affected
by early pregnancies, received attention through the National School Health Policy and the school re-entry
program.
While the school enrollment and re-entry measures were not specifically designed to combat VAC, several
regional studies have pointed out the efficacy of such educational strategies in preventing VAC (Hallfors et al.,
2011; Population Council, 2014; Devries et al., 2015; Sarnquist et al., 2014). Effective strategies include increasing
enrollment numbers, creating secure school environments, and imparting life skills education (WHO, 2016).
47
Household economic resilience: The study participants emphasised improving household financial
stability as a vital strategy to improve VAC during the study period. Key interventions implemented involved
Government-led cash transfer programmes, notably the Cash Transfer to Orphaned and Vulnerable
Children (CT-OVC), the Hunger Safety Net Programme, the Urban Food Subsidy Programme (UFSP), and the
Presidential Bursary Scheme for Orphans and Vulnerable Children. These programmes delivered consistent
financial support to disadvantaged families. While the initial goal of these programmes was to reduce poverty
and improve access to healthcare and education, they also appear to have played a role in diminishing VAC.
Evidence from Austrian et al.’s study in Kenya reinforced this positive impact, showing that cash transfers led
to improved adolescent well-being indicators, such as increased school enrolment rates, which in turn act as
protective barriers against VAC (Austrian et al., 2021). These results align with broader international research
that supports the efficacy of cash transfers in reducing VAC (Chakrabarti et al., 2020; UNICEF, 2020).
However, a Ugandan study presented a cautionary perspective. It revealed that cash transfers might
unintentionally increase the risk of sexual harassment for girls without concurrent social or behavioural
interventions (Austrian & Muthengi, 2014). Therefore, to effectively counteract the risk of violence, it is critical to
implement an integrated approach that enhances both economic and social assets, including strengthening
social networks and reproductive health knowledge.
VAC response and support services: From 2010 to 2019, there were significant advancements in the response
to VAC spanning various sectors. Crucial among these was establishing Child Protection Units in police
stations, offering vital support and safety for children. In the justice sector, the introduction of Children’s Court
Users Committees allowed for direct public interactions with judges, thus improving access to justice. The
Ministry of Health, together with the Directorate of Children’s Services, prioritised comprehensive support,
including psychosocial services, for child survivors and their families. The national toll-free helpline (116) was
also expanded for wider reach. Additionally, there was a concerted effort to boost community awareness
about the services available and the referral processes to ensure that assistance was readily accessible.
Violence against adolescent girls
Sexual violence against adolescent girls is a critical global concern, with numerous factors contributing to
its persistence. The WHO reports that around one in three women globally have endured physical and/or
sexual violence in their lives, often commencing from a young age (World Health Organization, 2021). UNICEF
reinforces this data, revealing that nearly one in ten girls under 20 have faced forced sexual acts (United
Nations Children’s Fund, UN Women, & Plan International, 2020).
Our findings resonate with other studies that have identified various factors underpinning this prevalence,
including societal norms that tolerate or excuse violence, gender inequality, the subordinate status of girls
and women, and a pervasive culture of silence and stigma surrounding victims, which discourages reporting
and seeking help. The situation is compounded by inadequate legal protections and a lack of support
services, leaving adolescent girls vulnerable to continued abuse (Engel, Vyas, Chalasani, Luna, & Robinson,
2022; UNICEF, 2017)
Our findings highlight a significant gap in VAC programs and policies during the study period, which
largely treated children as a uniform group without addressing the vulnerabilities and types of violence
that adolescent girls face. Nevertheless, initiatives like the PEPFAR DREAMS initiative, IMPOWER, and the Stop
Violence Against Girls in School campaign have shown promise in targeting these issues.
The research also shows that programs emphasizing male involvement and gender transformation
only started to gain momentum post-2016, often lacking breadth and depth. A critical need exists for a
comprehensive strategy that escalates such initiatives, ensuring the protection and empowerment of
adolescent girls are prioritized effectively.
48
7.3 Study limitations
Recall bias was a significant issue during the study, impacting participants’ data accuracy. This bias was
due to the time gap between 2010 and the actual interviews. Additionally, locating individuals actively
implementing services during that time proved challenging, further complicating data collection. The impact
of COVID-19 on children’s experiences of VAC and Kenyan society also made it difficult to remember “how
things used to be.”
The different terminology that various partners used to describe VAC services was another barrier. Terms
like child abuse, sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), child protection, and child maltreatment were
used across various sectors. This variation in terminology created difficulty in ensuring participants answered
questions about VAC more broadly. To address this, research assistants received training on the commonly
used terms and how to explain their relationship to VAC in a broader context.
Despite efforts to comprehensively review legal, policy, and service delivery documents related to VAC
prevention and response in Kenya from 2010 to 2019, some relevant documents may have been inadvertently
excluded, particularly if they were unavailable online. Additionally, while interesting intervention examples
were received from various partners across the country, detailed information was often lacking due to time
and capacity constraints for documentation within many organizations.
Moreover, it’s essential to note that while the study acknowledges the diversity of violence experienced by
children in Kenya, it primarily focused on sexual, physical, and emotional violence, as these were the three
forms of violence measured in the VACS.
Lastly, although this study provides a wealth of qualitative information on initiatives and interventions that -
according to rich and diverse stakeholder perspectives - contributed to reductions in VAC over this period, it
falls beyond the study’s scope to assess the effectiveness of individual interventions. Thus, this study cannot
attribute violence reduction to specific initiatives and doesn’t delve into intervention or policy effectiveness.
Instead, it analyses stakeholders’ perceptions of the elements that have made a difference.
Despite these limitations and challenges, the study sought relevant and reliable data and insights to address
the study objectives.
49
50
8 IMPLICATIONS
This study’s findings emphasize the need for the Kenyan Government and its partners to scale up their efforts
to prevent and address VAC rapidly. To achieve this, the following actions are required:
• Enhancing Financial Investments in VAC Prevention and Response Services. Financial commitment is
crucial in combating VAC, demanding a multi-faceted approach. First, the Government must secure
increased domestic funding to sustain effective interventions. This involves allocating Government funds
and fostering robust partnerships with the private sector. Such collaboration leverages private resources
and draws on their capacity for innovation, broadening reach, and operational efficiency.
Moreover, expanding financial support necessitates a wider network of donors dedicated to VAC issues.
Advocacy efforts must, therefore, aim to grow this donor network, attracting support from traditional
and new contributors through integrated funding strategies. By aligning VAC programmes with related
initiatives — such as those focusing on HIV, sexual and reproductive health, and rights (SRHR), parenting,
education, and violence against women (VAW) — a more comprehensive and multi-layered approach
emerges, enhancing the effectiveness of financial resources and interventions.
It is acknowledged that sustainable change, especially in programmes that shift social norms or
those working with children, requires core and multi-year funding. Such funding allows organisations
to incorporate learning into their practice and develop their work incrementally. Funders must provide
funding assurances over extended periods, preferably three to five years, to facilitate the deep, systemic
change necessary to address VAC. This long-term commitment is essential for achieving the desired
programme outcomes and fostering effective VAC prevention strategies.
• Enforcing VAC laws and translating policies into effective action. Kenya has advanced significantly in
formulating VAC-related laws and policies. The prevention of VAC hinges on the rigorous enforcement
of these measures. Therefore, the National Government must integrate these laws and policies within
every county’s local framework to guarantee compliance with legal standards and promote a consistent
approach to combating VAC nationwide.
Moreover, establishing accountability mechanisms is crucial to monitor and enforce compliance within
all counties. Given the substantial updates in legislation, such as the recently amended Children Act
2022, it is imperative to revise and update any outdated guidelines. This ensures all stakeholders are
operating within the current legal parameters.
Additionally, it is crucial to incorporate any legislative changes into training programs for service
providers. This will guarantee that individuals at the forefront of child protection are knowledgeable and
adequately prepared to enforce the legislation to protect children from harm.
To ensure a broader audience, including children and the entire community, is aware of the legal
and policy frameworks, partners should consistently utilize local media and other community-based
structures, such as Nyumba Kumi, to disseminate the core message. Incorporating VAC education into
the school curriculum and utilizing social media can yield advantageous outcomes..
• Improving service provider capacities to implement quality VAC prevention and response service.
Strengthening the capacity of service providers in VAC prevention and response across all relevant
sectors is essential for delivering quality services. Increasing the workforce dedicated to VAC services
is crucial to manage the rising caseload effectively. Needs assessments must be conducted across
different sectors to secure adequate staffing for extensive coverage.
The Government and its partners must prioritise sector-specific, specialised training to address VAC
concerns effectively. These programmes need to explore the complexities of VAC, fill knowledge gaps,
and harmonise terminology and understanding across the board. Equipping service providers with such
knowledge and skills is critical for handling VAC cases with competence and sensitivity. Furthermore,
the multisectoral nature of VAC services necessitates joint training sessions that unite providers from
various sectors, fostering an understanding of how to collaborate efficiently in providing comprehensive
services. This collaborative approach will enhance the development and use of robust referral and
linkage networks, ensuring effective service delivery within their respective environments.
51
Furthermore, it is vital to focus on both preventative measures and responses. Service providers must
be adept in VAC prevention strategies and responding effectively to incidents. Comprehensive training
should cover fundamental VAC concepts, prevention programming, and effective strategies.
• Enhancing Genuine Child Participation in VAC Policy Development and Programming.
To enhance VAC prevention, the Government and relevant stakeholders must refine their approach
to ensure that child participation is substantive, reflecting the diverse experiences and insights of the
children. Effective strategies for increasing child participation should incorporate the following:
• Develop direct communication channels for children to enable their involvement in public
consultations and decision-making processes, promoting accountability and encouraging
active participation.
• Create child advisory panels comprising members from various backgrounds and age
groups to enable genuine involvement in dialogue, consultations, and policy-making on
matters that impact them.
• Implement robust systems for collecting and evaluating children’s feedback and suggestions
within educational, healthcare, and child welfare environments.
• Assign dedicated teams or officials at national and local levels who are expressly charged
with ensuring children’s participation in decision-making frameworks.
• Introduce engaging, child-friendly online platforms that allow children to voice their opinions
and feedback securely and interactively, catering to various age groups.
• Lobby policymakers to recognise and advocate for the importance of child participation in
all areas of governance and societal engagement.
This approach to inclusive participation should be evident in developing policies and programs and in
their implementation, ensuring children’s voices are heard and acted upon.
• Evaluating and Scaling Up Effective Evidence-Based VAC Prevention and Response Interventions. While
our research highlights various potential strategies for preventing VAC, there is a notable lack of formal
evaluation of these interventions within their implementation contexts. Assessing their effectiveness
within Kenya is vital to tailoring and optimizing their use. Rigorous evaluations are essential to ascertain
the success of these interventions and, if effective, to scale them up for the wider population.
Although this study focused on the three forms of VAC measured in the VACS, it is key to develop programs
that address the various forms of VAC commonly experienced in the different counties, including the
exploitation through child abuse that was highlighted. Also, programmes need to address issues around
enhancing children’s rights.
Lastly, implementers must persistently innovate and engage in vigilant monitoring and documentation of
successful practices. This ongoing process will ensure that interventions remain relevant and impactful
locally.
• Prevention programmes targeting violence against adolescents need to be specifically designed

to address their unique needs and risks. Adopting a life course perspective is key, as it acknowledges
adolescents’ challenges, particularly those influenced by prevailing gender dynamics.
It is essential to address existing data gaps to programme for adolescents effectively. Localised research
is needed to provide detailed insights into the nature of violence, risk factors, effective interventions, and
the specific obstacles adolescent girls face in accessing support services. This research is imperative to
ensure programmes are relevant and effective for this population.
It is also paramount to co-create these programmes with adolescents, ensuring their perspectives
shape the design, development, and implementation. This collaborative approach ensures programmes
are nuanced culturally sensitive, and address the unique needs of various identities, including gender,
sexual identity, race, and ethnicity.
Moreover, enhancing investment in programmes specifically for adolescent girls is essential. These
initiatives should tackle the root causes of violence, such as societal norms and gender inequality, while
52
also confronting the stigma that prevents victims from seeking help. Increased funding should focus
on initiatives that reflect the realities of adolescent girls, with a particular emphasis on education and
empowerment programmes like school re-entry policies.
In addition to these measures, it is imperative to provide specialised training for service providers. They
must understand the complexities faced by adolescent girls and be equipped with strategies that
effectively support and protect this vulnerable group.
• Enhancing the functionality and use of data collection systems across different sectors. Sectors have
developed sophisticated systems for consistently collecting administrative data on VAC. Yet, training
service providers to accurately record data within these systems and effectively utilise this information
to guide decision-making and enhance service provision is essential. A unified solution must integrate
high-level data from these various sectors nationally. This integration would facilitate interconnectivity
between systems, providing a comprehensive overview of the nation’s efforts in preventing VAC.
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54
9 APPENDICES
Appendix 1: List of Key Government Laws, Policies and Reports
Legal frameworks Description

Constitution of Kenya, Overarching legal framework that all national laws and policies must adhere to.
2010 Recognises the right of all children to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful
cultural practices, all forms of violence, inhumane treatment and punishment, and
hazardous or exploitative labour.
Counter-Trafficking in Prohibits all forms of human trafficking and imposes penalties for trafficking children,
Persons Act, 2010 including sexual exploitation.
Prohibition of Female Criminalizes the practice of subjecting girls or women to female genital mutilation.
Genital Mutilation Act, This act has been widely recognized as one of the most comprehensive laws against
2011 female genital mutilation in Africa, as it clearly defines the practice, criminalizes
perpetration, mandates reporting of cases, and prohibits verbal abuse or shaming of
uncut women.
Children Act, 2012 Updated version of the Children Act, 2001. Interim update to align with the 2010
Constitution.
County Governments Gives effect to Chapter Eleven of the Constitution to provide for county governments’
Act No. 17, 2012 powers, functions and responsibilities to deliver services and for connected purposes.
Lays out the county Government’s role in child welfare.
Transition to Devolved Allows for interim continuity of service delivery during the transition to devolved
Government Act, 2012 government.
Intergovernmental Regulates relations within and between different elements of national and county
Relations Act No. 2, 2012 government.
Basic Education Act No. Promotes and regulates free and compulsory basic education for all children,
14, 2013 including measures to ensure all children and youth of school-going age attend
and complete basic education. Through this Act, Kenya made progress in promoting
access to education for all children, including those from marginalized and vulnerable
communities.
Media Council Act No. Protects the privacy of minors by prohibiting the naming of children in sexual offence
46, 2013 cases as witnesses, survivors, or defendants and requires parental authorization for
media interviews
Marriage Act No.4, 2014 Sets the legal minimum age of marriage for girls at 18 years, thereby helping to prevent
child marriage, which is a form of VAC
Protection Against Comprehensive legislative measure addressing domestic violence. Includes additional
Domestic Violence Act, protections for women against violence in intimate relationships, and the definition
2015 of violence includes marital sexual abuse, emotional abuse and harassment, child
marriage, FGM, and child sexual abuse.
Sexual Offences Act, Strengthens the legal framework for addressing sexual offences and providing better
2016 victim protection. The amendments expanded the definition of sexual offences to
include offences against children, such as sexual exploitation and abuse. The SOA
also criminalized children’s use of pornography and the possession, production, and
distribution of child pornography. Additionally, it introduced stricter punishments for
sexual offences, particularly defilement, based on the complainant’s age.
Prevention Of Torture Defines physical torture as rape and sexual abuse, including inserting foreign bodies
Act No. 12, 2017 into the sexual organs or rectum or electrical torture of the genitals
Computer Misuse & Includes provisions to protect children from online exploitation and abuse, such as
Cybercrimes Act No. 5, cyberbullying, child pornography, and child sex tourism
2018
55
Appendix 2: Examples of Strategies and Interventions implemented by various partners between 2010 and 2019
INSPIRE Examples of programmes/ Implementation period

STRATEGY interventions implemented
Norms and SASA! Programme 2013-present, a community mobilisation approach
values implemented by various NGOs across Kenya and funded
through programmes like PEPFAR DREAMS and other
donors
Media campaigns (Shuga Shuga – 2009-2013 (later repeats aired); initially funded
TV series and the HeForShe through the MTV Staying Alive Foundation, PEPFAR, the
campaign) Partnership for an HIV-Free Generation (HFG) and the
Government of Kenya
HeForShe – 2015 – current (part of a global UN campaign
for gender equality)
UNICEF/UNFPA/UNHCR From 2011, a range of community-based anti-FGM

and Population Council programming was initiated; to the present day, The
programming on ending programming covered a range of awareness-raising and
FGM, conducted with several training interventions for justice and law enforcement
Government departments and officials, a strong focus on teacher training and support
NGOs for school campaigns and direct support for girls wishing
to flee FGM, and a strong focus on referrals and creating a
network of support for girls and their families, which aligns
with the evidence on linking VAC with other well-being
support for children. Although FGM was not included in the
2010 and 2019 VACS, FGM-focused interventions have led
to broader discussions around VAC and GBV prevention.
Safe Nyumba Kumi initiative Launched in 2013 by the Kenya Police Service - a
environments countrywide community policing programme to create
safer local communities with regular meetings between
ten-house clusters of residents and stakeholders. The
primary focus is local dispute resolution. (Government
initiative through police service)
Child-Friendly Spaces (The 2013 – current, focusing on children in humanitarian

Usalama Project) contexts (funded and implemented by various NGO in
humanitarian settings).
Safe and Inclusive Cities 2018, focus on adolescent participation in urban areas
programme (Plan International).
Parenting Skilful Parenting programme 2015 – current parenting programme by Investing in

and caregiver Children and Their Societies (ICS); open-license and
support adapted by other NGOs
The “Families Matter” 2003 – current, Adapted CDC parenting programme, used
Programme by many PEPFAR DREAMS partners
Sinovuyo Teens Parenting 2016 – 2018, initially South African, adapted for HIV-
Program (CRS) sensitive parenting in Kenya by PEPFAR/USAID’s OVC
programme.
56
Income and Cash Transfer to Orphaned and The Cash Transfer for Orphans and Vulnerable Children
economic Vulnerable Programme (CT- (CT-OVC) programme was initiated in Kenya in 2004 to
strengthening OVC) provide regular cash transfers to impoverished families
who had identified vulnerable children. These transfers
aimed to incentivise the fostering and retention of children
within their families and contribute to their overall human
capital development.
According to the Kenya Child Protection Report for 2016-

2019, there was a significant increase in the number of
children benefitting from the CT-OVC program. From the
fiscal years 2013/14 to 2017/18, the number of children
receiving support through the programme rose from
468,066 residing in 156,022 households to 1,059,000
children living in 353,000 households (Department of
Children’s Services, 2019a).
Presidential Secondary School The initiative was established in 2013 with support from
Bursary (PSSB) Equity Bank and USAID PEPFAR. The State Department for
Social Protection now manages the scheme. By 2019, a
total of 123,465 children had received bursaries.
The Hunger Safety Net Started in 2013, cash transfers increased from 1.65 million
Programme (HSNP). recipients to 5 million in 2019, exceeding the original target
of 4.28 million beneficiaries.
Safe and Smart Savings Products This intervention was implemented by the Population
for Vulnerable Adolescent Girls Council and MicroSave in 2008-9, before the 2010 study,
but it has since been expanded.
Response Child Help Line 116 Programme Established in 2006 by the Department of Children’s
and support Services, Expanded exponentially during the study period.
services Twenty calls a month in 2006 to 3,000 calls per day in 2015,
Supported by PEPFAR USAID/OVC and others.
Child Protection Centres (CPC) Established from 2012-2015 in Malindi, Garissa, Nakuru and
Nairobi
Child Protection Units By 2015, child protection units were established in 14 police
stations (Government of Kenya et al., 2015).
Legal Aid services Pilot legal aid services in three districts were evaluated in
2017 and have since been expanded.
Children’s Courts Established in five countries, with additional training for
magistrates, police and others across the country
Establishment of SGBV services From 2013, following changes in law, ongoing
across public health facilities, improvements including free medical care, introduction of
including one-stop GBV centres SOPs, ongoing
Education and Sanitary Towels programme Launched in 2011 by the Ministry of Education to provide
life skills free sanitary towels to girls from disadvantaged
backgrounds in public schools. The programme aims to
increase teenage girls’ access to sexual and reproductive
health products to increase their retention in school. The
total beneficiaries of the project are 3,703,452 girls.
57
Amani Clubs Established through collaboration between the National

Cohesion and Integration Commission and the Ministry
of Education in 2014. The clubs aimed to build a platform
for social dialogue, dispute resolution, mediation, and
peace education activities among youths in different
schools nationwide. Amani Clubs are reported as being
particularly instrumental in sensitising learners about
emerging forms of violence, including radicalisation and
violent extremism. By 2020, there were a reported 29,200
Amani Club members in 621 schools across the country
(Amani Clubs Brief, n.d.).
Beacon Teachers programme The Beacon Teachers Movement was started by Plan
International in 2019, together with the Teachers Service
Commission in Kenya. The aim of starting this movement
was to allow teachers to promote child protection in their
schools and communities. Beacon Teachers is part of Plan
International’s Safe Schools Global Programme.
IMPower Designed by No Means No Worldwide offered a

standardised 6-week self-defence programme for
adolescent high school girls. It was delivered to 300,000
children in Kenya, Uganda and Malawi, although Kenya-
specific data is inaccessible online.
Stop Violence Against Girls in A five-year project of 2008-2013, implemented by the Girl
School Child Network with the support of Action Aid, was a school-
based programme that also included teacher awareness
raising, some community mobilisation on attitudes and
practices to violence and gender equity in education.
This seems to have fed into later national approaches
to promoting gender equity, which is now a part of the
national education strategy.
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65
MINISTRY OF LABOUR AND
SOCIAL PROTECTION
STATE DEPARTMENT FOR SOCIAL
REPUBLIC OF KENYA PROTECTION AND SENIOR CITIZEN AFFAIRS
DIRECTORATE OF CHILDREN’S SERVICES
Ministry of Labour and Social Protection

State Department for Social Protection & Senior Citizen Affairs
Directorate of Children's Services
Bishop Road, Social Security House,
P. O. Box 40326 – 00100, Nairobi.
+254 (0) 2729800
+254 020 2726497
[email protected]
https://www.socialprotection.go.ke/

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Kenya’s Journey Towards Protecting Children: A Decade of Change (2010-2019)

Kenya’s Journey Towards Protecting Children:

A Decade of Change (2010-2019) (2023)

Ministry of Labour and Social Protection of Kenya, Directorate of Children’s Services.

Kenya’s Journey Towards Protecting Children:

A Decade of Change (2010-2019). Nairobi, Kenya. 2023.

Research Development (HEARD).

Design and Production: [email protected]

Images Credit: ShutterStock, Freepik

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS................................................................................................................................................................................ xi

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.............................................................................................................................................................................................. xiii

2.1 Prevalence and consequences of VAC in Kenya.........................................................................................................................5

2.2 Risk factors and vulnerabilities for VAC in Kenya.........................................................................................................................6

2.3 Child protection system in Kenya........................................................................................................................................................... 7

3 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES.....................................................................................................................................9

3.1 Study Goal...............................................................................................................................................................................................................9

3.2 Study Objectives..................................................................................................................................................................................................9

5.1 Study design and sampling.......................................................................................................................................................................13

5.2 Data tools and collection.............................................................................................................................................................................13

5.3 Data analysis....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14

5.4 Stakeholder engagement and child participation................................................................................................................... 14

5.5 Ethical considerations................................................................................................................................................................................... 15

6.1 Study participant characteristics...........................................................................................................................................................17

6.2 Participants’ perception of factors that led to

6.3 Participants perception of factors that affected

7.1 Momentum in Ending VAC leading up to 2010............................................................................................................................ 42

7.2 Interpretation of our findings................................................................................................................................................................... 42

7.3 Study limitations............................................................................................................................................................................................... 42

Appendix 1: List of Key Government Laws, Policies and Reports.................................................................................................55

Appendix 2: Examples of Strategies and Interventions implemented by

the 2010 and 2019 VAC Surveys............................................................................................................................................................................ 3

Table 2: Summary of Study Participants......................................................................................................................................................17

Table 3: Examples of Strategies and Interventions implemented by various

partners between 2010 and 2019..................................................................................................................................................................... 35

Figure 1 Drivers of VAC in Kenya identified in the literature..............................................................................................................6

INSPIRE strategies and cross-cutting activities........................................................................................................................................11

Figure 3: The study’s conceptual framework..............................................................................................................................................11

Hon. Florence Bore

Mogosi. J. Motari, MBS

RESEARCH TEAM MEMBERS

Lina Digolo Caroline Njeru

SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY GROUP

Directorate of Children’s Services University Research Co.

STAKEHOLDER VALIDATION TEAM

Directorate of Children’s Services Office of Attorney General

National Council for Children’s Services

National Gender and Equality Commission

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITION

‘Corporal’ (or ‘physical’) punishment is defined as any punishment in which

Factors that contributed to the decline in VAC prevalence

c. Household Economic Resilience: The study participants emphasised improving household

Country Profile Statistics

Boys Girls Boys Girls

Any lifetime 83.0 82.5 56.6 58.3 -26.4 -24.2

31.8 43.0 27.9 46.7 -3.9 +3.7

Knew of a 15.5 25.0 33.1 33.7 +17.6 +8.7

Sought 3.8 4.6 6.8 11.3 +3.0 +6.7

Received 1.9 3.0 6.0 10.0 +4.1 +7.0

*All data has been controlled for covariates.