1.

1 Definition, Nature, Scope and Significance of Population Geography

INTRODUCTION
Human geography concentrates on the spatial organization and processes shaping the lives and activities of
people, and their interaction with place and nature.
Human geography consists of several sub-disciplinary fields that focus on different elements of human activity
and organization.

WHAT IS POPULATION GEOGRAPHY?

Population geography is a division of human geography. It is the study of how spatial variations in
distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to the nature of places.
Population geography involves demography from a geographical perspective. It focuses on the
characteristics of population distribution that change in a spatial context. This often involves factors such as
where the population is found and how the size and composition of these populations are regulated by
demographic processes of fertility, mortality, and migration.
Population Geography helps in the quantitative study of the structure, size, and characteristics of a
population along with the spatial distribution in a region with an understanding of the changes that occur
within them. The quantitative and qualitative study of a population helps in the assessment of labour
resources that will ensure the availability of the most responsive settlement that will meet the requirements
of production and the need for cultural and domestic help.
DEFINITION OF POPULATION GEOGRAPHY
G. T. Trewartha, a U.S. Geographer, is known as the father of population geography. He has defined
population geography in the context of the nature of geography. Trewartha stressed that ‘population
geography is concerned with the understanding of regional differences in the earth’s covering of people.’

John I. Clarke, suggested that population geography is mainly concerned with demonstrating how spatial
variation in population and its various attributes like composition, migration and growth are related to the
spatial variation in the nature of places.
So, population geography is concerned with people and their size or numbers, their structure and
characteristics.
NATURE OF POPULATION GEOGRAPHY
1. POPULATION GEOGRAPHY IS SYSTEMATIC IN NATURE:-
Systematic nature in geography means general or a particular aspect of physical or human phenomena in a
defined geographical space. After Trewartha’s presidential address of 1953, population studies in
geography shifted from the realm of regional geography to that of systematic geography.
Under this nature, various topics or aspects of the population in a given area are studied systematically. It
is concerned with the systematic study of distribution and density of population, population change, and
composition, population and resources, population problems, planning and policies of a well-defined
geographical area. So, it is the systematic nature of population geography, which can make generalized and
formed theories and models.
POPULATION GEOGRAPHY IS REGIONAL IN NATURE: -
Regional geography is the study of all features of a given region. This nature gives emphasis on a particular
region. Before Trewartha introduced population geography in 1953, population studies constituted a part of
regional geography. Invariably each regional geography included a chapter on population while explaining
the elements of regional character. For example - To analyze the population characteristics of India, the
country is divided into various small areal units called regions and such regions may be delimited by the
homogeneity of physical, political, cultural, or demographic features.

POPULATION GEOGRAPHY IS DYNAMIC IN NATURE: -

Population geography is very dynamic in nature as day by day different contemporary issues
are incorporated within its boundary. The size, population growth, age composition of the population
is studied under its dynamic nature. Birth rate, death rate, immigration, and emigration are also included.
For example- In India, before the development of medical facilities and health care facilities, fertility and
mortality both are high. At that time population growth was normal. But after the improvement of medical
and health care facilities, the death rate decreases, and Infant Mortality Rate is also decreased, as a result,
population growth increases at a higher rate. So, the nature of population geography is also changed with this
transformation.
POPULATION GEOGRAPHY IS HUMANISTIC IN NATURE: -
In its sense, it not only describes and explains the cause-effect consequences by quantitative statistical
techniques but also intimates with qualitative categories of human geography. It concentrates on the
development of human skill, knowledge, behavioral modification to produce an enriched and equipped
citizen for a good society. Moreover, different value-oriented problems like exploitation child and women
even manpower, slavery, unequal consumption, under nutrition, malnutrition – all kinds of problems is
expressed through the humanistic nature of population geography.
POPULATION GEOGRAPHY IS ECOCENTRIC IN NATURE: -
With growing population quantity, pressure on the existing natural resources is increasing. To cope-up with
resources, desperate resource uses, violation of natural rules and principles, etc. collectively have brought
some problems related to human life.
The nature of population geography is a wide range of synthesis among different demographic dynamics.
The major elements of population study that is highly dynamic in nature. That is why a wide spectrum of the
descriptive description of demographic dimensions to ecological ethics has been genetically expressed in a
different section of the study.
POPULATION GEOGRAPHY IS MULTIDISCIPLINARY IN NATURE: -
Population studies are not the exclusive domain of any single social science. Apart from geography,
demography, sociology, anthropology, economics, mathematics, social sciences, history are making positive
contributions to understanding various aspects of the population.
For example –the study of population size, growth, structure, and components is entirely done with the help
of mathematics. Thus, it is an important tool in understanding population phenomena. Population studies and
biology are closely related, as the study of fertility provides a good illustration of the relationship between
population and biology. The theory of demographic transition is based on an understanding of other
disciplines such as economics, sociology, anthropogeography, etc. This makes the population geography
multi-disciplinary in nature.
SCOPE OF POPULATION GEOGRAPHY
The scope of population geography is quite wide. Population geography helps to understand the various facts
about the spatial variation in the distribution of human population across the earth concerning the physical,
cultural, and socio-economic environment. It also helps in the planning for human development.
Meaning of scope: - The meaning of scope is related to the three questions -
1. Where it is applied?
2. How its knowledge is applied?
3. The opportunity
The main concern of population geography revolves around the population. Following are the three aspects
of humans: -
1. Size and distribution, including the rural-urban distribution of population.
2. Population dynamics-past and present trends in growth and its spatial manifestation; components of
population change, viz. Fertility, mortality, and migration.
3. Population composition and structure. They include a set of demographic characteristics (such as age-sex
structure, marital status and the average age at marriage, etc.), Social characteristics (such as caste,
racial/ethnic, religious and linguistic composition of population; literacy and levels of educational
attainment, etc.), and economic characteristics (such as workforce participation rate and workforce structure,
etc.)
The main field of population geography is the areal differentiation which is helpful for solving the
problem of static relationships between variables. Population studied by geographers should lead to a better
understanding of the processes creating areal distribution.
 According to G. T. Trewartha- The scope of population geography can be delineated as follows: -
1. Distribution of population: Size and spacing of settlement units, continental and sub-continental
population distribution patterns, inter-temporal and inter-regional distribution.
2. Density of population: Various types, determinants and density over the regions and world patterns.
3. Migration (Movement of people across space): Internal migration, international migration, types, causes
and consequences and laws of migration etc.
4. Growth of population: Measurement of Population Growth, birth and death rates, components of
population growth, causes, theories etc.
5. Composition of population: Ethnic, religious, linguistic, age and sex, economic, educational compositions,
occupation status, work force, employment status, industrial classification, income and expenditure, poverty
etc.
6. Literacy and quality of the population: literacy differentials, world pattern, quality of population, methods
for improving the quality of population.
7. Rural and Urban populations: Rural-Urban demographic differentials, urbanization process, world trends
in urbanization.
8. Population resources ratio: Population growth and resource development, population pressure, resource
based theories of population, optimum population, under population, over population, world population-
resource patterns, population policies etc.
 Clarke focused mainly on three aspects of population: -
1. Size and Distribution (Absolute Number): - This includes the distribution of population in the rural and
urban areas and the density of population.
2. Population composition and structure (Physical, Social and Economic characteristics): - This refers to the
qualities of a population which can be either physical qualities like - Age-Sex structure, Marital status,
Health, etc. or socio-economic qualities like – Religions, Race and Ethnicity, language, Education,
Occupation customs, and habitat.
3. Population Dynamics: - An analysis of the world population and its spatial manifestation including the
trends in and present growth influenced by past migration, fertility, and mortality.
 In modern society, the study of population is very much interdisciplinary in scope with contributions by
Sociologists, Economists, and Anthropologists, the Geographic perspective especially valuable.
 The quantitative aspect is concerned with a quantitative study of the size structure characteristics and
traditional distribution of human populations and the changes occurring in them.
 Population geography is a study of conditions of habitation in different natural geographic regions that
reveals the connection between population geography and medical geography.
 The scope of research on ethnography and the economics of labor is closely associated and sometimes
intertwined with population geography.
 The development of methods of making a population map is very important.
 Population geography has a special place in economic geography, because people, as the main productive
force, are employed in all economic sectors, and, up to a point, their location has an all-encompassing
significance in the productivity of the people and the consumption of the products. Hence the population
is both the producer and consumer.
 Differences in the natural growth of population migrations determine the course of territorial
redistribution of population.
 A prominent place is given to the classification and typology of populated points.
 One statement that can be made without reservation is that the boundary between population geography
and demography, sociology or economics can be difficult to locate.
 The evolution in the development of a multidisciplinary subfield called spatial demography was created
that is neither traditional population geography nor pure demography.
 Population composition and structure, including a set of demographic characteristics and social
characteristics such as - Age-Sex structure, Marital status, age at marriage, caste, religions, and, linguistic
composition racial or ethnic composition of people, literacy, and levels of educational attainment, etc.
 With the advent of the Geographical Information systems (GIS) and the use of more sophisticating remote
sensing technology, the study of population geography has seen a change in the availability of
information and its applications.
Over space and time, the importance of the study of geography in population studies has
become prominent in all social sciences. Population geographers mainly focus on the different aspects of
the population depending on the geographical and economic aspects of a region. At the end as R.J.Proyer
very actually suggested that population geography deals with the analysis and explanation of
interrelationship between population phenomena and the geographical character of places as they both
vary.
SIGNFICANCE OF POPULATION GEOGRAPHY
 It looks at the various aspects of human population by collecting and analyzing demographic data.
 By studying various population factors, population geographers can help identify and resolve population
issues.
 Without knowing population dynamics we will not know about the scarcity of resources. To Manage
resources we need to know population dynamics.
 It focuses on the following population issues including:
 Public Health
 Migration
 Criminology
 Urban Development
 1.2 Sources of Population Data

Population Geography is an empirical science that discusses about the regional differences of population
parameters. The primary sources of the population data on the population size, characteristics and
demographic structure are the census, projections, the registrations, migration reports and the surveys.
Whereas, some of the statistics regarding the population can be produced in the form of secondary sources
such as statistical abstracts indeed. In the regard of secondary sources for the collection of population data
the United Nation Organization itself is the biggest producer of the Population data.
Sources of collecting population data
1. Census:
 The most important source of demographic data is the census.
 The word “census” is derived from the Latin word “censere” which means “to assess”.
 It is also the single largest source of data for population studies all over the world.
 The modern population census has been defined by the United Nations as “the total process of
collecting, compiling and publishing demographic, economic and social data pertaining, at a specified
time or times, to all persons of a defined territory”. In other words, enumeration of the entire
population of a country or a region at a particular time is called a census.
 A population census is an official enumeration of the inhabitants of a country with statistics relating to
their location, age, sex, marital status, literacy status, language, educational level, economic activity,
number of children, migration, etc.
 Population census is a regular feature of all progressive countries, whatever be their size and political
set up. It is conducted at regular intervals, usually every 10 years, for fulfilling well-defined objectives
 History of Census:
1. The earliest example of modern type of census is known to have been conducted in New France
(present-day Quebec) in Canada, in 1665 and Iceland in 1703.
2. The first periodical census began in the United States in 1790 and in Britain and France in 1802.
3. After the Second World War, with the assistance of the United Nations, the developing countries
have begun census operations in a more scientific manner, and the output is becoming more and
more reliable.
 Salient Features of Census:
1. A census is usually conducted after an interval of 10 years.
2. The census covers the entire country or a part of it.
3. The census operations are completed within specified dates.
4. It is organised and conducted by the Government through the Census Commission of the country.
5. For conducting the census a reference period is determined by the Census Commission at that point
of time.
6. A household or family is treated as a unit. However in large census operations, migrant individuals
and homeless persons are also enumerated at night at their places of rest or sleep.
7. Before starting the census operations, some preliminary steps are taken by the Census Commission
such as preparation of schedules, lists of households in each area, training of enumerators, etc.
8. The filled up census schedules are collected, examined and analysed statistically by the Census
Commission.
9. The census data are published for circulation.
10. The census operations involve collection of information from households from door to door by
enumerators. In some countries, schedules are sent by post and the required information is
collected.
 Characteristics of Census:
1. Periodicity: In a census, population details are counted at a regular interval. Most of the countries,
including India, conduct census every 10 years.
2. Simultaneity: It refers to the counting of population simultaneously at a specified point of time.
This time or date is known as reference date or census time. As a general rule, a day is fixed for the
census and also a particular moment which is called the "census moment". In India, the "Census
moment" now is the sunrise of 1st March, of the census year. The persons born after the census
moment or the persons dying before the census moment are to be excluded from the census. Some
of the characteristics of the population like age, marital status, occupation, literacy and birthplace
 etc., are referred to a period of time usually from 10th February to 28th February of the census year
to ensure simultaneity.
3. Universality: The data is collected for all the people. Thus it shows universality.
 Approaches of counting Census data: Two approaches are adopted.
1. De facto: In the de facto approach, used in Australia for instance, each individual is recorded at the
place where he/she is found at the time of enumeration.
2. De jure: In the de jure approach, as in the United States & India, people are recorded at their normal
or usual place of residence.
3. In some countries, however, a combination of both the approaches is used, for example, in Brazil
and England.
 Problems/ Challenges in Census taking:
1. Increasing costs
2. Intrusiveness, privacy concerns, and response burden
3. Lower public cooperation and participation
4. Difficulties in accessing secure apartments and enumerating unsafe areas
5. More complex living arrangements, for example, individuals living in multiple locations (such as
children of separated parents), the homeless, nomads, refugees, and other hard to reach populations
6. Corruption
7. Insufficient number of professionals with the knowledge and experience of conducting census
2. Civil Registration System (CRS):
 Civil Registration is defined as continuous, permanent, compulsory recording of the occurrence and
characteristics of vital events (birth, death, marriage etc.) as defined in and as provided through decree
or regulation in accordance with the legal requirements of a country.
 History of CRS:
1. The first civil registration system was introduced in England and Wales in 1836 and Scotland in
1854.
2. Britain, however, cannot be regarded as the birthplace of official vital statistics. Even before
Britain, in Sweden, a law for making of tabular records of population had come into existence as
early as in 1748.
3. Though, a practice of collecting information on list of baptism, burials and wedding by churches is
known to have existed from much earlier time in Europe, vital registration system is a matter of
nineteenth and twentieth century’s only.
 Uses of CRS
 For Individuals
1. It provides a safeguard to social status and individual benefits.
2. It serves as a vital evidence to prove nationality.
3. Birth registration records are required as age proof in any individual career system.
4. Among other benefits the system provides the individual with a unique identity (her/his name),
records parental relationships.
5. The death registration record is generally required for settlement of inheritance, insurance
claims, claiming family allowances and other social security benefits.
 For Administration
1. Important tool for studying the dynamics of the population of any country or region.
2. Provide several, other ancillary information like in case of birth registration, sex of the baby,
mother’s age, the number of her previous children, the order of the birth, the residence of the
parents etc. In case of death, it helps in the recording of information on date and place of death,
sex, age and occupation of the deceased and the cause of death.
3. In case of birth, it provides information to the government about vaccination, immunization,
premature baby care, assistance to the disabled, etc .
4. Death records are required to provide information about disease case register, electoral roll,
social security, etc.
3. Demographic Sample Surveys (DSS):
 Demographic sample surveys form another important source of population data. In sample surveys
data are obtained from selected samples and the extent of statistical error in the data is minimized by
regulating the size of the samples. The data thus obtained have several uses such as bringing up-to-date
the results of a complete count taken some time in past, checking the accuracy and supplementing the
 data of current complete count etc. There are three types of Demographic Sample surveys going on in
India:
a) National Sample Survey:
 The National Sample Survey (NSS) is one of the oldest continuing household sample surveys in
the developing world. The survey is conducted on a regular basis by the National Sample Survey
Organisation (NSSO), India’s premier data collection agency.
 Since 1972, the NSSO has fallen under the Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation of
the Government of India (GOI).
 Importance of NSS: The data provided by NSS serves an important tool for Indian economy. At
independence and much after, the country was faced with a subsistence production structure
(mainly in agriculture) characterized by mass poverty and hunger. Systematic data on the extent,
magnitude, and patterns of poverty, as well as on household consumption patterns and trends,
were not readily available for informed policy interventions. To remedy this, the GOI launched
the NSS to gather nationally representative information on household structure, consumption,
and production.
 History of NSS: The first NSS round was conducted in 1950–1951and included information on
land utilization, prices of essential commodities, and daily wages of skilled and unskilled
laborers at the village level. At the household level, data was obtained on demographic
characteristics as well as land ownership, cultivation, and utilization. In addition, detailed data
was gathered on monthly and weekly consumption, as well as on entrepreneurial activities, from
a subset of the sampled households. The first round was based on a random sample of only 1,833
villages out of a total of 560,000.
b) Sample Registration System:
 The Sample Registration System (SRS) is a large-scale demographic survey for providing
reliable annual estimates of Infant mortality rate, birth rate, death rate and other fertility &
mortality indicators at the national and sub-national levels.
 It is initiated on a pilot basis by the Office of the Registrar General, India in a few selected states
in 1964-65.
 Gradually, it became fully operational during 1969-70 with about 3700 sample units.
 The field investigation consists of continuous enumeration of births and deaths in selected
sample units by resident part time enumerators, generally anganwadi workers & teachers, and an
independent survey every six months by SRS supervisors.
 The sample unit in rural areas is a village or a segment of it. In urban areas, the sampling unit is a
census enumeration block with population ranging from 750 to 1000.
 The SRS sample is replaced every ten years based on the latest census frame
c) National Family Health Surveys:
 The National Family Health Survey (NFHS) is a large-scale, multi-round survey conducted in a
representative sample of households throughout India.
 The NFHS is a collaborative project of the International Institute for Population Sciences(IIPS),
Mumbai, India; ORC Macro, Calverton, Maryland, USA and the East-West Center, Honolulu,
Hawaii, USA.
 The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW), Government of India, designated IIPS
as the nodal agency, responsible for providing coordination and technical guidance for the
NFHS.
 The First National Family Health Survey (NFHS-1) was conducted in 1992-93. The survey
collected extensive information on population, health, and nutrition, with an emphasis on women
and young children in 18 centres.
 The second NFHS was conducted in 1998-99 in 26 states followed by a third round in 2005-06
in 29 states.
 Advantages of Sample System:
 It requires a smaller number of staff or interviewers, and thus, is less expensive.
 With the help of more skilled interviewers and properly designed questionnaires, information on
some specific topics can be obtained in detail through sample surveys, which are ordinarily not
possible in periodic complete counts.
 The data obtained through a sample survey are more reliable.
 Sample surveys can be conducted more often and questions asked can be varied from time to time.
  Disadvantages of Sample Surveys:
 Sample surveys cannot replace the complete counts. Sample surveys and periodic complete counts
are basically complementary to each other.
 An efficient sampling requires stratification, and this can be achieved only if there is a suitable
reference framework based on a recent complete count of some sort.
 Sample survey is largely dependent on Census. So, an inefficient or incorrect Census will lead to a
faulty Sample survey.
4. Population Registers
 In the Scandinavian countries and some other European countries like the Netherlands, Belgium and
Finland the local registration bureaus maintain registers in which details about each individual are
continuously recorded. These registers are known as population registers.
 In India, it is known as National Population Register (NPR). It is a Register of usual residents of the
country. It is being prepared at the local (Village/sub-Town), sub-District, District, State and National
level under provisions of the Citizenship Act 1955.
 It is mandatory for every usual resident of India to register in the NPR. A usual resident is defined for
the purposes of NPR as a person who has resided in a local area for the past 6 months or more or a
person who intends to reside in that area for the next 6 months or more.
 The data for National Population Register was collected in 2010 along with the house listing phase of
Census of India 2011. The updation of this data was done during 2015 by conducting door to door
survey.
5. International Publications
 The United Nations and its various organs, along with other international agencies such as the World
Bank, publish population data for the world as a whole and for different countries separately at regular
interval. The most important of them is the Demographic Year Book, published by the UN.
 It provides data on such wide ranging topics as population size, area, density, urban population,
population growth, age-sex composition, number of births and birth rate, number of deaths and death
rate etc. Sometimes, the volume is devoted to special topics, which include fertility, mortality,
marriage, divorce, migration, and population census statistics.
 The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) also publishes data on various social, economic
and demographic aspects for the world and for different countries in its annual Human Development
Report.
 Other international publications on world population data include Production Year Book of FAO, Year
Book of Labor Statistics of ILO, Statistical Year Book of UNESCO, and World Health Statistics
Annual of WHO.
 While the FAO publication provides information on agricultural population, the publication of ILO
gives detailed data on the economically active population.

Censuses Surveys
A complete enumeration of a A sample of a population, designed to
Definition population, typically conducted by a gather information about specific aspects of
government agency the population
To collect comprehensive To gather information about specific
Purpose information about a population and aspects of a population, such as opinions,
its characteristics behaviors, or demographics
Sample Size The entire population A subset of the population
Data
Typically conducted door-to-door Can be conducted in person, by phone, by
Collection
by census takers mail, or online
Method
Data
Typically conducted once every 10 Can be conducted more frequently or
Collection
years infrequently, as needed
Period
Data Comprehensive, including
Focused on specific topics, such as
Collection demographic, social, economic, and
opinions, behaviors, or demographics
Scope housing information
Data High accuracy, as information is Varies, depending on the design and
 Collection collected from the entire population implementation of the survey and the
Accuracy representativeness of the sample
High cost, as information is Lower cost than censuses, as only a sample
Cost
collected from the entire population of the population is surveyed
The American Community Survey,
The US Census, conducted by the
Example conducted by the US Census Bureau;
US Census Bureau, Census of India
National Sample Survey of India

1.3 Factors affecting population distribution, density and growth

Growth of Population
The population growth or population change refers to the change in number of inhabitants of a territory
during a specific period of time. This change may be positive as well as negative. It can be expressed either
in terms of absolute numbers or in terms of percentage. Population change in an area is an important
indicator of economic development, social upliftment and historical and cultural background of the region.
Change of population in particular area between two points of time is known as growth of population. For
example, if we deduct the population of India 2001 (102.70 crore) from population of 2011 (121.02 crore)
then we shall get the growth of population (18.15 crores) in actual numbers.
Growth rates of the world's most populous countries
Annual Growth (%)
S.No. Country
1990-2010 2010-2020
World 2.7% 0.8%
1 China 1.6% 0.3%
2 India 3.4% 0.6%
3 United States 2.1% 0.6%
4 Indonesia 2.7% 0.9%
5 Brazil 2.7% 0.7%
6 Pakistan 4.5% 1.8%
7 Nigeria 5.0% 2.5%
8 Bangladesh 3.5% 0.7%
9 Russia −0.4% −0.1%
10 Japan 0.5% −0.1%
Density of Population
Each unit of land has limited capacity to support people living on it. Hence, it is necessary to understand the
ratio between the numbers of people to the size of land. This ratio is the density of population. It is usually
measured in persons per sq km

For example, area of Region X is 100 sq km and the population is 1,50,000 persons. The density of
population is calculated as:

Several demographers divided global population in many groups. Keeping the magnitude of variation it is
advisable to divide world into five groups:
1. Very Low Population Density Zone: Population is less than 10 persons per sq km. Despite massive
increase of global population in recent years, vast stress of the earth surface is poorly inhabitated
with population density less than 10 persons per sq km. Some areas are even inhabitated by less than
5 persons per sq km. Some of these areas are:
a) Entire polar areas, bounded by the Arctic Circle, spreaded over Greenland. Besides Tundra areas
of CIS, Alaska in USA is also practically unhabitated.
b) The arid regions like Sahara and Kalahari in Africa, Thar, Gobi and Mongolian Deserts of Asia,
Atacama Desert in South America have less than 5 persons per sq km.
c) The dense forest areas lying north and South of Equator known as tropical rainforest are
inhospitable and environmentally hostile that population density is very poor over there.
The other scattered low density areas are:
 a) Roman-Siberian Cold Desert.
b) Colder areas of Canada, glaciated area of Himalaya.
c) Desert Regions of Mongolia
d) Drier parts of Arabian Peninsula, Central Asia, Mexico etc.
2. Low Population Density Zone: Population in this zone ranges between 11-50 persons per sq.km. In
this zone hostility and adversity of nature is somewhat less than the very low density zone. Central
African Republic, Chad, Congo, Gabon, Mali, Niger in Africa; some parts of Russian Federation,
Finland, Norway, Sweden in Europe; some parts of South Canada and USA in North America;
Bolivia, Guyana, Argentina, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela in South America; Oman and some parts of
South Arabia; Central Indian Plateau; Tibetan part of China etc. belong to this region.
3. Moderate Population Density Zone: Population in this zone ranges between 51-100 persons per
sq.km. Moderately fertile sub-humid, sub tropical region are moderately populated. This region
consists of Angola, some parts of Algeria, Congo, Mali, Niger, Zambia in Africa; some parts of
Norway, Russia, Austria, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Spain, Ukraine in Europe; Costa-Rica, Honduras in South
America, Columbia, Georgia, Kuwait, Malaysia, Myanmar, Syria etc in Asia.
4. High Population Density Zone: Population in this zone ranges between 101-200 persons per sq.km.
This region is situated in Temperate or sub-tropical warm region. The life here is more conducive
with consistent rainfall, riverine fertile alluvial soil, and bearable temperature. The major countries
situated within these region are Burnia, Zambia in Africa; France, Denmark, Poland, Portugal, UK
etc in Europe, Cuba, Haiti in Central America, China, Korea, Pakistan, Philippines, Vietnam etc in
Asia.
5. Very High Population Density Zone: Population in this zone is more than 200 persons per sq.km.
This zone has all the natural advantages including favorable climate, topography and vegetation
growth, soil fertility.. They have attracted people over the years. Though on few countries like
Mauritius in Africa, Netherlands in Europe, China, Bangladesh, India, Japan, Korean Republic and
Singapore in Asia falls under this category but in micro level a number of geographical reasons and
several urban areas all over the globe can be considered as very high population density region. The
agriculturally high population density zones are:
a) Ganga Padma Meghna Riverine Plain in Bangladesh Hoogly River in India.
b) Iravadi, Mekong, Benan, Yanji and Wanga Valley in South-East Asia and China.
c) Nile River Valley in Egypt.
d) Coastal Regions in Kerala, Tamil Nadu in India.
e) South-East Coast of Brazil.
f) Java Island in Indonesia.
Distribution of Population
Population distribution means the pattern of where people live. World population distribution is uneven.
Places which are sparsely populated contain few people. Places which are densely populated contain many
people. Sparsely populated places tend to be difficult places to live. These are usually places with hostile
environments e.g. Antarctica. The environment in Antarctica makes it a very challenging location to live,
with cold temperatures, lack of vegetation and geographical isolation few people live here.
Places which are densely populated are habitable environments e.g. Western Europe and the East Coast of
the USA. This can be the result of flat relief, a favourable climate, availability of natural resources and fresh
water.
Causes of Uneven Distribution, density and growth of World Population
The factors affecting distribution of population may broadly be grouped into the following major categories:
1. Physical Or Geographical Factors
2. Economic Factors
3. Social and Cultural Factors
4. Biological Factors
5. Political Factors
6. Demographic Factors
7. Other Factors

1. Physical or Geographical Factors

(i) Availability of water: Water is the most important factor for life. So, people prefer to live in areas where
fresh water is easily available. Water is used for drinking, bathing and cooking – and also for cattle, crops,
industries and navigation. It is because of this that river valleys are among the most densely populated areas
of the world. The Nile, Amazon, and Ganges river systems supported rich civilizations on their banks.
(ii) Landforms: People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes. This is because such areas are
favourable for the production of crops and to build roads and industries. The mountainous and hilly areas
hinder the development of transport network and hence initially do not favour agricultural and industrial
development. So, these areas tend to be less populated. The Ganga plains are among the most densely
populated areas of the world while the mountains zones in the Himalayas are scarcely populated.
(iii) Climate: An extreme climate such as very hot or cold deserts is uncomfortable for human habitation.
Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is not much seasonal variation attract more people. Areas
with very heavy rainfall or extreme and harsh climates have low population. Mediterranean regions were
inhabited from early periods in history due to their pleasant climate.
(iv) Soils: Fertile soils are important for agricultural and allied activities. Therefore, areas which have fertile
loamy soils have more people living on them as these can support intensive agriculture.
(v) Natural Vegetation: The natural vegetation also affects the distribution of population in many different
ways. The grasslands are most developed agricultural areas and are producing Wheat, Cotton, Sugarcane etc.
and areas are thickly populated parts. But thick forest areas like Amazon on basin are thickly populated, but
the areas of deciduous forests are moderately populated.
(vi) Natural Disasters: Natural disasters discourage population concentration. Frequent storms,
earthquakes, floods, wild fires discourage formation of settlements as people migrate to safer places. There
are many examples of destruction of settlements due to the natural disasters. The city of Bichuan, in Sichuan
province of China was completely destroyed in 2011 by an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 causing collapse of
eighty percent of the buildings and a huge loss of lives.
(vii) Location of a place: Location of a place proximity to major towns and cities favours concentration of
population. Generally, staying within the city limits increases living costs. The city’s periphery or nearby
towns provide affordable housing facilities.

2. Economic Factors
(i) Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits attract industries. Mining and industrial activities generate
employment. So, skilled and semi–skilled workers move to these areas and make them densely populated.
Katanga Zambia copper belt in Africa is one such good example.
(ii) Urbanisation: Cities offer better employment opportunities, educational and medical facilities, better
means of transport and communication. Good civic amenities and the attraction of city life draw people to
the cities. It leads to rural to urban migration and cities grow in size. Mega cities of the world continue to
attract large number of migrants every year.
(iii) Industrialisation: Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large numbers of people. These
include not just factory workers but also transport operators, shopkeepers, bank employees, doctors, teachers
and other service providers. The Kobe-Osaka region of Japan is thickly populated because of the presence of
a number of industries.
(iv) Agriculture: The means of agriculture also affect the distribution of population. The old settlements of
population are found in this fertile valley of rivers because of agricultural facilities. Examples: Is Yangtise
King Valley Indo-gangetic valley.
(v) Means of Transport: The regions which possess the facilities of means of transport have already
became the industrial centres and with this result centres of thick population. Such are including the
industrial as well as agricultural regions of the world as means of transport. The region of Trans Siberian
Railway has become a source of human settlement.
(vi) Market: Market place is the result of industrial output. All the marketing centres of world are thickly
populated region of the world as they provide facilities of livelihood to man.
(vii) Economic policies: Economic policies of different countries cause migration of labour from one part of
the world to the other. The Indian labour was taken to Mauritius, Trinidad and Tabago under colonial
economic policies.
(viii) Availability of Electric Supply: Ready and sufficient supply of electricity is an essential feature in
industrial development. Thus, places where industries are centralised develop into industrial regions with
high density of population, and the demand for electric power increases. Many cities in India are familiar
with this process. Due to industrial development, the previously small regions like Durgapur, Jamshedpur
and Bhillai, etc. have become large industrial areas, where the density of population keeps on increasing.
This has become possible due to the availability of power supply among other factors.
3. Social and Cultural Factors
(i) Social Organization: Social Organization of communities in new areas encourages the movement of
people and settling in newer lands. Man is a social animal and it becomes essential for him to form a
community, creating a familiar environment where he stays. People moving out of their native places tend to
settle in those areas, or parts of the areas, where there are people with language, culture, food habits and
habits that are like theirs. It is common to find cities having residential areas which are communal in nature.
(ii) Religious factor: Religious places like Varanasi, Madura, Mathura, Puri are densely populated because
throughout the ages they are attracting a large number of population.
4. Biological Factors
(i) Biota: Population distributions respond to varying distribution of plants and animals, large and Small.
Selvas, campos, savannah and tundra offer vastly different media for human occupation and concentration.
The plant and animal realms are inseparable in their influence upon population; it is the combination of
biotic factors which has exerted such pressures. As civilized man constantly finds new techniques of
destroying microbes, produce medicines, house designs and other methods of defending himself against
parasites, he is better equipped and has more chance of survival than Pygmies or Amazonian Indians.
(ii) Disease and Hunger: Human populations have been greatly influenced by diseases. A number of
diseases influenced population concentration such as trachoma, yellow fever, sleeping sickness. malaria,
cholera, tuberculosis, rickets, goitre etc. Perhaps, two-third of mankind suffers from absolute or partial
hunger, impairing physique but not reproductive capacity.

5. Political Factors
(i) War and political conflicts: These take a great toll on human lives. Death rates are high, and people are
forced to move out in search of safety. Mortality rates peak and the out-migration dominate. Safer locations
experience a sizeable population growth because of the in-flow of migrants. This is also the situation in
regions near the political boundaries of countries that do not have peaceful relations.
(ii) Political unrest and discrimination: These are detrimental to population growth. Clashes between
different political parties or people with different religious beliefs have often resulted in a reduction of
population in the affected area. Before settling in a new place permanently, migrant population looks for a
place that not only provides economic opportunities but also provides safe and healthy environment for
wholesome living.

6. Demographic Factors
(i) Migration of Population: Every time migration of population takes place, it has an important effect on
the distribution of population. The places with more opportunities of employment or possibilities of high
income generation attract people from different areas. In the past, people migrated in large numbers to
America, and the present day migration to Middle Eastern countries are good examples of migration due to
better employment and income generation opportunities.
(ii) Natural increase of Population: It is the net outcome of fertility and mortality in a region. If in a
region, the fertility level is high, the population of that place tends to increase. In such situations, mortality
brings stability because of deaths.

7. Other Factors
(i) Historical Factors: It is a well-known fact that humans never migrate easily to a new place. Once a
person settles well at a certain place, he will never leave that area to settle in a new area. People like to settle
at places where their ancestors have lived in the past. Sons and grandsons from generation to generation live
at a place which they do not leave so easily.
(ii) Educational Factors: In each part of the country, there remains a class which has more curiosity to gain
knowledge. This class moves from one country to another according to its own economic conditions and
circumstances. If the environment of the new country is adaptable to them, they tend to settle there
permanently. At present, lakhs of youths from Asia and Africa have migrated to America, Canada and
European countries for higher studies and after getting employment, they have settled there permanently.
 1.4 Components of Population Change – Mortality and Fertility
Recent decades have witnessed growing interest of social scientists including population geographers in the
ever increasing demographic dynamism, especially in the less developed realm. Consequently, the number
of studies exploring the trends in population change has recorded a conspicuous spurt in the recent past. This
growing consciousness among the social scientists about the need for exploring the trends in population
change may be attributed to
(i) the recent population explosion resulting in a great demand for food-stuffs and other resources;
(ii) the world economic recession of 1980-83;
(iii) widening gap between the per capita incomes of developed and less developed countries;
(iv) increasing environmental damage;
(v) increasing population pressure upon the limited resources of the less developed world.
The concept of population change or growth of population is often used to connote the change in the number
of inhabitants of a territory during a specific period of time irrespective of the fact whether change is
negative or positive. Such a change can be measured both in terms of absolute numbers and in terms of
percentage. While it is easy to determine the change in absolute numbers by subtracting the number of
inhabitants at an earlier point in time from that of at a later point in time, the measurement of percentage
change poses a little problem. The growth of population in terms of percentage is generally calculated by
dividing the absolute change by the population at an earlier date and multiplying it by hundred.
Fertility
Fertility which refers to the occurrence of birth, however, needs to be differentiated from fecundity which
refers to the reproductive capacity of a woman during her entire reproductive period. Various measures of
fertility have been coined. These include: crude birth rate, general fertility rate, child woman ratio, fertility
ratio, age specific birth rate, standardized birth rate, total fertility rate, reproduction/replacement rate etc.
1. Crude birth rate (CBR) is not only the simplest but also the most common measure of human fertility. It
is expressed in terms of number of births in a year per thousand of the mid-year population. It may be
pointed out that only live births during a year are to be taken into account. It is calculated as under:

where Bl stands for live births during a year and P stands for the estimated mid-year population.
2. Fertility ratio (FR)/Child women ratio has been considered a more useful index of fertility. It is
calculated by taking into account only the females in reproductive age-group. It is expressed in terms of
number of children below five years of age per thousand females of reproductive age group. It is
calculated as under:

where P0-4 stands for the number of children under 5 years of age and Pf 15-49 stands for women of
childbearing age.
3. Another measure of fertility, which has often been used, is known as general fertility rate (GFR). It
measures the number of live births in a year per thousand women of normal reproductive age. It is
calculated as under:

where Bl stands for live births in a year and Pf 15-44 stands for number of women in normal reproductive
age.
4. Age specific birth rate (ABR) has also been suggested to measure the number of births in a year to
women of a given age-group per thousand women in that age-group. It is calculated as under:

where B20-24 stands for number of births to women of a given age group and Pf 20-24 stands for total female
population in that age group.
5. Another measure, which has been suggested to gauge fertility, has been called as standardized birth
rate. The standardized birth rate can be calculated with the help of age specific birth rate. By using age-
specific birth-rate, the number of expected births for each specific age-groups can first be calculated. The
sum of expected births for all age-groups to be divided by total population and multiplied by one
thousand so as to yield standardized birth rate.
6. The total fertility rate (TFR) is another age-sex adjusted measure of fertility, which has been regarded
as the most sensitive, and the most meaningful cross-sectional measure of fertility. It is obtained by
summing up the age-specific birth rates and multiplying it by number of years in the age interval.
Therefore, it can be expressed as under for quinquennial age-groups:

where age-specific birth rates for 15-19 age-group.

7. Another measure of fertility, which has been in use, is known as reproduction/replacement rate (RR).
This rate indicates the replacement of individuals by others of the same age-groups, in the following
generation. For instance, a replacement rate of unity supposes that one woman dies after giving birth to
one female who also has the same degree of fecundity and also does not die before reaching the
reproductive age. It is also expressed in terms of female babies born per thousand of female population in
reproductive age-group.

where Bl stands for female babies born and Pf 15-44 stands population of females in the reproductive gae-
group.
Mortality
Mortality has been defined as permanent disappearance of all evidence of life at any time after birth has
taken place, a death can occur only after a live birth has occurred. Therefore, for the purposes of mortality,
all deaths before births are to be excluded. Not all countries follow this definition recommended by United
Nations. In countries like Equatorial Guinea and Morocco, infants who die within 24 hours of birth are
classified as still-births. In countries like Algeria, French Guinea and Syria, infants who are born alive but
die before the end of registration period, which may last, in some cases, for a few months, are considered
still-births.
The population geographer’s interest in the study of mortality, however, lies primarily in it being a basic
component of population growth. With a view to measuring the incidence of mortality, various indices have
been used including crude death rate, age specific death rate, infant mortality rate, maternal mortality rate.
1. Crude death rate (CDR) is the simplest measure of mortality indicating the number of deaths in a
particular year per thousand of population. It is expressed as under:

where D stands for number of deaths in a year and P for estimated mid-year population for the year.
2. Disaggregation of mortality rates by age and sex (DasR) yields a more critical measurement of mortality.
The age and sex specific mortality rates can be expressed in terms of number of deaths during a year of
persons of a given age and sex per thousand of that age and sex. These can be calculated as under:

where Das stands for number of deaths of specific age and specific sex during a year and Pas stands for
total population of specific age and sex.
3. Infant mortality rate (IMR) is calculated for connoting mortality among children of joy than one year of
age. It is expressed as under:

where Ds stands for number of deaths of children under one year of age and Bl, stands for number of live
births.
 2.1 Concepts of Overpopulation, Under Population and Optimum Population
1. Physiographic Density: No. of people per square km of agricultural land.
2. Agricultural Density: No. of farmers/agricultural labourers per square km of agricultural land.
3. Urban Density: No. of people per square km of urban land.
Over Population
An excess of population in an area in relation to the available resources and technology denotes over
population. This situation occurs when the number of people exceeds that of the optimum population and the
standard of living tends to decline i.e. Population > Resources. The results of overpopulation may be under
employment, unemployment, low per capita income, low standard of living etc.
The term ‘overpopulation’ means too great a population for a given region to support.
Over population takes place generally when the rate of population growth is much higher than that of the
development of resources in an area. The situation of overpopulation displays the following socio-economic
characteristics: high unemployment, low incomes, low standards of living, high population density,
malnutrition and famine.
The over population may occur not only at national level but also at local or regional level. For example
many developed countries of the world like U.S.A, Canada, France, Germany, and New Zealand etc. as a
whole are not overpopulated but there also may be 5 found islands of overpopulation. Java Island in
Indonesia and parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India are the classic example of regional over population.
China, Japan, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Egypt etc. are treated as overpopulated countries.
Under Population
Concept of under population is just opposite of over population. Under population occurs when the
population of an area is too small for full utilization of its resources i.e. Population <
Resources. The condition of under population may also appear when the resources of an area are able to
support a larger than existing population without lowering the standard of living or without creating any type
of unemployment. Under population is also characterised by a situation where the available resources are
capable of supporting a much larger population with no reduction in living standards.
For example parts of Brazil, Canada, Russian
Federation, Argentina, Amazon River basin or
the rich Prairie region of North America,
Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire) etc. are
under populated due to low technical level and
very sparse distribution of population.
The condition of under population may also be
caused by high rate of mortality due to repeating
epidemics, famines, wars etc. Such under
population may be controlled and restricted by
improving medical facilities and thus reducing
the mortality rate including infant mortality.
Optimum Population
The term optimum population may be defined
as a density of population which with the given
resources and skills, produces the maximum
(greatest) economic welfare (usually the
maximum income per capita) or allows the
highest standard of living. The concept of
optimum population is concerned with the high
quality of life.
The optimum population is a concept where the
human population is able to balance
maintaining a maximum population size with
optimal standards of living for all people i.e.
Population = Resources. It is quite evident that
the measurement of optimum population size
for an area is extremely difficult. But however,
following criteria for assessing optimum
population size may be used:
(1) per capita product or per capita income ,
(2) full employment,
(3) life expectancy,
(4) dependency ratio,
(5) availability of pure drinking water and air,
(6) highest average standard of living,
(7) per capita consumption of food and energy,
(8) proportion of expenditure on food,
(9) balanced population-resource ratio,
(10) balanced demographic structure,
(11) rational development of resources etc.
Causes of Over population
1. High birth rates: When the birth rate exceeds the death rate, the population increases, leading to
overpopulation.
2. Decreased mortality rates: Advances in healthcare, nutrition, and technology have led to decreased
mortality rates, which can contribute to overpopulation.
3. Immigration: When people from other regions or countries move to a particular area, it can increase the
population and contribute to overpopulation.
4. Urbanization: As people move from rural areas to cities in search of better opportunities, it can lead to
overcrowding and strain on resources.
5. Lack of family planning: When there is limited access to birth control, education, and healthcare,
people may have more children than they can support.
6. Poverty: People living in poverty may have more children as a means of support or as a cultural norm.
7. Lack of education: Limited education and knowledge about family planning can contribute to
overpopulation.
8. Cultural and religious beliefs: Some cultural or religious beliefs may discourage the use of birth
control or limit access to healthcare, leading to overpopulation.
9. Government policies: Government policies that encourage large families or limit access to birth control
can contribute to overpopulation.
10. Globalization: Globalization can lead to increased trade, migration, and urbanization, which can
contribute to overpopulation.
Causes of under population
1. Low birth rates: When the birth rate is lower than the death rate, the population decreases, leading to
underpopulation.
2. Aging population: As people live longer and have fewer children, the population may age and
decrease.
3. Migration: When people leave a particular area in search of better opportunities or a higher quality of
life, it can contribute to underpopulation.
4. Environmental factors: Natural disasters, disease, and other environmental factors can cause people to
leave a region or reduce birth rates.
5. War and conflict: When there is war or conflict, it can cause people to flee a region or lead to a
decrease in birth rates.
6. Economic decline: When an economy is in decline, people may leave a region in search of better
opportunities, leading to underpopulation.
7. Gender inequality: In some cultures, girls may be undervalued, leading to a decrease in the number of
female children and ultimately to underpopulation.
8. Low life expectancy: When life expectancy is low, people may have fewer children, contributing to
underpopulation.
9. Limited resources: When resources such as water, food, and land are limited, it can lead to
underpopulation.
10. Declining fertility rates: As fertility rates decline due to increased access to education and
healthcare, it can contribute to underpopulation.
Causes of Optimum Population
1. Sustainable resource use: An optimum population is one that can use resources sustainably without
depleting them for future generations.
 2. Economic development: An optimum population can support economic development and provide
opportunities for its citizens.
3. Environmental protection: An optimum population can protect the environment and preserve
biodiversity.
4. Social stability: An optimum population can provide social stability, reduce inequality, and promote a
sense of community.
5. Access to healthcare and education: An optimum population has access to healthcare and education,
which can improve quality of life and promote economic development.
6. Access to clean water and sanitation: Access to clean water and sanitation is important for ensuring a
healthy population.
7. Political stability: Political stability and good governance are important for promoting economic
development and social stability.
8. Technology: Technological advancements can help increase resource efficiency and promote economic
development.
9. Immigration policies: Immigration policies that balance the need for population growth with the need
for sustainable resource use can contribute to an optimum population.
10. Environmental conservation: Environmental conservation and sustainable resource use are
important for preserving natural resources and promoting an optimum population.

2.2 India and World: Urbanization and Literacy Patterns

Urbanization
Urbanization refers to the process by which rural areas become urbanized as a result of economic
development and industrialization. Demographically, the term urbanization denotes the redistribution of
populations from rural to urban settlements over time. The fundamental difference between urban and
rural is that urban populations live in larger, denser, and more heterogeneous cities as opposed to small,
more sparse, and less differentiated rural places.
Trends of World Urbanization
 More than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas. Due to the ongoing urbanisation and
growth of the world’s population, there will be about 2.5 billion more people added to the urban
population by 2050, mainly in Africa and Asia. Asian cities are growing very fast. Many are the fastest
growing cities are found in the continent.
 In India, interestingly Tier II cities have a faster growing rate. The world’s urban areas are highly
varied, but many cities and towns are facing problems such as a lack of jobs, homelessness and
expanding squatter settlements, inadequate services and infrastructure, poor health and educational
services and high levels of pollution.
 In 1960, the global urban population was 34% of the total; however, by 2014 the urban population
accounted for 54% of the total and continues to grow. By 2050 the proportion living in urban areas is
expected to reach 66% (UNDESA, 2014). The following figure shows the change in the rural and
urban populations of the world from 1950 through to projected figures up to the year 2050.
 The process of urbanisation affects all sizes of settlements, so villages gradually grow to become small
towns, smaller towns become larger towns, and large towns become cities. This succession of
settlements with growing diversification of economy has led to the growth of mega-cities.
 The global trend in urbanisation is not the same in all parts of the world. Asia and Africa currently
have the highest rates of urbanisation. The figure below shows a comparison of trends in more or less
developed regions of the world.

 A mega-city is an urban area of greater than ten million people. In 1970, there were only three mega-
cities across the globe, but by the year 2000, the number had risen to 17 and in 2020, 34 mega-cities
had risen. The 34 mega-cities are given below-
S.No. Megacity Country Region S.No. Megacity Country Region

1. Tokyo East Asia 18. Shenzhen East Asia

Japan China
2. Jakarta Southeast Asia 19. Dhaka South Asia
Indonesia Bangladesh
North
3. Delhi South Asia 20. Los Angeles
India United States America
4. Mumbai South Asia 21. Lagos West Africa
India Nigeria
Metro Europe, West
5. Philippines Southeast Asia 22. Istanbul
Manila Turkey Asia
6. Shanghai East Asia 23. Osaka East Asia
China Japan
7. São Paulo South America 24. Karachi Pakistan South Asia
Brazil
8. Seoul East Asia 25. Bangalore South Asia
South Korea India
9. Mexico City Mexico North America 26. Tehran West Asia
Iran
10. Guangzhou East Asia 27. Kinshasa Central Africa
China DR Congo
Ho Chi
11. New York North America 28. Vietnam Southeast Asia
United States Minh City
Rio de South
12. Beijing East Asia 29.
China Janeiro Brazil America
13. Cairo North Africa 30. Chennai South Asia
Egypt India
14. Kolkata South Asia 31. Lahore Pakistan South Asia
India
15. Moscow Europe 32. Paris Europe
Russia France

16. Bangkok Thailand Southeast Asia 33. London United Europe

Kingdom
17. Buenos Aires South America 34. Tianjin East Asia
Argentina China
Source:- Wikipedia
Patterns of World Urbanization
The world passed a landmark statistic sometime in 2014, when it was estimated that for the first
time in human history over 50% of the world’s population was living in urban areas. For urbanisation to
happen, people need to move into cities rather than be born in them. The end result is a growth in the size of
urban spaces, which could also be called ‘built environments’. Urban populations grow as a result of:
 Rural-urban migration (voluntary): urban ‘Pull factors’ predominate as people anticipate an improved
quality of life in a city together with enhanced future prospects for themselves and their family.
 Rural-urban migration (forced): rural ‘Push factors’ predominate as a result of environmental pressures
in rural areas (floods/drought), food shortages and/or political conflict. More directly, government
policy of moving rural inhabitants to cities may take any choice away from the migration. China’s
bureaucratic relocation involved in the ‘National New-type Urbanisation Plan 2014-2020’ foresees
moving over 260 million people to cities in an attempt to modernise social and economic systems.
 Assimilation: as urban areas expand they may incorporate nearby smaller towns and villages into
expansive conurbations. The term ‘urban sprawl’ denotes the rapid spatial expansion of an urban area
that is likely to surround and incorporate previously separate settlements.
Global Patterns of Urbanization
Today’s world lives in an urban world where over 50% of the population live in cities. It is estimated that
by 2050 the figure will be over 66%. This pattern across the world is very uneven and there are different
reasons for the development of some urban areas over others.
 Global patterns of urbanization have undergone significant changes over the last century, with the
world's urban population growing from 746 million in 1950 to 4.2 billion in 2018.
 Asia, Africa, and Latin America are the regions with the highest rates of urbanization, with more than
80% of the population living in urban areas in some countries. In contrast, North America and Europe
have more developed urban areas, with a slower rate of urbanization.
 North America, Europe and Oceania underwent their fastest urbanisation rates well before 1945 – in
the 19th century.
 South and Central America urbanised rapidly during the 1960s-80s, while the industrialisation and
economic ‘take-off’ of many Asian countries in the 1980s to the present day (and continuing) has been
accompanied by rapid urbanisation.
 The continent that is presently starting to see rapid urbanisation occurring is Africa, with cities such as:
Dar-e-Salaam (Tanzania) due to grow by 85% between 2010 and 2025; Nairobi (Kenya, 77%);
Kinshasa (DRC, 72%) and the continent’s largest city – Lagos (Nigeria, 50%).
 Tokyo continues to be the world's largest city on the planet but by the middle of this century will be
closely followed by Delhi.
 By 2050 the urban growth will be taking place mainly in Africa and Asia, North America and Latin
America & the Caribbean with over 80% of the population living in urban areas, closely followed by
Europe at 70%.
 In North America and Europe, resources such as coal played an important role in the development of
urban areas, as did being near to the coast for trading, which led to the development of cities such as
London and New York, two of the world's most important world cities.
 In Latin America, the pattern has been slightly different, with a few cities dominating the growth, most
notably Rio de Janeiro which is located on the coast. Much of Latin America's land does not allow for
the development of urban areas inland.
 The growth of urban areas has led to significant changes in the social, economic, and environmental
landscape. Some of the benefits of urbanization include improved access to employment opportunities,
education, healthcare, and social services. However, rapid urbanization can also lead to challenges
such as increased traffic congestion, air pollution, and inadequate housing, particularly in low-income
areas.
Indian Patterns of Urbanization
Urbanization in India began to accelerate after independence, due to the country's adoption of a mixed
economy, which gave rise to the development of the private sector. The population residing in urban areas in
India, according to the 1901 census, was 11.4%, increasing to 28.53% by the 2001 census, and is now
currently 34% in 2017 according to The World Bank. According to a survey by UN, in 2030 40.76% of
country's population is expected to reside in urban areas. As per World Bank, India, along with China,
Indonesia, Nigeria, and the United States, will lead the world's urban population surge by 2050.
Mumbai saw large-scale rural-urban migration in the 20th century. Mumbai, in 2018, accommodates 22.1
million people, and is the second-largest metropolis by population in India. Delhi has 28 million inhabitants
and witnessed the fastest rate of urbanization in the world, with a 4.1% rise in population as per the 2011
census.
India has experienced significant urbanization in recent decades, with the urban population growing from
17% in 1951 to over 34% in 2018. Here are some of the key patterns of urbanization in India:
1. Rapid urban growth: India has witnessed rapid urban growth in recent years, with the number of urban
areas increasing from 5,161 in 2001 to 7,935 in 2011.
2. Mega-cities: India has several mega-cities with populations over 10 million, including Mumbai, Delhi,
and Bangalore. These cities are the major hubs for employment, education, and economic growth.
3. Informal settlements: A significant proportion of the urban population in India lives in informal
settlements, such as slums and shantytowns. These settlements are often characterized by inadequate
housing, lack of basic amenities, and poor sanitation.
4. Urban sprawl: Urban areas in India have experienced significant urban sprawl, with the expansion of
urban areas into the surrounding rural areas. This has led to environmental degradation and loss of
agricultural land.
5. Migration: Migration is a key driver of urbanization in India, with people moving from rural areas to
urban areas in search of better economic opportunities.
6. Infrastructure challenges: Rapid urbanization in India has put a strain on infrastructure, particularly in
terms of transport, housing, water supply, and sanitation.
7. Smart cities: In recent years, the Indian government has launched the Smart Cities Mission, aimed at
promoting sustainable and inclusive urban development through the use of technology and innovation.
8. Regional disparities: Urbanization in India is not evenly distributed, with some regions experiencing
faster urban growth than others. For example, the western and southern regions of India have higher
rates of urbanization than the northern and eastern regions.
9. Sectoral composition: Urban areas in India have a diverse sectoral composition, with some cities
specializing in manufacturing, while others specialize in services. For instance, Mumbai is known for its
financial services sector, while Bangalore is known for its IT industry.
10. Urban-rural linkages: Urbanization in India is closely linked to rural areas, with many rural areas
providing labour for urban areas, and many urban areas relying on rural areas for food and other
resources.
11. Informal economy: A significant proportion of the urban economy in India is informal, with many
people engaged in unregulated and informal economic activities such as street vending and waste
recycling.
12. Urban governance: Urban governance in India is often characterized by fragmentation and overlapping
jurisdictions, with multiple agencies responsible for different aspects of urban development. This can
lead to challenges in coordinating and implementing urban development policies and programs.
13. Environmental challenges: Rapid urbanization in India has led to significant environmental
challenges, such as air and water pollution, solid waste management, and deforestation.
14. Livelihood challenges: While urbanization in India has led to new economic opportunities, it has also
resulted in livelihood challenges for some groups, particularly those in the informal economy and
marginalized communities.
Causes of Urbanization
1. Push Factors: Some of the common push factors include lack of job opportunities, poor living
conditions, and limited access to basic services such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure. These
conditions make it difficult for people to improve their quality of life and pursue their aspirations, thus
prompting them to seek better opportunities in urban areas.
2. Pull Factors: Pull factors of urbanization include the availability of employment opportunities, access
to better healthcare, education, and infrastructure, as well as a higher standard of living. These factors
attract people to urban areas, where they can pursue their career goals, access better services, and enjoy
a more comfortable lifestyle.
3. Rural-urban migration: One of the main causes of urbanization is rural-urban migration, with people
moving from rural areas to urban areas in search of better economic opportunities, education, and social
services.
 4. Industrialization: The growth of industries and manufacturing in urban areas can attract people to
move to urban areas for employment opportunities, leading to the growth of urban areas.
5. Economic growth: Economic growth in urban areas can create employment opportunities and increase
wages, attracting people to move to urban areas.
6. Technological advancements: Technological advancements, such as automation and digitalization, can
lead to increased productivity and efficiency in urban areas, leading to job creation and economic
growth.
7. Natural disasters and conflicts: Natural disasters and conflicts can lead to displacement of people, who
then move to urban areas as refugees or to seek better living conditions.
8. Social factors: Social factors such as access to education, healthcare, and cultural amenities can attract
people to move to urban areas.
9. Government policies: Government policies can also play a role in urbanization, such as policies that
promote industrialization and urban development, or policies that provide incentives for people to move
to urban areas.
10. Globalization: Globalization can also be a cause of urbanization, as it can lead to the growth of
international trade and investment, which can create job opportunities and increase economic activity in
urban areas.
11. Demographic factors: Demographic factors such as population growth, changing age structures, and
family structures can also contribute to urbanization. For instance, the growing number of young people
seeking education and employment opportunities in urban areas can contribute to urbanization.
12. Land use changes: Land use changes, such as the conversion of agricultural land into urban areas, can
also contribute to urbanization.
13. Infrastructure development: The development of infrastructure, such as roads, highways, and airports,
can also contribute to urbanization by increasing accessibility and connectivity to urban areas.
14. Environmental factors: Environmental factors such as climate change, natural disasters, and resource
depletion can also contribute to urbanization, as people may move to urban areas in search of more
secure and sustainable living conditions.
Impacts of Urbanization
Urbanization can bring both positive and negative impacts, depending on various factors such as the pace
and scale of urbanization, the quality of urban planning and management, and the distribution of benefits and
costs. Here are some of the positive and negative impacts of urbanization:
Positive Impacts
1. Economic growth: Urban areas can generate greater economic activity, attract investment, and create
employment opportunities, which can drive economic growth.
2. Improved access to services: Urban areas tend to have better access to services such as healthcare,
education, and infrastructure, which can improve the quality of life of residents.
3. Innovation and creativity: Urban areas can foster innovation, creativity, and cultural diversity, which
can drive social and economic development.
4. Cultural exchange: Urban areas can bring together people from different backgrounds and cultures,
providing opportunities for cultural exchange, social cohesion, and cross-cultural learning.
5. Education opportunities: Urban areas can offer a wider range of educational opportunities, including
higher education, vocational training, and skills development, which can improve the employability of
residents.
6. Improved public services: Urban areas can have better access to public services such as healthcare,
public transportation, and public safety, which can improve the quality of life of residents.
7. Access to cultural amenities: Urban areas tend to have more cultural amenities such as museums, art
galleries, and theaters, which can enrich the lives of residents and attract tourists.
8. Technological advancement: Urban areas tend to be centers of technological advancement and
innovation, which can drive economic growth, job creation, and improve the quality of life of residents.
9. Improved transportation: Urban areas tend to have better public transportation systems, which can
improve mobility, reduce congestion, and enhance the accessibility of jobs and services.
Negative Impacts
1. Environmental degradation: Urbanization can lead to environmental degradation, including air
pollution, water pollution, and deforestation, which can harm the health of residents and ecosystems.
2. Social inequality: Urbanization can exacerbate social inequality, as some residents may have better
access to opportunities and services than others, leading to a sense of exclusion and marginalization.
 3. Housing affordability: Urbanization can lead to housing affordability challenges, as demand for
housing outstrips supply, leading to high housing costs, and homelessness for some residents.
4. Traffic congestion: Urbanization can lead to traffic congestion, which can cause delays, air pollution,
and increase the risk of accidents, affecting the quality of life of residents.
5. Overcrowding and public health risks: Urbanization can lead to overcrowding, which can increase
the risk of the spread of diseases, such as COVID-19, and other public health risks.
6. Urban sprawl: Urbanization can lead to urban sprawl, which can lead to the depletion of natural
resources, fragmentation of ecosystems, and loss of biodiversity, affecting the long-term sustainability
of urban areas.
7. Gentrification: Urbanization can lead to gentrification, which can displace long-time residents, and
create economic and cultural polarization.
8. Social isolation: Urbanization can lead to social isolation, as residents may have less sense of
community and social connection, leading to loneliness and mental health challenges.
9. Urban heat island effect: Urbanization can lead to the urban heat island effect, which can cause higher
temperatures in urban areas than in surrounding rural areas, leading to health risks for vulnerable
populations.
Problems of urbanization
1. Overcrowding: Urbanization can lead to overcrowding, which can lead to increased pressure on
housing, public services, and infrastructure, leading to decreased quality of life for residents.
2. Poverty and inequality: Urbanization can exacerbate poverty and inequality, as some residents may
not have access to opportunities and services, leading to social exclusion and marginalization.
3. Environmental degradation: Urbanization can lead to environmental degradation, including air and
water pollution, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity, which can harm the health of residents and
ecosystems.
4. Traffic congestion: Urbanization can lead to traffic congestion, which can cause delays, air pollution,
and increase the risk of accidents, affecting the quality of life of residents.
5. Housing affordability: Urbanization can lead to housing affordability challenges, as demand for
housing outstrips supply, leading to high housing costs, and homelessness for some residents.
6. Crime and safety concerns: Urbanization can lead to crime and safety concerns, as urban areas may
have higher rates of crime and violence, leading to decreased sense of security for residents.
7. Health risks: Urbanization can lead to health risks, including exposure to air pollution, noise pollution,
and infectious diseases, which can harm the health of residents.
8. Infrastructure deficits: Urbanization can lead to deficits in infrastructure, including water and
sanitation, electricity, and transportation, leading to decreased quality of life for residents.
9. Urban sprawl: Urbanization can lead to urban sprawl, where urban areas spread out into suburban or
rural areas, which can lead to the depletion of natural resources, fragmentation of ecosystems, and loss
of biodiversity.
10. Economic instability: Urbanization can lead to economic instability, including job loss and
economic inequality, as industries may leave urban areas for cheaper labor markets elsewhere.
11. Social segregation: Urbanization can lead to social segregation, as different socioeconomic groups
may live in different neighborhoods, leading to social and economic polarization.
12. Resource depletion: Urbanization can lead to the depletion of natural resources, including energy,
water, and food, which can lead to shortages and increased costs for residents.
13. Urban decay: Urbanization can lead to urban decay, where buildings and infrastructure deteriorate
over time, leading to decreased quality of life for residents and decreased attractiveness to investors.
Literacy Rates
Literacy rate is the percentage of the population aged 15 years and above who can read and write with
understanding a simple statement in any language. Here are some points on literacy rates:
 Globally, the literacy rate has been increasing steadily over the years. According to UNESCO, the
global literacy rate was 86.3% in 2019, up from 77.2% in 2000.
 However, there are significant disparities in literacy rates across countries and regions. For instance, the
literacy rate in sub-Saharan Africa is only 64%, compared to 99% in Europe and North America.
 In many countries, there are also disparities in literacy rates between different genders, ethnic groups,
and socio-economic classes. For example, women and girls often have lower literacy rates than men and
boys, and people from disadvantaged backgrounds may have lower literacy rates than those from more
privileged backgrounds.
  Literacy is a key determinant of economic and social development. People who are literate are more
likely to have access to better jobs, higher wages, and improved health and well-being.
 Improving literacy rates is therefore a key priority for many governments and development
organizations. Strategies for improving literacy rates may include increasing access to education,
improving the quality of education, and promoting adult literacy programs.
 The COVID-19 pandemic has also highlighted the importance of literacy, as many countries have had to
shift to online and remote learning, which may be inaccessible to people who lack basic literacy and
digital skills.
Trends of World Literacy Rates
The literacy rate of the world has been increasing over the past few decades. Here are some key trends in
world literacy rate:
 According to UNESCO, the global literacy rate for adults (aged 15 years and above) was 86.3% in
2019, up from 77.2% in 2000.
 The literacy rate has been increasing faster for women than for men. In 2019, the literacy rate for adult
women was 82.7%, compared to 90.0% for adult men.
 Despite the overall increase in literacy rates, there are still significant disparities between different
regions and countries. For example, the literacy rate in sub-Saharan Africa is only 64%, compared to
99% in Europe and North America.
 The literacy rate is generally higher in urban areas than in rural areas, and there are often disparities
between different socio-economic groups.
 Education is a key factor in improving literacy rates. Increased access to education, especially for girls
and women, has contributed to the increase in literacy rates.
 The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of digital literacy, as many countries have had
to shift to online and remote learning, which may be inaccessible to people who lack basic digital skills.

Global Patterns of literacy rates

 North America and Europe have some of the highest literacy rates in the world, with literacy rates over
99%.
 Asia has a mixed pattern of literacy rates, with some countries such as Japan, South Korea, and China
having high literacy rates, while other countries such as India and Pakistan have lower literacy rates.
 Africa has some of the lowest literacy rates in the world, with sub-Saharan Africa having an average
literacy rate of 64%.
 Latin America and the Caribbean have higher literacy rates than Africa but lower than North America
and Europe, with an average literacy rate of 92%.
 Oceania, which includes Australia and New Zealand, has a high literacy rate of over 99%.
  Literacy rates are generally higher in developed countries than in developing countries. For instance,
according to UNESCO, the adult literacy rate in North America and Western Europe is 99%, while in
sub-Saharan Africa it is only 64%.
 There are also significant disparities in literacy rates within countries. In many countries, there are
disparities between urban and rural areas, with higher literacy rates in urban areas. There may also be
disparities between different
socio-economic groups, UNESCO list of countries by literacy rate (2015)
genders, and ethnicities. Country Adult literacy rate Youth literacy rate ages 15–24
 Access to education is a key China 96.4% 99.7%
factor in determining literacy Sri Lanka 92.6% 98.8%
rates. Countries with higher Myanmar 93.7% 96.3%
levels of education spending World average 86.3% 91.2%
and greater access to schools India 81% 91.76%
and universities tend to have Nepal 64.7% 86.9%
higher literacy rates. Bangladesh 61.5% 83.2%
 There is a gender gap in Pakistan 58% 80.3%
literacy rates, with women and
girls having lower literacy rates than men and boys in many countries. According to UNESCO, the
global literacy rate for women is 82.7%, compared to 90.0% for men.
 The global adult literacy rate has been increasing over the past few decades. In 2000, the adult literacy
rate was 77.2%, while in 2019 it had increased to 86.3%.
 Despite the overall increase in literacy rates, there are still significant disparities between different
socio-economic groups within countries. In many countries, individuals from lower socio-economic
backgrounds have lower literacy rates than those from higher socio-economic backgrounds.
 Conflict and political instability can also impact literacy rates. Countries affected by conflict or political
instability often have lower literacy rates, as access to education may be limited and resources may be
redirected towards other priorities.
 In addition to traditional literacy skills, digital literacy is becoming increasingly important in the 21st
century. Access to technology and digital skills are important for participation in the modern economy,
and lack of access to digital skills can further exacerbate existing disparities in literacy rates.
Indian Patterns of literacy rates
 India has made significant progress in increasing literacy rates in recent decades. The overall literacy
rate in India has increased from 18.3% in 1951 to 77.7% in 2011, according to census data.
 According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest literacy rate in India at 96.2%. Other states with
high literacy rates include Mizoram (91.6%), Tripura (87.8%), and Himachal Pradesh (83.8%).
 States with lower literacy rates include Bihar (61.8%), Rajasthan (66.1%), and Uttar Pradesh (69.7%).
 There are also significant disparities in literacy rates between urban and rural areas within each state.
For instance, the urban literacy rate in Bihar States in 2011
is 79.8%, while the rural literacy rate is only No State Literacy Rate in Percentage
49.6%. 1 Kerala 96.2%
 In terms of gender disparities, there is a 2 Mizoram 91.6%
significant gap between male and female 3 Tripura 87.8%
literacy rates in many states. For instance, in 4 Himachal Pradesh 83.8%
Rajasthan, the male literacy rate is 80.5%, 5 Uttar Pradesh 69.7%
while the female literacy rate is only 52.7%. 6 Rajasthan 66.1%
 However, there are also many states where 7. Bihar 61.8%
the gender gap in literacy rates has been
significantly reduced. For instance, in Kerala, the male literacy rate is 97.4%, while the female literacy
rate is 95.2%.
 However, there are significant disparities in literacy rates within India. Literacy rates are generally
higher in urban areas than in rural areas, and higher among men than women. According to the 2011
census, the literacy rate among men was 82.14%, while the literacy rate among women was 65.46%.
 The southern states of India generally have higher literacy rates than the northern states. For instance,
Kerala, a state in southern India, has a literacy rate of over Census of India - literacy rates (age 7+)
96%, while Bihar, a state in northern India, has a literacy
rate of only 61.8%. Year Male % Female % Combined %
 Education initiatives such as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 1981 56.38 29.76 43.57
(Education for All) and the Right to Education Act have 1991 64.13 39.29 52.21
played a significant role in increasing literacy rates in 2001 75.26 53.67 64.83
India. These initiatives have focused on improving access 2011 82.14 65.46 74.04
to education, particularly for marginalized communities.
 Despite the progress in increasing literacy rates, there are still significant challenges to achieving
universal literacy in India. Factors such as poverty, gender inequality, and lack of access to quality
education continue to limit opportunities for many individuals. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has
had a significant impact on education in India, with school closures and disruptions to learning
impacting literacy rates.
 The Indian government has set a target of achieving 100% literacy by 2030, and has launched several
initiatives aimed at achieving this goal. For instance, the Digital India program aims to provide digital
infrastructure and connectivity to all
citizens, including in rural areas, which
can help to improve access to
education and digital literacy.
 The quality of education in India is an
ongoing concern, with many schools
lacking basic infrastructure and
resources, and a shortage of qualified
teachers. Improving the quality of
education is an important factor in
achieving universal literacy in India.
 India has made significant progress in
reducing the gender gap in literacy
rates, but disparities still remain.
According to the 2011 census, the male
literacy rate was 82.14%, while the
female literacy rate was 65.46%.
Initiatives such as Beti Bachao, Beti
Padhao (Save the Daughter, Educate
the Daughter) have been launched to
address gender inequality in education
and promote girls' education.
 The role of non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and civil society
groups is important in promoting
literacy and education in India. Many
NGOs work on initiatives aimed at improving access to education, particularly for marginalized
communities such as Dalits and Adivasis.
 The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of digital literacy and access to technology for
education. The pandemic has led to a shift towards online learning, which has highlighted the need for
greater access to technology and digital skills in order to ensure that all students have access to
education.
Factors affecting literacy rates
1. Access to education: One of the most important factors in achieving high literacy rates is access to
education. This includes not only physical access to schools, but also access to quality education that is
affordable and relevant to the needs of students.
2. Investment in education: Governments and other stakeholders that invest in education, including
through funding for schools, teachers, and resources, can help to improve literacy rates.
3. Gender equality: Reducing gender disparities in education is an important factor in achieving universal
literacy. This includes initiatives to promote girls' education, reduce gender-based violence, and address
social and cultural barriers that limit opportunities for girls.
4. Poverty reduction: Poverty is a significant barrier to education and literacy, as many families may not
be able to afford the costs associated with education. Addressing poverty through initiatives such as
cash transfers or employment opportunities can help to increase literacy rates.
5. Adult education: Providing opportunities for adult education and literacy training can help to improve
literacy rates among adults, who may have missed out on formal education opportunities.
6. Availability of resources: Access to books, technology, and other resources can help to promote
literacy by providing individuals with the tools they need to learn and improve their reading and writing
skills.
7. Language and cultural barriers: Addressing language and cultural barriers can be important in
promoting literacy among marginalized communities. This may include providing education in local
languages, or addressing discrimination or prejudice that can limit opportunities for certain groups.
8. Government policies: Government policies can play an important role in promoting literacy rates. This
includes policies that mandate education, provide funding for schools, and promote equal access to
education for all.
9. Parental education: Studies have shown that parents' level of education can have a significant impact
on their children's literacy rates. Parents who are educated are more likely to value education and
provide their children with the support they need to succeed in school.
10. Teacher quality: The quality of teachers can have a significant impact on literacy rates. Teachers who
are well-trained, motivated, and supported can provide students with the skills and knowledge they need
to succeed.
11. Health and nutrition: Poor health and malnutrition can impact cognitive development, making it
harder for children to learn and succeed in school. Addressing health and nutrition needs, including
through initiatives like school feeding programs, can help to improve literacy rates.
12. Technology: Technology can be an important tool in promoting literacy rates, particularly in areas
where access to physical resources like books may be limited. Digital resources, such as online learning
platforms, can help to promote literacy and provide opportunities for learning.
13. Cultural factors: Cultural factors can impact literacy rates by influencing attitudes towards education
and learning. Addressing cultural factors, such as beliefs about the value of education or gender roles,
can be important in promoting literacy rates.
 2.3 India and World: Age and Sex Composition of Population
The age and sex composition of a population refers to the distribution of individuals within a population
according to their age and sex. This is an important demographic characteristic that helps to provide insight
into a range of social and economic factors, such as health and mortality rates, fertility rates, workforce
participation, and social welfare needs.
The age composition of a population is usually divided into different age groups, such as 0-14 years, 15-64
years, and 65 years and over. The sex composition refers to the proportion of males and females within each
age group. By analyzing the age and sex composition of a population, researchers can gain insights into
various demographic trends and patterns.
For example, countries with a high proportion of young people (under 15 years old) may have high birth
rates and rapidly growing populations, while those with a high proportion of elderly people (over 65 years
old) may have higher healthcare costs and require more social welfare support. Additionally, countries with
a more balanced sex ratio may have better gender equality and higher levels of social cohesion.
Sex Gender
Biological and Socially constructed roles,
physiological characteristics behaviors, and expectations
Determined by
Determined by cultural and
chromosomes, hormones,
societal norms and expectations
and reproductive organs
Typically assigned at birth
Can be self-identified and may
as male or female based on
not align with biological sex
physical characteristics
Typically binary: male or Can be non-binary, fluid, or
female varied across cultures
Generally does not change
Can be fluid and evolve over
over the course of a
time
person's life
Sex ratio
The number of women and men in a country is an important demographic characteristic. The ratio between
the number of women and men in the population is called the Sex Ratio. In some countries it is calculated by
using the formula:

or the number of males per thousand females. In India, the sex ratio is worked out using the formula:

or the number of females per thousand males. The sex ratio is important information about the status of
women in a country.
The sex ratio can be affected by a variety of factors, including cultural and social preferences for male
children, sex-selective abortions, and differential mortality rates between males and females. In some
countries, the sex ratio is significantly imbalanced, with a higher proportion of males than females. This can
lead to a variety of social and economic issues, such as increased violence against women and difficulty in
finding marriage partners for men.
In India, for example, the sex ratio has been a cause for concern due to a cultural preference for male
children, which has led to sex-selective abortions and other forms of discrimination against female children.
The sex ratio in India was 929 females per 1000 males in 2021, indicating a significant gender imbalance in
the population. However, there has been some improvement in recent years due to government efforts to
address the issue.
Causes:
1. Gender-based discrimination: In some cultures, there is a preference for male children, leading to sex-
selective abortion, infanticide, or neglect of female children.
2. Migration: Some regions or countries may experience higher sex ratios due to an influx of male
migrants.
3. Biological factors: In some populations, natural biological factors such as higher male mortality rates,
can result in skewed sex ratios.
 4. War and conflict: In areas affected by war and conflict, the sex ratio may be imbalanced due to the
higher number of male casualties.
5. Technology and medical advancements: The increasing availability and use of sex-determination
technologies and medical procedures such as in-vitro fertilization (IVF) can lead to sex-selective
practices.
6. Social and cultural factors: In some societies, male children are preferred for cultural or religious
reasons, leading to sex-selective practices.
7. Government policies: In some countries, government policies such as the one-child policy in China can
result in sex-selective practices.
8. Economic factors: In some societies, males are viewed as breadwinners and may be preferred for
economic reasons, leading to sex-selective practices.
9. Access to education: Limited access to education or discrimination against girls in education can also
contribute to gender bias and sex-selective practices.
Consequences:
1. Imbalanced sex ratios can have negative social consequences, such as a shortage of brides and a rise in
sex trafficking.
2. Skewed sex ratios can also have demographic implications, leading to a decline in the population
growth rate and an increase in the dependency ratio.
3. Imbalanced sex ratios can also lead to changes in social norms and practices, such as the rise of
polyandry (a practice where one woman is married to multiple men).
4. Skewed sex ratios can also have economic consequences, such as a reduction in the labor force and
changes in the household structure.
5. Imbalanced sex ratios can lead to social unrest and political instability, especially in societies where
men are expected to provide for their families and communities.
6. A skewed sex ratio can also have health consequences, such as a rise in sexually transmitted diseases or
a decline in the quality of health care services.
7. Skewed sex ratios can lead to changes in the social structure and values of a community, leading to
increased violence or a rise in anti-social behavior.
8. Imbalanced sex ratios can also impact the environment, as the reduction in population growth can lead
to a decline in resource consumption and a reduction in pollution levels.
9. Skewed sex ratios can lead to changes in the social and cultural norms surrounding gender and
sexuality, including changes in family dynamics, gender roles, and expectations.
10. Imbalanced sex ratios can have long-term demographic implications, including a reduction in population
growth and a shift in the age distribution of the population.
11. Skewed sex ratios can lead to increases in crime and violence, particularly against women, as men may
feel that they are in competition for scarce resources such as jobs and partners.
12. The consequences of imbalanced sex ratios can be particularly pronounced in rural areas, where gender
roles may be more traditional and rigid, and access to resources and opportunities may be limited.
Age Sex Pyramids
An age-sex pyramid, also known as a population pyramid, is a graphical representation of a population's age
and sex distribution. The pyramid is divided into male and female bars, and each bar represents a specific
age group. The pyramid's shape can reveal a lot about a population's demographics, including birth rates,
mortality rates, and life expectancy. There are different types of age-sex pyramids, each of which reflects a
specific population structure. Here are some examples:
1. Expansive pyramid: This type of pyramid has a wide base, indicating a high proportion of children and
young people, and a narrow top, indicating a low proportion of elderly people. This type of pyramid is
common in developing countries with high birth rates and high death rates, such as Afghanistan and
Niger.
2. Constrictive pyramid: This type of pyramid has a narrow base, indicating a low proportion of children
and young people, and a broad top, indicating a high proportion of elderly people. This type of pyramid
is typical of developed countries with low birth rates and high life expectancy, such as Japan and Italy.
3. Stationary pyramid: This type of pyramid has a roughly equal distribution of people across all age
groups, indicating a population with stable birth and death rates. This type of pyramid is typical of
developed countries with stable populations, such as Sweden and Canada.
 Expansive Pyramid Constrictive Pyramid Stationary Pyramid
World Patterns of age and sex composition of population
1. The world population is ageing, with the proportion of people aged 60 years and above increasing
rapidly. According to the United Nations, the proportion of people aged 60 years and above is expected
to reach around 22% by 2050, up from around 13% in 2017.
2. There are significant variations in age and sex composition of population across different regions of the
world. For example, sub-Saharan Africa has a relatively young population, with around 43% of the
population under the age of 15, while Europe has an ageing population, with around 25% of the
population aged 60 years and above.
3. The world population is also experiencing urbanization, with a growing proportion of the population
living in urban areas. According to the United Nations, around 55% of the world population lived in
urban areas in 2018, up from around 30% in 1950.
4. There are significant gender disparities in age and sex composition of population across different
regions of the world, with women often facing discrimination and inequality. For example, women have
lower life expectancy than men in many countries. According to the World Health Organization, the
global life expectancy for women was around 73 years in 2019, compared to around 70 years for men.
5. The world population is also experiencing significant migration, with people moving between countries
and regions for a variety of reasons. Migration has implications for age and sex composition of
population, as well as for access to basic services and social integration. According to the United
Nations, the number of international migrants was around 281 million in 2020, up from around 173
million in 2000.
6. Fertility rates are declining worldwide, with some countries experiencing very low fertility rates.
According to the World Bank, the global fertility rate was around 2.3 births per woman in 2020, down
from around 5 births per woman in the 1960s. However, there are significant variations in fertility rates
across different regions and countries, with some countries having very low fertility rates of less than
1.5 births per woman.
7. The world population is also becoming more diverse, with significant variations in age and sex
composition of population across different ethnic and racial groups. For example, in the United States,
Hispanic and Asian populations have a younger age structure compared to non-Hispanic White
populations.
8. The world population is also experiencing significant changes in the distribution of wealth and income,
with implications for health and wellbeing. According to Oxfam, the richest 1% of the world's
population now owns more than twice as much wealth as the bottom 90%.
9. The world population is also facing significant challenges related to health and wellbeing, including
rising rates of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer, as well as
infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and COVID-19. According to the World Health Organization,
non-communicable diseases are responsible for around 71% of deaths worldwide, with cardiovascular
disease being the leading cause of death.
10. The world population is also experiencing significant environmental challenges, including climate
change, air pollution, and water scarcity. These environmental challenges have implications for health
and wellbeing, particularly for vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly. According to the
World Health Organization, around 23% of all deaths worldwide are linked to environmental risks.
11. In many countries, there is a growing trend towards an ageing population. According to the United
Nations, the global population aged 65 years and above is expected to triple by 2050, from around 703
million in 2019 to around 1.5 billion in 2050.
12. The sex ratio at birth (the number of male births per 100 female births) varies across different countries
and regions of the world. According to the World Bank, the global sex ratio at birth was around 105
males per 100 females in 2020. However, some countries have significantly higher sex ratios, which can
be indicative of gender-based discrimination and selective abortion practices.
13. There are significant disparities in life expectancy across different countries and regions of the world.
According to the World Health Organization, life expectancy at birth varies from around 54 years in
sub-Saharan Africa to around 77 years in high-income countries.
14. Population growth rates are also varying across different regions and countries, with some countries
experiencing high population growth rates, while others are experiencing declining or stagnant
population growth. According to the United Nations, the global population growth rate was around 1.1%
in 2020, down from around 1.8% in the 1970s.
15. The age and sex composition of population can also have significant implications for economic
development, social welfare, and political stability. For example, an ageing population can put pressure
on social security systems and healthcare infrastructure, while a young population can provide
opportunities for economic growth and innovation.
Indian Patterns of age and sex composition of population
1. As of 2021, India's population was estimated to be around 1.38 billion, making it the second most
populous country in the world.
2. India has a relatively young population, with around 50% of its population below the age of 25 years.
According to the Census of India 2011, the age distribution of India's population was as follows:
 0-6 years: 13.1%
 7-17 years: 17.6%
 18-29 years: 20.8%
 30-49 years: 35.3%
 50 years and above: 13.2%
3. The sex ratio in India has been a cause for concern, with a cultural preference for male children leading
to sex-selective abortions and other forms of discrimination against female children. According to the
Census of India 2011, the sex ratio in India was 943 females per 1000 males.
4. India's life expectancy has been increasing steadily over the years, with the current life expectancy at
birth estimated to be around 69 years. According to the World Bank, the life expectancy in India has
increased from around 37 years in 1950 to around 69 years in 2020.
5. India is also experiencing a demographic dividend, with a large and growing workforce. According to
the United Nations, the working-age population (aged 15-64 years) in India is expected to reach around
1 billion by 2050, which could drive economic growth and development in the country.
6. India has a high infant mortality rate, which is an indicator of the country's healthcare infrastructure and
access to healthcare. According to the World Bank, the infant mortality rate in India was around 28
deaths per 1,000 live births in 2020.
7. The fertility rate in India has been declining over the years, but it is still relatively high compared to
other countries. According to the World Bank, the total fertility rate in India was around 2.2 births per
woman in 2020.
8. There are significant gender disparities in India's population composition, with women facing
discrimination and inequality in many areas. For example, women have lower literacy rates and are
more likely to be unemployed than men. According to the World Bank, the female labor force
participation rate in India was around 20% in 2020, compared to around 76% for men.
9. There are also significant regional variations in gender disparities in India, with some states having
better gender indicators than others. For example, states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu have better gender
indicators than states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
10. India's population is also experiencing urbanization, with a growing proportion of the population living
in urban areas. According to the Census of India 2011, around 31% of India's population lived in urban
areas, up from around 28% in 2001. Urbanization has implications for access to basic services, as well
as for employment and economic growth.
11. India has a diverse religious composition, with the majority of the population being Hindus (around
79.8%), followed by Muslims (around 14.2%), Christians (around 2.3%), Sikhs (around 1.7%),
Buddhists (around 0.7%), Jains (around 0.4%), and others (around 0.9%). This religious diversity is
reflected in the country's age and sex composition of population, with variations in demographic
characteristics across different religious groups.
12. The literacy rate in India has been increasing over the years, but it is still relatively low compared to
other countries. According to the Census of India 2011, the literacy rate in India was around 74%, with
significant gender disparities. The male literacy rate was around 82%, while the female literacy rate was
around 65%.
13. India has a high rate of malnutrition, particularly among children. According to the World Bank, around
34% of children under the age of five in India were underweight in 2020.
14. The prevalence of non-communicable diseases like diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease is
increasing in India, reflecting changing lifestyles and dietary habits. According to the World Health
Organization, around 61% of all deaths in India in 2016 were due to non-communicable diseases.
15. India is also experiencing significant migration, both within the country and internationally. Migration
has implications for the age and sex composition of population, as well as for access to basic services
and social integration. According to the Census of India 2011, around 38% of the population in India
were migrants, with significant variations across different states and regions.
Dependency ratio
Dependency ratio is a measure of the number of dependents (people who are too young or too old to work)
to the number of working-age people in a population. It is an important demographic indicator used to
analyze the economic and social implications of the age structure of a population.
The dependency ratio can be calculated using the following formula:

In this formula, the number of dependents refers to the population aged below 15 years and above 65 years,
while the number of working-age people refers to the population aged between 15 and 64 years. The result is
then multiplied by 100 to express the dependency ratio as a percentage.
For example, if a population has 10 million people aged below 15 years, 50 million people aged between 15
and 64 years, and 5 million people aged above 65 years, the dependency ratio would be:

This means that for every 100 working-age people, there are 30 dependents who are too young or too old to
work. A high dependency ratio can put pressure on social security systems and public services, while a low
dependency ratio can provide opportunities for economic growth and development.
 2.4 India and World: Occupational Structure
Occupational structure refers to the hierarchy and distribution of different types of jobs or occupations
within a society, organization, or industry. It typically involves categorizing jobs based on various factors
such as skill level, education or training required pay scales, job duties, and responsibilities.
In many societies, occupational structure is hierarchical, with some jobs being considered more prestigious
or higher paying than others. For example, doctors and lawyers are often considered to have higher status
and earning potential than teachers or service workers.
World Occupational Structure
The world occupational structure is the hierarchy and distribution of different types of jobs or occupations
within the global workforce. Some of the points include:
1. The world occupational structure is diverse, with a wide range of jobs and professions found across
various industries and sectors.
2. The distribution of occupations across different countries and regions can vary significantly, depending
on factors such as economic development, population demographics, and cultural norms.
3. Some common occupations found across many countries include professionals such as doctors, lawyers,
engineers, and teachers; skilled trades people such as carpenters, electricians, and plumbers; service
workers such as retail and food service workers; and labourers such as construction workers and factory
workers.
4. In many developed countries, there has been a shift away from manufacturing and other traditional blue-
collar jobs, with a greater emphasis on knowledge-based and service-oriented work.
5. The growth of technology and automation has also led to changes in the occupational structure, with
some jobs becoming obsolete while others are created.
6. Gender and racial inequalities continue to persist in many parts of the world, with certain occupations
being dominated by men or by particular racial or ethnic groups.
7. Efforts are being made to promote greater diversity and inclusion in the occupational structure, with
initiatives to increase access to education and training programs, reduce barriers to employment, and
encourage more equitable hiring practices.
The occupational structure can vary significantly across different continents.
1. North America: In North America, the occupational structure is characterized by a high degree of
specialization and a focus on knowledge-based and service-oriented work. Some of the most common
occupations in the region include healthcare professionals, IT specialists, financial analysts, and
business executives. The United States and Canada have highly developed economies with a focus on
technology, finance, healthcare, and education. The occupational structure in these countries is highly
specialized, with a significant number of workers employed in knowledge-based and service-oriented
industries. In Mexico, there is a growing manufacturing industry and a significant number of workers
employed in agriculture.
2. South America: The occupational structure in South America varies widely between different
countries, but in general, the region has a strong focus on agriculture, mining, and other natural resource
industries. Other common occupations in the region include healthcare workers, educators, and service
workers in industries such as tourism and hospitality. Brazil is the largest economy in South America,
with a diverse occupational structure that includes industries such as agriculture, manufacturing, and
services. Argentina has a strong agricultural sector, while Chile has a growing technology industry.
Other countries in the region, such as Venezuela and Colombia, have economies dominated by oil and
natural resource industries.
3. Europe: The occupational structure in Europe is diverse, with a strong emphasis on education and a
well-developed social welfare system. Some of the most common occupations in the region include
healthcare professionals, engineers, scientists, and educators. There is also a significant manufacturing
sector in many European countries. The economies of Western Europe are highly developed and
diverse, with a focus on industries such as finance, technology, healthcare, and education. Countries in
Eastern Europe, such as Poland and Romania, have growing manufacturing industries. The occupational
structure in Europe also includes a significant number of workers employed in agriculture and tourism.
4. Asia: Asia is home to a wide range of different occupational structures, ranging from highly
industrialized economies such as Japan and South Korea to agricultural-based economies in countries
such as India and Indonesia. Common occupations in the region include healthcare professionals,
engineers, IT specialists, and service workers in industries such as tourism and hospitality. Asia is home
to some of the world's largest and fastest-growing economies, including China, Japan, India, and South
 Korea. The occupational structure in Asia is highly varied, with a focus on industries such as
manufacturing, finance, technology, and agriculture. In China, for example, there is a significant
manufacturing industry, while India is known for its growing IT sector. Japan has a highly specialized
occupational structure, with a significant number of workers employed in industries such as finance and
technology.
5. Africa: The occupational structure in Africa is heavily influenced by natural resource industries such as
mining and agriculture, although there is also a growing service sector in many countries. Common
occupations in the region include healthcare workers, educators, and service workers in industries such
as tourism and hospitality. Africa has a diverse occupational structure that includes industries such as
agriculture, mining, and services. Many African countries have economies that are heavily dependent on
natural resource industries, although there is also a growing service sector in many countries. Some
countries, such as South Africa, have highly developed economies with a focus on industries such as
finance and technology.
6. Pacific Islands: The occupational structure of Pacific islands is highly diverse and influenced by factors
such as economic development, natural resources, and cultural norms. Many Pacific islands have a
significant agricultural sector and fishing industry, which provide employment for a large portion of the
population. The types of crops and fish harvested vary depending on the island's location and climate,
with some islands specializing in crops such as coconut, taro, or vanilla. In addition to agriculture and
fishing, there is a growing service sector in many Pacific islands, driven in part by tourism. Workers in
the service sector may be employed in industries such as hospitality, retail, or transportation. Education
and healthcare are also important sectors, with many islands facing a shortage of trained professionals in
these fields.
Indian Occupational Structure
The occupational structure of India is highly diverse, with a significant portion of the population employed
in agriculture and a growing number of workers employed in the service sector. Some of the key sectors of
the Indian occupational structure are:
1. Agriculture: Agriculture is a significant source of employment in India, with over half of the
population engaged in farming and related activities. The main crops grown in India include rice, wheat,
cotton, sugarcane, and tea, among others.
2. Manufacturing: India has a significant manufacturing industry, with a focus on sectors such as textiles,
chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and automobiles. The manufacturing sector employs a large number of
workers in both formal and informal jobs.
3. Services: The service sector is a rapidly growing segment of the Indian economy, and includes
industries such as IT, finance, healthcare, and education. The service sector employs a significant
number of skilled workers, particularly in urban areas.
4. Construction: The construction industry is an important sector of the Indian economy, employing a
large number of workers in both formal and informal jobs. The construction industry has grown
significantly in recent years, driven by infrastructure development and urbanization.
5. Mining: India has a significant mining industry, with a focus on minerals such as coal, iron ore, and
bauxite. The mining industry employs a significant number of workers, particularly in rural areas.
6. Informal sector: A significant portion of the Indian workforce is employed in the informal sector,
which includes jobs such as street vending, domestic work, and small-scale manufacturing. These jobs
often lack formal contracts, social protection, and other benefits.
7. Self-employment: India has a high rate of self-employment, with many workers engaged in small-scale
enterprises such as shops, stalls, and micro-enterprises. Self-employment is particularly prevalent in
rural areas.
8. Gender disparities: There are significant gender disparities in the Indian occupational structure, with
women underrepresented in formal employment and often concentrated in low-paid and insecure jobs.
9. Skill gaps: There are significant skill gaps in the Indian workforce, with a large number of workers
lacking the skills and education needed for formal employment in sectors such as IT and manufacturing.
10. Migration: Migration is a significant feature of the Indian occupational structure, with workers moving
from rural to urban areas and across state and national borders in search of employment opportunities.
The occupational structure of India varies significantly across different parts of the country, reflecting
regional economic and cultural differences. Here are some examples of the occupational structure of
different regions of India:
1. Northern India: Agriculture is a major source of employment in northern India, with crops such as
wheat, rice, and sugarcane grown in the fertile plains of the region. Manufacturing is also an important
sector, with industries such as textiles, handicrafts, and machine tools concentrated in cities such as
Delhi and Kanpur. In addition to agriculture and manufacturing, the northern region of India is also
home to a significant service sector. Cities such as Delhi and Noida are known for their IT and business
process outsourcing (BPO) industries, which provide employment to a large number of workers.
2. Southern India: The southern states of India are known for their strong service sector, with industries
such as IT, healthcare, and hospitality driving employment growth. Agriculture is also an important
sector, with crops such as rice, coconut, and coffee grown in the region. The service sector in southern
India is particularly strong, with cities such as Bangalore, Chennai, and Hyderabad known for their IT
and software development industries. The region is also home to a thriving film industry, known as
“Tollywood” in the Telugu-speaking states and “Kollywood” in Tamil Nadu.
3. Eastern India: The eastern region of India is characterized by its rich natural resources, including
minerals such as coal, iron ore, and bauxite. The region has a significant manufacturing sector, with
industries such as steel, cement, and textiles driving employment growth. Agriculture is also an
important source of employment in the region, with crops such as rice, wheat, and tea grown in the
fertile river valleys. The manufacturing sector in eastern India is particularly strong, with cities such as
Kolkata and Jamshedpur known for their steel and heavy engineering industries. The region is also
home to a significant healthcare industry, with cities such as Kolkata and Bhubaneswar known for their
hospitals and medical colleges.
4. Western India: The western states of India are known for their strong manufacturing sector, with
industries such as textiles, pharmaceuticals, and automobiles driving employment growth. Agriculture is
also an important source of employment in the region, with crops such as cotton, sugarcane, and
groundnuts grown in the arid regions. The western region of India is known for its entrepreneurial spirit,
with cities such as Mumbai and Pune home to a large number of startups and small-scale enterprises.
The region is also known for its strong financial sector, with Mumbai serving as the financial capital of
India.
5. North-Eastern India: The north-eastern states of India are known for their rich biodiversity and natural
resources, including oil, gas, and tea. Agriculture is an important source of employment in the region,
with crops such as rice, maize, and pulses grown in the fertile river valleys. The region also has a
significant service sector, with industries such as tourism and healthcare driving employment growth.
The occupational structure of Northeast India is characterized by its rich natural resources, which
provide employment opportunities in sectors such as agriculture, forestry, and mining. The region is also
home to a significant tourism industry, with attractions such as the Kaziranga National Park and the
Tawang Monastery drawing visitors from across India and the world.
 3.1 Demographic Transition Theory
The demographic transition theory is one of the most important population theories which is the best
documented by the data and statistics of recent demographic history. In its original form, the demographic
transition theory was put forward by W.S. Thompson (1929) and Frank Notestein (1945). These scholars
based their statements and arguments on the trends in fertility and mortality, being experienced in Europe,
North America and Australia.
Demographic transition theory can be used to describe and predict the future population of any area. The
theory tells us that population of any region changes from high births and high deaths to low births and low
deaths as society progresses from rural agrarian and illiterate to urban industrial and literate society. These
changes occur in stages which are collectively known as the demographic cycle.

Illiterate Society Literate Society

There are three very clearly stated hypotheses involved in the process which are:
1. The decline in mortality comes before the decline in fertility;
2. The fertility eventually declines to match mortality; and
3. Socio-economic transformation of a society takes place simultaneously with its demographic
transformation.
The demographic transition theory is characterized by conspicuous transition stages. The transition from
high birth and death rates to low rates can be divided into stages. Thompson and Notestein divided the
process of transition into three stages whereas Sax has divided this transition period of population into four
stages. Following are the four stages of demographic transition:
i) Stage I (High Fluctuating): Stage of high birth and death rates, and slow population growth.
ii) Stage II: (Early Expanding): Stage of high birth rate and low death rate. Birth rate remains high; death
rate falls, population begins to rise steadly.
iii)Stage III: (Late Expanding): Stage of declining birth rate and low death rate and slow population growth
(growth rate of population declines).
iv) Stage IV: (Low Fluctuating): Stage of low birth rate, low death rate, and stationary population. Population
is steady.

i) Stage I:
 The first stage is characterized by a high Crude Birth Rate (CBR) and high Crude Death Rate (CDR) -
the two rates are approximately equal.
 In the first stage, the fertility is over 35 per thousand and the mortality is also high being more than 35
per thousand.
  The behaviour of mortality is due to epidemics and variable food supply. This stage, thus, postulates a
stable and slowly growing population where the people are engaged in wasteful process of production.
 This stage mainly occurs in agrarian societies with low or moderate population densities, low
productivity level, high infant mortality, religious orthodoxy, lack of education and poor health care.
 In these societies large-sized families are considered as an asset.
 Consequently, life expectancy in low, the development of agricultural sector is at its infancy stage,
masses are illiterate, technological know-how is lacking and urban development is limited.
 About two hundred years ago, all the countries of the world were at this stage of demographic
transition.
 At present, it may be difficult to ascertain whether any country in the world would still be at this initial
stage of demographic transition except remoter parts of Amazon Basin and Indonesia.
 It is in this context that the first stage has been called as the pre-industrial and the pre-modern stage.
ii) Stage II:
 The second stage of demographic transition is characterized by a high and gradual declining fertility of
over 30 per thousand and a sharply reduced mortality rate of over 15 per thousand.
 In this expanding stage of demographic transition, while the improvements in health and sanitation
conditions result is sharp declines in the mortality rates, the fertility maintains a high level, at least in
the early second stage.
 As the second stage prolongs, the fertility also shows signs of gradual decline.
 A distinction has often been made between the early second stage with high fertility and declining
mortality and the late second stage with slowly declines fertility and sharply declining mortality.
 In the second stage, as a whole, the
population expands, firstly, at a
gradual increasing rate and
afterwards at a gradual subsiding
rate.
 The processes of industrialization,
urbanization and modernization
become prominent.
 The large families are no longer an
asset.
 At present there are no countries at
this stage except Afghanistan.
iii)Stage III:
 The third or the late expanding phase
is characterized by slowdown in the
growth rate as the death rate
stabilized at a low level and the birth
rate declines with easy access to
family planning methods.
 This decline is associated with the
growth of an educated
urban/industrial society with low
infant mortality, increased standard
of living and changing status of
women.
 Countries like India, China, Mexico,
Nepal, Kenya, South Africa, Egypt
etc. belong to the third stage.
iv) Stage IV:
 In this fourth and last stage of
demographic transition, both birth
and death rates decline rapidly. The population is either stable or grows slowly.
 In this stage, the population is highly industrialized and urbanized. The literacy and education levels
are high, and the degree of labour specialization is also very high.
  Anglo-America, European countries, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Singapore, Hong Kong and
Japan are supposed to have reached this stage of demographic transition,
Although the theory of demographic transition has been appreciated widely by the demographers, it has also
been criticized on many counts.
Limitations:
1. This theory based upon empirical observations in Europe, North America and Australia. Consitions might
have been different for different parts of the world.
2. The theory is neither predictive nor its stages are sequential. For example, China has entered the third
stage of demographic transition owing to the one child policy adopted by the government in the 1980s.
3. The original model doesn’t take into consideration the fact that some countries have a declining
population at present which is the 5th stage, which has not been explained in this theory.
4. The theory focuses solely on economic and social factors and ignores other factors such as culture,
religion, and politics that may also influence population growth.
5. The theory oversimplifies the complex processes involved in demographic change, which can be
influenced by multiple factors.
6. The theory does not take into account external influences such as migration, which can also affect
population growth.
7. The theory does not address the long-term sustainability of low fertility rates, which can have negative
consequences for societies that rely on a large working-age population to support aging populations.
 3.2 Migrations: Types, Causes and Consequences
Migration
Human migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intentions of settling,
permanently or temporarily, at a new location (geographic region).
Types of Migration
Migration types can be classified according to a range of criteria:
1. Migration Based on Distance
 Internal Migration: This refers to the movement of people within the borders of a single country,
often from rural to urban areas or between different regions. Internal migration is of various types.
They are explained below:
 Urban to Rural Migration: This refers to the movement of people from urban areas to rural areas.
This can occur for a variety of reasons, such as to escape high living costs in urban areas or to take
advantage of job opportunities in rural areas.
 Rural to Urban Migration: This refers to the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas.
This type of migration is often driven by the desire to find better economic opportunities, education,
healthcare, and other services that are more readily available in urban areas.
 Rural to Rural Migration: This refers to the movement of people from one rural area to another
rural area within a country. This type of migration can occur for a variety of reasons, such as
seeking better economic opportunities, access to services, or a change in lifestyle.
 Urban to Urban Migration: This refers to the movement of people from one urban area to another
urban area within a country. This type of migration can occur for a variety of reasons, such as
seeking better job opportunities, access to education, or a change in lifestyle.
 North-South Migration: This refers to the movement of people from northern regions to southern
regions within a country, or vice versa. This type of migration can occur for a variety of reasons,
such as seeking better weather conditions, job opportunities, or a change in lifestyle.
 West-East Migration: This refers to the movement of people from western regions to eastern
regions within a country, or vice versa. This type of migration can occur for a variety of reasons,
such as seeking better economic opportunities, education, or cultural experiences.
 International Migration: This refers to the movement of people across international borders, often
from one country to another. International migration is of types. They are explained below:
 Out-Migration: Out-migration refers to the movement of people from one country or region to
another country or region. This type of migration can occur for a variety of reasons, such as seeking
better economic opportunities, political instability, or environmental factors.
 In-Migration: In-migration refers to the movement of people into a country or region from another
country or region. This type of migration can occur for a variety of reasons, such as seeking better
economic opportunities, education, or a change in lifestyle.
 Short-Distance Migration: This refers to the movement of people within a relatively small
geographic area, such as from one city or town to another nearby city or town.
 Long-Distance Migration: This refers to the movement of people across a large geographic area, such
as from one country to another or from one continent to another.
 Intercontinental Migration: This refers to the movement of people between different continents,
such as from Africa to Europe or from Asia to North America.
2. Migration Based on Duration
 Temporary Migration: This refers to the movement of people who stay in the destination country for
a specific period, often for work, study, or tourism.
 Permanent Migration: This refers to the movement of people who settle permanently in the
destination country, often through family reunification, employment-based immigration, or refugee
status.
 Seasonal Migration: This refers to the movement of people to a particular area for work during
specific seasons, such as agricultural workers moving to work in fields during harvest season.
 Circular Migration: This refers to the movement of people who migrate for a specific period, often
for work purposes, and then return to their home country or region.
 Commuting Migration: This refers to the movement of people who travel to work in another city or
region but return home on a daily or weekly basis.
 Return Migration: This refers to the movement of people back to their home country after living
abroad for some time.
3. Migration Based on Motive/Cause
 Forced Migration: This refers to the movement of people who are forced to flee their homes due to
war, persecution, or other violent events.
 Environmental Migration: This refers to the movement of people due to environmental factors, such
as droughts, floods, rising sea levels, or other effects of climate change.
 Economic Migration: This refers to the movement of people in search of better economic
opportunities, higher wages, or to start a business.
 Social Migration: This refers to the movement of people to join family members, for marriage, or to
be part of a particular social group or community.
 Political Migration: This refers to the movement of people due to political instability, persecution, or
human rights abuses.
 Educational Migration: This refers to the movement of people to pursue education or training
opportunities in another country.
 Health Migration: This refers to the movement of people for medical reasons, such as to receive
specialized medical treatment or to access better healthcare facilities.
 Cultural Migration: This refers to the movement of people to experience different cultures or to
explore their own cultural roots.
Causes of Migration
1. Push and Pull Factors: Push factors are the reasons why people leave an area. They include: lack of
services, lack of safety, high crime, crop failure, drought, flooding, poverty, war etc. Pull factors are
the reasons why people move to a particular area. They include: higher employment, more wealth,
better services, good climate, safer and less crime, political stability, more fertile land, lower risk from
natural hazards.
2. Economic reasons: People may migrate to find better economic opportunities, such as higher wages,
job availability, or better working conditions. This is often the case for individuals from developing
countries who seek better employment prospects in more developed regions.
3. Political reasons: Political instability, conflict, persecution, or human rights abuses can also drive
people to migrate. This is often the case for refugees, asylum seekers, or internally displaced persons.
4. Environmental reasons: Environmental factors, such as natural disasters, climate change, or
ecological degradation, can also cause people to migrate. For example, droughts, floods, or rising sea
levels may make it difficult for people to sustain their livelihoods in their home regions.
5. Social reasons: People may migrate for social reasons, such as to reunite with family members, to
access better healthcare or education, or to escape social or cultural constraints.
6. Demographic reasons: Demographic factors, such as population growth, aging, or changes in family
structure, can also affect migration patterns. For example, young adults may migrate for educational or
employment opportunities, while older adults may migrate to be closer to family members.
7. Globalization: The increasing interconnectedness of the world economy and the ease of travel have
made it easier for people to migrate for economic or social reasons. Globalization has also created new
employment opportunities in certain industries or regions, which may attract migrants.
8. Conflict and war: Armed conflicts or civil wars can create conditions of extreme violence, insecurity,
and instability, forcing people to flee their homes and seek refuge elsewhere. This is often the case for
refugees, who may be displaced for years or even decades.
9. Technological advancements: Advances in transportation and communication technology have made
it easier for people to migrate across long distances. For example, the rise of air travel and the internet
have facilitated international migration and communication.
10. Overpopulation and environmental degradation: In some cases, overpopulation and environmental
degradation can make it difficult for people to sustain their livelihoods in their home regions. This may
lead to increased migration to areas with more resources or a better environment.
11. Natural disasters: Natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or wildfires can force people to
migrate from their homes temporarily or permanently.
12. Government policies: Government policies, such as immigration laws and border controls, can affect
migration patterns. For example, restrictive immigration policies may make it more difficult for people
to migrate legally, leading to increased unauthorized migration.
13. Historical factors: Historical events, such as colonization or slavery, can also affect migration
patterns. For example, the legacy of colonialism may contribute to migration from former colonies to
former colonizing countries.
 14. Global inequalities: Global inequalities in wealth, power, and access to resources can also drive
migration. For example, migrants may be seeking greater economic opportunities or a more stable
political environment.
Consequences of Migration
Migration is a consequence of the uneven – distribution of opportunities over space. People tend to move
from a place of low opportunity and low safety to a place of higher opportunity and better safety. Results can
be observed in economic, social, cultural, political and demographic terms.
Positive Consequences
1. Economic benefits: Migration can bring economic benefits to both the migrants and the countries they
move to. Migrants can fill labor shortages, start businesses, and contribute to economic growth and
increased productivity.
2. Cultural exchange: Migration can lead to cultural exchange between migrants and the communities
they join. This can lead to greater understanding and appreciation of different cultures and traditions.
3. Diversity and creativity: Migration can bring diversity and creativity to the communities and societies
that receive migrants. This can lead to new ideas, perspectives, and cultural practices.
4. Remittances: The flow of remittances from migrants to their families and communities can help
support basic needs, provide education opportunities, and stimulate economic activity in the receiving
communities.
5. Global partnerships: Migration can lead to the formation of global partnerships between countries and
communities, promoting cooperation and mutual understanding.
6. Skill transfer: Migrants may bring skills and expertise to the countries and communities they join,
contributing to the growth and development of these areas.
7. Entrepreneurship: Migrants often have a high degree of entrepreneurship and may start their own
businesses in the host country, creating jobs and contributing to the local economy.
8. Innovation: Migrants may bring new ideas and innovative solutions to the communities they join,
stimulating technological and social innovation.
9. Human capital development: Migration can lead to the development of human capital as migrants gain
new skills and knowledge in the host country, which they can later apply in their countries of origin.
10. Population growth: In some cases, migration can lead to population growth in the receiving countries,
which can be beneficial for economic growth and development.
11. Social and cultural enrichment: Migration can bring about social and cultural enrichment for both the
migrants and the communities they join. This can lead to greater understanding and appreciation of
different cultures, traditions, and ways of life.
12. Diversity in the workplace: Migrants may bring diverse perspectives and experiences to the
workplace, promoting creativity and innovation in the workforce.
Negative Consequences
1. Brain drain: Migration can lead to the loss of skilled workers, leading to a brain drain in the home
country. This can be detrimental to the economic development of the country.
2. Unemployment: In some cases, migrants may compete with native-born workers for jobs, leading to
higher levels of unemployment in certain sectors.
3. Social tensions: The arrival of large numbers of migrants can sometimes lead to social tensions and
conflicts between migrants and native-born populations.
4. Discrimination: Migrants may face discrimination and exclusion in the host country, which can have
negative psychological and social impacts.
5. Human trafficking: Migration can lead to human trafficking and exploitation, particularly for
vulnerable individuals who are seeking asylum or fleeing conflict.
6. Strain on social services: The arrival of large numbers of migrants can sometimes put a strain on social
services, such as healthcare and education, in the host country.
7. Cultural clashes: The clash of cultures between migrants and the host country can sometimes lead to
misunderstandings and conflicts.
8. Security risks: The movement of people across borders can sometimes pose security risks, such as the
spread of infectious diseases or the potential for terrorist activities.
9. Language barriers: Migrants may face language barriers in the host country, which can make it
difficult for them to access services, find employment, or integrate into the local community.
10. Housing and infrastructure pressures: The arrival of large numbers of migrants can sometimes put
pressure on housing and infrastructure in the host country, leading to overcrowding and strain on
resources.
11. Remittance dependence: While remittances can be a positive consequence of migration, communities
in the home country may become overly dependent on them, leading to a lack of investment in other
areas of the economy.
12. Exploitation by employers: Migrants may be vulnerable to exploitation by unscrupulous employers
who take advantage of their precarious legal status or lack of knowledge of local labor laws.

3.3 Population Problems of Underdeveloped and Advanced Countries

Underdeveloped countries
Underdeveloped countries are those countries that are characterized by low levels of economic development,
high levels of poverty, limited access to basic services such as healthcare and education, and limited
infrastructure. Some examples of underdeveloped countries include: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Ethiopia,
Haiti, Liberia, Myanmar (Burma), Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Yemen etc. These countries are
often referred to as the "least developed countries" by the United Nations, which defines this category of
countries as having low levels of human development, low income, and vulnerability to economic and
environmental shocks.
Population Problems of Underdeveloped Countries
1. Rapid population growth: Many underdeveloped countries have high birth rates and low death rates,
leading to rapid population growth. This can put a strain on resources such as food, water, and
healthcare, and can also lead to overcrowding and environmental degradation.
2. Lack of access to family planning: Many people in underdeveloped countries do not have access to
family planning services, which can lead to unintended pregnancies and further exacerbate the problem
of rapid population growth.
3. High infant mortality rates: Underdeveloped countries often have high infant mortality rates due to a
lack of access to healthcare, clean water, and adequate nutrition. This can further contribute to
population growth as parents may have more children to compensate for the loss of infants.
4. Migration and urbanization: Many people in underdeveloped countries are forced to migrate from
rural areas to urban centers in search of work and better living conditions. This can lead to
overcrowding in cities and a strain on resources, as well as social and economic disparities between
urban and rural areas.
5. Health issues: Underdeveloped countries often face health issues such as infectious diseases,
malnutrition, and lack of access to healthcare. These issues can further exacerbate population problems
by increasing infant mortality rates and reducing life expectancy.
6. Poverty: Many underdeveloped countries are plagued by high levels of poverty, which can lead to a
host of population problems. Poor families may not be able to afford healthcare, nutritious food, or
education, which can exacerbate issues such as high infant mortality rates and low life expectancy.
7. Gender inequality: Women in many underdeveloped countries face discrimination and limited
opportunities, which can contribute to issues such as high birth rates and lack of access to family
planning. Addressing gender inequality and promoting women's empowerment can help address
population problems by increasing access to education and economic opportunities.
8. Environmental degradation: Rapid population growth in underdeveloped countries can lead to
environmental degradation through deforestation, soil erosion, and depletion of natural resources. This
can further exacerbate poverty and other population problems, as well as contribute to climate change.
9. Lack of infrastructure: Many underdeveloped countries lack basic infrastructure such as roads,
electricity, and sanitation facilities. This can hinder economic development and lead to poor health
outcomes, further exacerbating population problems.
10. Political instability: Political instability and conflict in underdeveloped countries can contribute to
population problems by hindering economic growth, creating refugee crises, and exacerbating poverty
and inequality.
11. Unemployment: High rates of unemployment can contribute to poverty and other population problems
in underdeveloped countries. Lack of job opportunities can lead to poor health outcomes, limited access
to education and healthcare, and a lack of resources to support families.
12. Underpopulation: While many underdeveloped countries face rapid population growth, some countries
face underpopulation. This can lead to issues such as an aging population, a declining workforce, and a
 lack of economic growth. Addressing underpopulation may require policies to promote immigration,
incentivize family formation, or address cultural and social factors that contribute to low fertility rates.
13. Mismanagement of agricultural resources: Many underdeveloped countries rely on agriculture as a
key source of income and food security. However, mismanagement of agricultural resources can lead to
soil erosion, desertification, and a lack of access to nutritious food. Addressing these issues may require
policies that promote sustainable agriculture practices, better management of water resources, and
increased access to markets for farmers.
14. Education: A lack of access to education can exacerbate population problems in underdeveloped
countries. Education can help promote better health outcomes, increase job opportunities, and address
gender inequality. Policies that promote education and address barriers to education, such as poverty,
can help address population problems.
15. Corruption: Corruption and lack of transparency in governance can hinder economic development and
exacerbate population problems in underdeveloped countries. Addressing corruption may require
policies that promote transparency, accountability, and good governance practices.
Advanced countries
Advanced countries are those countries that are characterized by high levels of economic development,
advanced technological infrastructure, and high standards of living. These countries are often referred to as
"developed" or "industrialized" countries. Examples of advanced countries include: United States, Canada,
Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Australia, South Korea, Singapore, Norway etc. These countries
typically have high levels of GDP per capita, advanced technological infrastructure, robust healthcare and
education systems, and high standards of living for their citizens. Advanced countries often have well-
developed political and legal systems, as well as stable economies and political systems.
Population Problems of Advanced Countries
1. Aging population: Many advanced countries have aging populations, with a larger proportion of the
population being over the age of 65. This can lead to issues such as a decline in the workforce, increased
demand for healthcare services, and increased pressure on pension systems.
2. Low fertility rates: Many advanced countries also have low fertility rates, which can contribute to an
aging population and a decline in the workforce. This can lead to economic stagnation and a lack of
innovation.
3. Immigration: Some advanced countries may experience population problems related to immigration,
such as an increase in cultural and social tensions, or pressure on social services and infrastructure.
4. Urbanization: Advanced countries often have high levels of urbanization, which can lead to issues such
as overcrowding, traffic congestion, and pollution.
5. Income inequality: While advanced countries generally have higher levels of economic development
than underdeveloped countries, many advanced countries also experience income inequality. This can
lead to social unrest, political instability, and a lack of social mobility.
6. Environmental challenges: Advanced countries may also face population problems related to
environmental challenges, such as climate change, pollution, and resource depletion.
7. Health challenges: While advanced countries generally have well-developed healthcare systems, they
may also face population problems related to health challenges such as obesity, chronic diseases, and
mental health issues. These challenges can have significant economic and social impacts, including
increased healthcare costs and reduced productivity.
8. Education and skills gaps: Advanced countries may also face population problems related to education
and skills gaps. This can lead to a lack of qualified workers in key sectors, and a skills mismatch
between the workforce and the needs of the economy.
9. Demographic shifts: Advanced countries may experience demographic shifts related to changing
family structures, such as an increase in single-person households or non-traditional family
arrangements. This can have implications for social welfare programs and social cohesion.
10. Political polarization: Some advanced countries may also experience population problems related to
political polarization, with increasing levels of division and polarization between different political
factions. This can lead to political instability and a lack of effective governance.
11. Technological disruption: Advanced countries are often at the forefront of technological innovation,
which can lead to population problems related to technological disruption, such as job displacement and
inequality.
12. Small workforce: Some advanced countries may face population problems related to a small
workforce, which can be due to factors such as low fertility rates, aging populations, and emigration. A
 small workforce can lead to a shortage of qualified workers in key sectors and a decline in economic
productivity.
13. Rural population: While advanced countries are often characterized by high levels of urbanization,
some may still have significant rural populations. These rural populations may face challenges such as
limited access to healthcare, education, and employment opportunities, as well as an aging population
and a decline in traditional industries.
14. Brain drain: Some advanced countries may experience population problems related to a "brain drain,"
where highly skilled workers migrate to other countries for better opportunities. This can lead to a loss
of talent and skills, and a decline in the competitiveness of the domestic economy.

3.4 Population Resource Regions of the World

Population Resource Regions of the world
For the regionalisation of the world on the basis of population resource ratio, Ackerman used three
fundamental variables:
1. Population: Population factor is concerned with the magnitude and density of population. As the
equilibrium state between population and resources is a rare phenomenon, the maladjustments between the
two within a territory is more common. Such adjustments between population and resources give rise to
serious stress commonly known as population pressure.
2. Resources: The available resources in a territory include all the physical and human elements which are
any how fulfil the human needs. The proper evaluation of these resources available in different countries of
the world is actually very difficult task.
3. Technology: Technology is concerned with the practical arts or practical science. It is the systematic
application of scientific knowledge to industrial process or in solving the problems arising from the
interaction of people with their environment. Now developed countries of the world are advanced in
technology while developing and least developed countries are deficient in modern technology.
Five-fold classification of the world's population / resource region:
Ackerman put a little more emphasis on technology when using these three factors of population, resources
and technology. His concept of “Population, Natural Resources and Technology” was published in the
American journal ‘The American Academy of Political and Social Sciences’ in 1970. He suggested a five-
fold classification of the world's population / resource regions on the basis of population resource ratio and
availability of technology. Which was a pioneering effort made by Ackerman. These shots have the
following form –
S.No. Resource Region Economic Condition Technology : Population : Resource
1. United States Type Developed Low Ratio
2. European Type Developed High Ratio
3. Egyptian Type Undeveloped High Ratio
4. Brazilian Type Undeveloped Low Ratio
5. Arctic-Desert Type Undeveloped Very Low Ratio
1. United States Type:
 Low population / resource rationed and technologically advanced region is home to about one-sixth of
the world's population.
 These regions are the most developed regions in the world, where people enjoy the best quality of life
in the world.
 The population-resource ratio of these regions is low.
 These regions have witnessed rapid development in the last one to two hundred years, as most of the
regions at that time were Brazilian type of fatigue and they immediately received a lot of immigration
from the technologically advanced society.
 The number of local inhabitants in this type of territory was low, and technically they were very
backward, so they left quickly against migrants.
 These lands are full of existing and potential natural resources and its immense use as well as technical
assistance has provided very high growth and prosperity to the people of the region.
 Physical contrast resources in the region, the population pressure is very low and so the people of the
region are always striving for the application of higher technology. That is, the excess of a person with
technical knowledge.
 This type occupies an area of about two million square kilometres of the earth. Where population
density is 32 persons per sq.km.
  The people of this region have gradually mastered the technology and now these regions are so
advanced in technology that they now often export them.
 The prosperity, resources and technical knowledge of these regions have provided an advantage in the
international arena in dealing with things that are favourable to the people of these regions.
 Countries are quite large in size.
 The people of these regions use not only their own land but also the resources of other regions.
 Countries have reached the final stage of enjoyment.
 The over-materialistic attitude of the people of this region has done a lot of damage to nature which is
unfortunate.
 Perhaps the people of these regions are at the beginning of development using current technological
knowledge and which has widened the gap between the next group so much that no country seems to
be joining this group in the near future.
 Countries: USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa and Russian federation
Parts of East & Medieval Russia etc.

2. European Type:
 It is the source region for extensive housing-relocation to new lands developed after the type in the
United States. This region is home to one-sixth of the world's population.
 Here again technology is very advanced, but high population and limited physical resources have
created high population pressure.
 In this category, high quality of life is maintained through constant technical upgrades, resource
conservation and recycling along with technical exports, technical knowledge and export of finished
goods.
 These regions have high population/resource ratios.
 The region has a beautiful relationship between population, technological development and resource
carrying capacity.
 Countries are relatively small in size.
 Here density of population above 350 persons per sq. km.
 The regions are known as elite regions.
 The resources of this region are limited.
 The prosperity of these regions depends on the international exchange of technology and goods.
 These regions have larger populations than the United States.
  Countries make full use of local resources. So the prosperity of the region depends on advance
technology, efficient resource utilization and conservation, and international trade and services.
 Countries: The most of countries of Western, Southern and Eastern Europe and Soviet Central Asian
republics, Singapore, South Korea and Japan belongs to this group.
3. Egyptian Type:
 The population-resource ratio of these regions is high. One-half of the world's population lives in this
region.
 This region is the least committed of all the divisions.
 Poor technology and overpopulation in this region has put a lot of pressure on physical resources.
 High population density.
 There is less industrialization in this region, agriculture which is the mainstay of the economy is in a
dilapidated condition and high population is expanding at a high rate.
 The settlements here are confined to fertile valleys.
 Social problems like poverty, unemployment, malnutrition, illiteracy etc. are very common in this
region.
 The mainstay of the economy of the region is agriculture and most of the agricultural lands produce
food grains.
 The area of agricultural land is more.
 Scientific application in agriculture is less so production is less.
 Natural resources and capital are limited. Development of technical knowledge is low.
 The level of social development is low.
 A large section of the public is uneducated and superstitious.
 Rapid population growth in the region is probably the single biggest problem that, if controlled, is
likely to lead to European-type prosperity in the region.
 The regions are relatively large in size.
 Here population density is above 100 per sq.km.
 It is a transition between the European type and the Brazilian type.
 Countries: Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Albania, Greece, Haiti, Guatemala, China, India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Afghanistan, etc.
4. Brazilian Type:
 These regions have low population-resource ratios. One-sixth of the world's population lives in this
region.
 Population is low so population pressure on resources is also low.
 If the people of this region adopt or develop good technology, adequate social overhead capital, etc.,
their resource exploitation skills will expand and this will lead them to higher prosperity like the
European type.
 The ratio of resources to technology and population is low.
 If these regions only have population expansion and not technology and population quality, then this
national territory could fall into the category of China-type inferiority.
 Their present status is a transient one.
 Here population density is below 40 persons per sq.km.
 Countries: Indochina, Brazil, Bolivia, Venezuela, Paraguay, interior Argentina, Central American
Republics, Latin America , Cuba, north Australian territory, Equatorial Africa, etc.
5. Arctic – Desert Type:
 Basically the most desolate ice caps, tundra’s and deserts regions of the technology-deficient world
offer little food production potential at the moment.
 Due to lack of technological maturity it is the land of the future with many unexplored resources.
 This area is either uninhabited or very few people live here.
 Land efficiency in this region is low due to natural adversity.
 The residents here have to procure the necessary goods from other countries.
 These areas are less populated.
 The region is rich in various industrial raw materials such as mineral oils, ores, fur, and marine
animals.
 Thus technological advances may invite more human intervention in the region in future unfavorable
geo-environmental conditions.
  Countries: Covers the Antarctica, Greenland, northern part of North America and Eurasia, Desert
region of Peru, the Amazon basin, the Sahara desert, deserts of Central Australia, Central Asia, Chile,
etc.

United
European Egyptian Brazilian Arctic-Desert
States
Type Low High High Low Extremely Low
Population-
High Very Advanced Poor Developing Limited
Resource Ratio
Highly
Technology Very Advanced Poor Developing Limited
Advanced
Above 100 Below 40
Population 32 persons Above 350 persons
persons per persons per Very low
Density per sq.km. per sq.km.
sq.km. sq.km.
Resource
High Limited Low High Developing
Development
Industrialization High Moderate Low Low Limited
Economic Fishing, Hunting,
Various Various Agriculture Agriculture
Activities Mining
Mainstay of Agriculture Agriculture and Fishing, Hunting,
Agriculture Agriculture
Economy and Industry Industry Mining
Natural
Immense Limited Limited Immense Oil, Gas
Resources
Capital Adequate Adequate Limited Limited Limited
Social
High Moderate Low Low Low
Development
Education High High Low Low Moderate
Prosperity High High Low Low Large
Size of
Large Small Large Large Large
Countries
Egypt, Algeria,
USA, Indochina, Covers the
Tunisia,
Canada, The most of Brazil, Bolivia, Antarctica,
Morocco,
Australia, countries of Venezuela, Greenland,
Albania,
New Western, Southern Paraguay, northern part of
Greece, Haiti,
Zealand, and Eastern Europe interior North America and
China, India,
Argentina, and Soviet Central Argentina, Eurasia, Desert
Countries Pakistan,
South Africa Asian republics, Cuba, Central region of Peru, the
Bangladesh,
and Russian Singapore, South American Amazon basin, the
Sri Lanka,
federation Korea and Japan Republics, Latin Sahara desert,
Nepal,
Parts of East belongs to this America, deserts of Central
Afghanistan,
& Medieval group. Equatorial Australia, Central
etc.
Russia etc. Africa, etc. Asia, Chile, etc.
 4.1 Theories of Population: Malthus and Marx
Malthusian Theory
Robert Malthus Thomas, the English economist and demographer, is well-known for his theory of
population growth. He published An Essay on Principle of Population in 1798. His general view was that
population tends to increase faster than the means of subsistence. The fast increase in population absorbs all
economic gains, unless controlled by what he termed ‘preventive’ and ‘positive’ checks. Malthus presented
his theory in two axioms:
Axiom 1: Food is necessary for human existence; further food production increases at an arithmetic rate, i.e.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5...
Axiom 2: Passion between the sexes is necessary and will continue; further, population increases at a
geometric rate, i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64…
Thus the population doubles after every 25 years. Malthus believed that two of the characteristics essential to
the sustenance of life were: (i) the
need for food, and (ii) the passion
between the sexes. It was the
second which led people to marry
at a relatively early age and would
result in such a large number of
births that, the population would
double itself in 25 years if
unchecked by misery and vice.
The widening gap between
population and subsistence will
increase a man's tendency to press
upon the means of subsistence.
With the result, the society gets
divided into two sets of people -
the rich (haves) and the poor (have
nots) - giving rise to capitalistic set
up. The rich who are the owners of
the means of production earn profit
and accumulate capital.
Malthus defends the capitalistic
set-up of society on the ground that
if the capital was to be distributed
among poor, it will not be available for investment on the mode of production. Thus, the rich will continue
to grow richer and the poor constituting the labour class poorer. In his opinion, the increasing gap between
the population and resources shall ultimately lead to the point where misery and poverty shall become
inevitable.
Malthus proposed two types of checks that could limit population growth: preventive checks and positive
checks.
Preventive checks are measures that individuals can take to limit their fertility and reduce the likelihood of
having children. According to Malthus, postponement of marriage was and would continue to be the chief
preventive. Malthus believed that people would choose to delay marriage or have fewer children if they
realized that they could not afford to support a large family. Preventive checks could include things like
abstinence, contraception, and voluntary celibacy.
Positive checks on the other hand, are measures that reduce the population by increasing the death rate.
Malthus believed that positive checks would be necessary if preventive checks failed to keep the population
in check. Positive checks could include things like war, famine, disease, and other natural disasters.
The 'positive' and 'preventive' checks which occur in human populations to prevent excessive growth relate
to practices affecting mortality and fertility respectively. So, while Malthus' 'positive' checks included wars,
disease, poverty, and especially lack of food, his 'preventive' checks included principally 'moral restraint, or
the postponement of marriage, and 'vice' in which he included adultery, birth control and abortion. Malthus
saw the tension between population and resources as a major cause of the misery of much of the humanity.
CRITICISM
The Malthusian theory has been criticized on several counts. His thesis that population was growing quickly
and that man was a biological as well as social being, depending on sexual drive and food. The main points
of criticism of the Malthusian theory have been given as under:
1. The basic assumption of Malthus on passion between the sexes has been questioned on the ground that
the desire to have children cannot be mixed up with passion and desire for sex.
2. The validity of his two sets of ratios has also been questioned by his critics. Population has rarely grown
in geometrical progression and means of production have rarely multiplied in arithmetic progression.
3. The span of 25 years assumed by Malthus to allow population to double itself also does not seem to be
anywhere near reality. The doubling period for a population varies from country to country and from
region to region depending upon the state of its economy, standard of living, education and scientific
and technological advancement. For example, it took only about 30 years for the population of
Bangladesh, Iran, Nigeria and Mexico to double itself and over 300 years in United Kingdom, 350 years
in Japan, 125 years in United States while the doubling period of population in Sweden, Denmark
Finland and Norway may be more than 350 years and it is projected that the population of Russia,
Ukraine, Austria and Germany at the present rate will not double even during the infinite period of time
4. Malthus overemphasized the 'positive' checks and did not visualize the role of preventive' checks like
contraceptives and family planning.
5. Moreover, natural calamities have occurred in the developed countries, e.g. Australia (floods), Iceland
(volcanoes), Japan (earthquakes and tsunami), USA (hurricanes, blizzards), thus there was no causal
relationship between positive checks and over-population.
6. Malthus has been severely criticized for ignoring the role of changing technology and the consequent
transformation in socio-economic set-up of a society.
7. Malthus also failed to realize even the biological limitations that a population cannot grow beyond a
certain limit.
Marxian Theory
Karl Marx was a creative thinker who made a scientific interpretation of human history. The Marxist theory
of population, also called Karl Marx’s theory of population or Marxian Theory of Population or
Theory of Surplus Population, is a key component of his critique of capitalist society. Marx argued that
social and economic factors, particularly capitalist production and labour exploitation dynamics, influence
population growth and demographic change.
Marx argues that population growth is a symptom of the larger contradictions in capitalist society rather than
a problem in and of itself. He held that economic factors, particularly the need for a sizable and adaptable
labour force to meet the demands of capitalist production, drive population growth. In this regard, Marx
argued that population growth results from social and economic circumstances rather than merely a natural
phenomenon.
Marx knew the potential downsides of population growth, particularly in a capitalist society. According to
him, population growth can result in overproduction, surplus labor, and increased competition for jobs, all of
which can contribute to social unrest, unemployment, and poverty. Marx argued that these issues are caused
more by capitalist production’s exploitative and unequal nature than by population growth itself.
Marx offered a radical social reform that would eliminate private property, establish collective ownership
and democratic control over the means of production, end exploitation and inequality, and address all of
these issues. In his view, this change would eliminate the inconsistencies of capitalism and produce a society
where population growth could be controlled in a way that is advantageous to all citizens.
Major Propositions of Marxist theory of population
To explain how population dynamics function in the context of capitalist society, the Marxist theory of
population is based on several fundamental propositions. The Marxist theory of population makes many
important propositions, including:
1. Economic factors drive population growth: Marx argued that social and economic factors, rather than
a natural phenomenon, are to blame for population growth. He focused on the contribution of capitalist
production to population growth since capitalists need a sizable and adaptable labor force to meet
market demands.
2. Population growth can lead to overproduction and surplus labor: In the context of a capitalist
society, population growth, according to Marx, can have negative effects, especially if it results in
overproduction and surplus labor. Job competition, wage compression, and social unrest may result
from this.
 3. Capitalists exploit population growth for profit: Marx argued that capitalists take advantage of
population growth to make money. Capitalists can lower wages and boost their profits by expanding the
labour pool.
4. The state has a role in regulating population growth: According to Marx, the state and other
institutions are responsible for limiting population growth. This can be accomplished by using family
planning and reproductive health policies to advance the interests of the working class.
5. The struggle for reproductive rights is part of the broader struggle for social and economic
justice: According to Marxists, the fight for reproductive rights is an important part of the giant fight for
social and economic justice. We can promote greater equality and justice by ensuring everyone can
access reproductive healthcare and family planning services.
Criticisms of Marxist theory of population
The Marxist theory of population has faced criticism from a variety of perspectives, some of which are
outlined below:
1. Oversimplification: Critics of Marxist population theory claim that it oversimplifies the complex
interactions between demographic change, social structures, and economic systems. They argue that
other factors, such as cultural norms, political institutions, and technological change, are essential in
shaping population dynamics.
2. Neglect of agency: Critics also claim that Marxist population theory ignores the agency of individuals
and groups in shaping demographic change. They contend that people can make reproductive choices,
and that various social, cultural, and economic factors influence these choices.
3. Lack of empirical evidence: Some critics argue that empirical evidence does not support the Marxist
population theory, particularly in light of current demographic trends. They contend that population
growth rates have slowed in many parts of the world, owing to various factors such as improved
healthcare, increased access to education, and shifting cultural norms.
4. Inadequate consideration of gender: Critics argue that the Marxist theory of population does not
adequately consider the role of gender in shaping demographic change. They argue that women often
bear the burden of reproductive labor, and that policies related to reproductive health and family
planning should be designed with this in mind.
5. Failure to account for ethnic and racial differences: Critics argue that the Marxist theory of
population does not adequately account for ethnic and racial differences in population dynamics. They
argue that demographic trends vary significantly across different groups, and that various social,
cultural, and economic factors shape these differences.
6. Relevant to Capitalistic Societies and not other Societies: Marx theory of population growth may be
relevant to the capitalistic societies and in all probability would not operate in primitive hunting and
food gathering societies.

4.2 Definition, Types and Objectives of the Population Policies

Population policy refers to the measures and strategies implemented by governments and organizations to
address issues related to population growth, distribution, and composition. It includes various initiatives
aimed at promoting fertility, reducing mortality, regulating migration, and influencing demographic trends to
achieve social, economic, and environmental objectives.
A major aspect of a country is its population size. Overpopulation can lead to over-consumption and
increased pressures on resources and services such as health care and education. On the other hand, a
population can also become underpopulated, which is often unsustainable and can lead to economic loss due
to the fact there are fewer adults of working age in the population. Therefore, many governments use
population policies as a way to combat overpopulation and underpopulation.
TYPES
Based on their intended effect on population growth rates
1. Pronatalist policies: These policies are aimed at increasing fertility rates and encouraging population
growth. Pronatalist policies may include incentives such as financial rewards or tax breaks for having
children, as well as measures to support families with children, such as childcare subsidies and parental
leave.
2. Antinatalist policies: These policies are aimed at reducing fertility rates and slowing population
growth. Antinatalist policies may include measures to promote family planning, increase access to
contraception, and encourage smaller family sizes. In some cases, antinatalist policies may also include
restrictions on fertility, such as mandatory sterilization or one-child policies.
 3. Neutrality policies: These policies aim to maintain a stable population size without actively promoting
or discouraging population growth. Neutrality policies may include measures to support family planning
and reproductive health, as well as efforts to address demographic imbalances such as aging populations
or gender imbalances.
4. Immigration policies: These policies regulate the movement of people across borders, including
policies related to immigration, emigration, and refugees. They may include measures to attract or repel
immigrants, refugee resettlement programs, and policies to promote cultural assimilation or diversity.
Based on different aspects of population growth and development
1. Fertility policies: These policies are designed to promote or discourage childbirth, such as family
planning programs, incentives for having children, or measures to discourage teenage pregnancy.
2. Mortality policies: These policies aim to reduce mortality rates, improve public health, and increase
life expectancy through measures such as healthcare and disease prevention initiatives
3. Migration policies: These policies regulate the movement of people across borders, including policies
related to immigration, emigration, and refugees.
4. Urbanization policies: These policies address the challenges of rapid urbanization, including managing
population growth in cities, providing basic services, and addressing environmental and social issues.
5. Aging policies: These policies address the demographic challenges associated with an aging population,
such as pension systems, healthcare, and social welfare programs.
6. Gender policies: These policies address gender imbalances and inequalities, including measures to
promote women's education, employment, and political participation.
7. Environmental policies: These policies aim to address the environmental impact of population growth
and encourage sustainable development practices.
8. Economic policies: These policies focus on the economic implications of population growth, including
measures to boost economic growth, create jobs, and promote entrepreneurship.
9. Education policies: These policies aim to increase access to education and improve the quality of
education, particularly in developing countries where education levels may be low.
10. Health policies: These policies focus on improving the health of populations through measures such as
vaccination programs, disease prevention, and healthcare services.
11. Family policies: These policies aim to support families in raising and caring for children, such as
parental leave, childcare subsidies, and tax benefits for families with children.
12. Housing policies: These policies address the challenges of providing adequate housing for growing
populations, including measures to improve access to affordable housing, reduce homelessness, and
promote sustainable housing practices.
13. Indigenous population policies: These policies are specific to the unique challenges faced by
indigenous populations, such as land rights, cultural preservation, and social inclusion.
14. Disaster management policies: These policies focus on disaster preparedness, mitigation, and
response, particularly in areas prone to natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of population policies may vary depending on the context, but some common objectives
include:
1. Managing population growth: Population policies aim to manage population growth rates by either
promoting or discouraging fertility rates, regulating migration, or maintaining a stable population
growth rate.
2. Improving public health: Population policies may aim to improve public health outcomes by reducing
mortality rates, preventing and treating diseases, and improving access to healthcare services.
3. Reducing poverty: Population policies may aim to reduce poverty by promoting economic growth,
creating job opportunities, and providing social welfare programs.
4. Promoting gender equality: Population policies may aim to promote gender equality by increasing
access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities for women and girls.
5. Addressing environmental challenges: Population policies may aim to address environmental
challenges such as resource depletion, climate change, and pollution by promoting sustainable
development practices.
6. Addressing demographic imbalances: Population policies may aim to address demographic
imbalances such as aging populations or gender imbalances.
 7. Promoting education: Population policies may aim to promote education by increasing access to
quality education and improving the education system, particularly in developing countries where
education levels may be low.
8. Supporting families: Population policies may aim to support families in raising and caring for children,
such as by providing parental leave, child care subsidies, and tax benefits for families with children.
9. Managing urbanization: Population policies may aim to manage the challenges of rapid urbanization
by providing basic services, managing population growth in cities, and addressing environmental and
social issues.
10. Promoting economic development: Population policies may aim to promote economic development by
creating an environment that fosters entrepreneurship, innovation, and investment.
11. Improving social welfare: Population policies may aim to improve social welfare by providing access
to basic needs such as food, shelter, and healthcare, as well as providing support for vulnerable
populations such as the elderly, disabled, and those living in poverty.
12. Ensuring political stability: Population policies may aim to ensure political stability by addressing
demographic imbalances and promoting social cohesion and inclusion.
13. Protecting human rights: Population policies may aim to protect human rights by ensuring that
individuals have access to education, healthcare, and basic needs, and that their civil and political rights
are respected.
14. Addressing social and cultural issues: Population policies may aim to address social and cultural
issues such as ethnic and religious diversity, cultural preservation, and social inclusion.

4.3 Population Policy of India

Population policy refers to all those legal, administrative programmes and other government efforts which
aim at reducing birth rate and improving the quality of life.
After independence, the Government of India formulated a National Policy on Population with the objective
to check the increase in birth rate and improve the standard of living of people. This policy has been revised
from time to time and its scope has been widened. When the population policy was designed in the First Five
Year Plan (1951-56) the population of India had already crossed 361 million mark. It was realised that this
base of population was very large and it was difficult to check the trend of rapidly growing population
within a limited time period.
Unfortunately the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th five year plans population policies could not give the desired results
and India's population kept on growing at a fast rate and almost took the shape of a population explosion.
Compelled by the prevailing circumstances, the government came out with a solid population policy in 2000.
National Population Policy, 2000
Targets
1. To achieve zero growth rate of population by 2045.
2. To reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 per thousand live births by 2012.
3. To reduce maternal mortality rate to below one per 1,000
4. To reduce total fertility rate to 2.1 by 2010.
5. To address the unmet needs for basic reproductive and child health services, supplies and infrastructure.
6. Make school education upto age 14 free and compulsory, and reduce dropouts at primary and secondary
school levels to below 20 per cent for both boys and girls.
7. To achieve universal immunisation of children against all vaccine preventable diseases.
8. To promote delayed marriage for girls, not earlier than age 18 and preferably after 20 years of age.
9. To achieve 80 per cent institutional deliveries and 100 per cent deliveries by trained persons.
10. To achieve 100 per cent registration of births, deaths, marriage and pregnancy.
11. Contain the spread of Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), and promote greater integration
between the management of reproductive tract infections (RTI) and sexually transmitted infections
(STI) and the National AIDS Control Organisation.
12. Prevent and control communicable diseases.
Objectives
1. To meet the unfulfilled needs for basic reproductive and child health care services, supplies and
infrastructure.
2. To make school education upto age 14 free and compulsory.
3. To achieve universal immunization of children against all vaccine preventable diseases.
4. To promote delayed marriage for girls not earlier than age 18 years of age.
 5. To achieve 100 per cent deliveries by trained persons.
6. To make registration of birth, death, marriage and pregnancy compulsory.
7. To curtail spread of AIDS.
8. To achieve universal access to information for contraception.
9. To propagate vigorously the benefits of small family norms.
10. The policy aims to promote sustainable development by ensuring that population growth does not
outstrip the country's resources, and that development is equitable and inclusive.
11. The policy aims to address regional imbalances in population growth and promote balanced regional
development.
12. The policy aims to reduce the rate of population growth by promoting the use of contraceptives,
increasing awareness about family planning methods, and improving access to reproductive health
services.
13. The policy aims to improve the health and nutritional status of women and children, reduce infant and
maternal mortality rates, and ensure universal access to healthcare services.
14. The policy recognizes the importance of educating and empowering women and aims to promote gender
equality, improve the status of women, and reduce the incidence of early marriage and teenage
pregnancy.
Strategic Themes
The National Population Policy has identified the following strategic themes:
1. Decentralized planning and programme implementation under which the panchayats and other local
bodies will plan and implement the family welfare programme. They will "think, plan and act locally
and support nationally".
2. Expansion of family welfare
3. Promoting Family Planning
4. Improving maternal and child health
5. Promoting education and empowerment of women
6. Enhancing access to reproductive health services
7. Addressing regional imbalances
8. Strengthening institutional mechanisms
9. Promoting public-private partnerships:
10. Special provisions child health.
11. Empowering women for improved wealth and nutrition.
12. Special family welfare programme for urban slums, tribals and hilly people.
13. Use of Indian medicines and homeopathy for family welfare.
14. Research on contraceptive technology.
15. Support for senior citizens.
16. Increasing male participation in family welfare programme.
17. Freezing the number of seats in the Lok Sabha at the current level of 545 which is based on the 1971
census. This is a sensitive issue as the southern states have taken a lead in population control. The
population growth is higher in the North Indian states than that of the southern states. If number of seats
is changed on the basis of 2001 census, then northern states with high growth rate of population will
gain at least 40 more seats in the Lok Sabha on the basis of 1971 census.

4.4 Population Policy of China

China's population policy has been a subject of much debate and controversy. The most well-known and
controversial policy is the one-child policy that was introduced in 1979 and ended in 2015. The policy was
aimed at controlling the population growth rate, which was seen as a hindrance to economic growth and
improving living standards.
The one-child policy was enforced through a combination of social pressures, propaganda, local political
activism, and coercion. Couples who adhered to the policy received cash bonuses and were given preference
in school admission, housing, and job applications in urban areas. In rural areas, families that adhered to the
policy received the same food rations and plot for private cultivation as a two-child family. Disincentives to
large families were also employed, requiring families with more than one child to repay all benefits received.
CHINA’S ONE-CHILD POLICY
 Identified as one of the most successful, controversial, fertility control programs, China’s one-child
policy has received considerable lay and academic attention.
  By the late 1960s, however, China’s leadership recognized the limits to growth and the need for
population control.
 In 1971, the Chinese government moved to reduce fertility and the population growth rate using the
“Later, longer and fewer” slogan, which set rules for the age at marriage for men and women, required
couples to wait a minimum of four years after their first child to have a second, and imposed a limit of
two children per family in cities.
 Beginning in 1980, the Chinese government advocated its one-child program, with the goal of
stabilizing the population at 1.2 billion, accomplished through a combination of social pressures
including propaganda, local political activism and coercion, increased availability of contraception and
family-planning resources, and a series of economic incentives and disincentives.
 Those committing to the program received cash bonuses, with one-child families given preference in
school admission, housing, and job applications in urban areas.
 In rural areas, the program was altered slightly so that families would receive the same food rations as a
two-child family and the same-sized plot for private cultivation as a two-child family.
 By the late 1990s, China’s Total Fertility Rate (TFR) had dropped below replacement, where it has
remained even as the one-child program was relaxed and ultimately eliminated.
 In urban areas such as Shanghai, the fertility rate has even dropped below 1.0, given the high costs of
raising a child.
TARGETS & OBJECTIVES
 To control population growth and address overpopulation concerns in China.
 To improve the standard of living and quality of life for Chinese citizens by reducing the strain on
resources and the environment.
 To promote economic growth by reducing the burden on the workforce and redirecting resources
towards development.
 To address gender imbalance and reduce the preference for male children, which has led to a
disproportionate number of males in the population.
 To reduce poverty and improve education levels by limiting the number of children per family, thereby
increasing the resources available for each child.
 To promote family planning and reproductive health services, including access to contraception and
education on healthy family planning practices.
 The one-child policy targeted married couples in urban areas who were having their first child.
Exceptions were made for ethnic minorities, rural families whose first child was a girl, and families
where both parents were only children themselves.
 The policy was primarily aimed at reducing population growth rates, which were seen as a threat to
China's economic development and ability to provide basic necessities for its citizens.
 The government hoped that by limiting population growth, it would be able to raise living standards for
all citizens, reduce strains on natural resources, and improve social services such as education and
healthcare.
 The policy also aimed to curb overpopulation in China's cities, which were becoming overcrowded and
polluted due to rapid urbanization and industrialization.
CONSEQUENCES
Positive consequences of China's One-Child Policy:
 Reduced population growth rate
 Reduced strain on resources and environment
 Improved quality of life for families with one child
 Reduced pressure on infrastructure and public services
 Increased educational and career opportunities for women
 Reduced pressure on resources
 Lowered maternal and infant mortality rates
 Reduced population growth rate:
 Reduced poverty and increased economic growth due to increased investment in education, health, and
other social programs
Negative consequences of China's One-Child Policy:
 Forced abortions and sterilizations
 The preference for male children has led to an unequal ratio of males to females, causing a gender
imbalance.
 Increased burden on only children to support their aging parents
 Reduced fertility rate leading to an aging population and workforce
 Increased incidence of mental health problems among only children
 Social and cultural dislocation due to a preference for male children and a lack of siblings.
 Gender imbalance: Due to the cultural preference for male children, many families resorted to sex-
selective abortions, leading to a significant gender imbalance in the country.
 Aging population: With fewer children being born, China is facing an aging population, which puts a
strain on the country's economy and social services.
 Human rights violations: The policy was often enforced through coercive measures, such as forced
abortions and sterilizations, leading to human rights violations and violations of women's reproductive
rights.
 Social and psychological issues: The policy led to a generation of only children, who often experience
social and psychological issues such as loneliness, social isolation, and pressure to succeed.