In: Contaminants in Agriculture and Environment: Health Risks and Remediation

DOI: 10.26832/AESA-2019-CAE-0160-07

Chapter 7
Pesticides in agriculture and environment: Impacts on
human health

Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar*

Chapter contents
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 77
Background and historical review of pesticides ……………………………………………………………. 78
Classification of pesticides ……………………………………………………………………………………. 81
Environmental impacts of pesticides ………………………………………………………………………… 83
Routes of pesticide exposure to human ……………………………………………………………………... 84
Human health impacts of pesticide ………………………………………………………………………….. 86
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 90
Acknowledgement …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 91
References ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 91

Abstract
A sort of chemicals which are formed to get rid of a pest or halt its reproduction termed as
pesticides. Pesticides are utilized generally to control weeds and insect invasion in farming fields
and different pests and disease transporters (e.g., mosquitoes, rodents, ticks and mice) in houses,
workplaces, shopping centers, and roads. As the methods of activity for pesticides are not species
-specific, worries have been raised about environmental threat related with their exposure
through different ways (e.g., residues in diet and drinking water). Various types of pesticides
have been utilized for crop safety from hundreds of years. Pesticides advantage the harvests;
though, they additionally leave a serious negative effect on nature. Over utilization of pesticides
may prompt the damage of biodiversity. Numerous aquatic animals, birds are under the risk of
destructive pesticides for their survival. Pesticides can move into the human body by oral,
inhalation or dermal exposure, and well known to be the main reason of various diseases like

Piyush Kumar, Email: [email protected]

Agro-ecology and Pollution Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukula Kangri
Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar-249404 (Uttarakhand), INDIA

© 2019 | Agro Environ Media | Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy, Haridwar, India
Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019) 77
respiratory disorders, cancer, skin problems, endocrine disruption, and reproduction failures.
Pesticides acquired numerous advantages to humankind in the agricultural, industrial zone, yet
their toxicities in both humans and animals have always been a reason to worry. Contamination
therefore to overuse of pesticides and the long term effect of pesticides on nature are additionally
discussed in the chapter. This article aims to discuss about pesticides, their types, environmental
worries and human health complications related to them.

Keywords: Agriculture, Cancer, Disorder, Environmental pollutants, Respiratory disorders,

Pesticide

Introduction

The most important commodity essential for survival is food. It conveys vitality and supplements
for body development, upkeep, fix and generation. Generation of food adequate to satisfy the
need of the worldwide population has never been a simple assignment. Farmers all through the
world face a few biotic and abiotic worries over the generation procedure. Crop yield is
significantly hampered by the harm from in excess of 10000 types of insects and 30000 types of
weeds (Dhaliwal et al., 2010). The proper supervision plan for crop harm emerging from pests is
concentrated farming which incorporates the utilization of HYV seeds, improved irrigation
facilities and utilization of composts and pesticides. Environmental protection and foodstuff
security are the real concerns uncommonly increasing human population everywhere throughout
the world. Pests cause a genuine harm in agricultural, regarding yield and high cost of synthetic
chemicals that cost billions of dollars yearly and increment the agricultural generation spending
plan (Chattopadhyay et al., 2017). Nevertheless the surprising expenses, the far reaching
utilization of chemical pesticides has been favored because of the advantages they give in
cultivation, especially by defending crops from pest destruction.
According to the “The Food and Agriculture Organization” (FAO) the pesticide is any substance
or blend of substances planned for avoiding, devastating, or controlling any irritation, including
vectors of human or creature ailment, undesirable types of plants or creatures, causing
destruction among or generally interfering with the generation, preparing, Storage, transport, or
promoting of sustenance, horticultural items, wood and wood items or animal feedstuffs, or
substances that might be directed to animals for the control of bugs or different pests in or on
their bodies. US Environmental Protection Agency describes pesticides as the materials which are
intended to control pests, as well as weeds are known as Pesticides (US-EPA, 2018). The term
pesticide incorporates the majority of the accompanying: herbicide, insecticides (which may
incorporate insect growth controllers, termiticides and so on.) nematicide, piscicide, avicide,
rodenticide, molluscicide, bactericide, antimicrobial, bug repellent, creature repellent, fungicide
and disinfectant (antimicrobial) (Carolyn et al., 2013). The most well-known of these are
herbicides which represent around 80% of all pesticide use (Food Print, 2018). Most pesticides are
78 Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019)

proposed to fill in as plant security items (otherwise called harvest defense items), which all in all,
guard plants from weeds, organisms, or insects. Target vermin can incorporate insects, weeds,
plant pathogens, mollusks, winged creatures, fish, nematodes (roundworms), and
microorganisms that wreck property, cause irritation, or spread malady, or are infection vectors.
The credits of pesticide use incorporate upgraded monetary potential as far as food generation
and improvement of vector-borne illnesses.
Nevertheless, poor agricultural practices accepted by the farmers including the broad use of
pesticides with the reasoning ''if a little is great, more will be better'' and appropriation of
insufficient waiting periods before harvesting have brought about widespread ecological
pollution. Abhilash and Singh (2009), gave the information that India was the biggest maker of
pesticides in Asia and is twelfth world client of pesticides. Among the Indian states, Andhra
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab are among the most elevated buyers of pesticides.
Aside from the high utilization insights, regular use of prohibited pesticides has also been
informed in the country (Mandal and Singh, 2010). The utilization of pesticides was presented in
India amid the mid-sixties as a piece of green revolution and malaria anticipation programs.
(Tomer et al., 2015). While pesticides turned valuable for bug control they were in the meantime
responsible for human health injuries. Today these synthetic substances specifically those which
amass in food chain, force a few human health threats. Intake of food containing pesticide
deposits is archived to result in highest exposure, about 103 to 1010 times higher than that
emerging from polluted drinking water or air (Tomer et al., 2015). Pesticides have been accounted
for to cause a few negative health impacts which rely upon the degree and span of exposure.
Health impacts of pesticides range from mellow sensitivities, rashes, breathing challenges,
neurotoxicity and reproductive complications to deadly chronic diseases like cancer. This test to
food security might be tended to by preventive strategies which incorporate the utilization of
alternative sustainable agricultural practices or relieving systems which depend on reducing
pesticide exposure from diet and water by various preparing strategies (Tomer et al., 2015).

Background and historical review of pesticide applications

Since before 2000 BC, people have used pesticides to secure their harvests. The primary realized
pesticide was elemental sulfur dusting utilized in antiquated Sumer around 4500 years back in
old Mesopotamia. The Rig Veda, which is around 4000 years of age, makes reference to the
utilization of noxious plants for pest control (Rao et al., 2007). In 15th century, poisonous
chemicals, for example, mercury, arsenic and lead were being introduced to field crops to destroy
bugs. In prehistoric Greece and Rome, inorganic chemicals, for instance, arsenic and sulfur were
utilized to control insects. Arsenics were implemented as insect repellent by the Chinese, during
the 16th century. In the 17th century, nicotine sulfate was pulled out from tobacco leaves to utilize
as an insecticide. The spread of the Colorado beetle in the United States was controlled through
an impure form of copper arsenite, in the late 19th century. In 19th century, two new pesticides
Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019) 79
pyrethrum and rotenone were introduced which were more natural and derived from
chrysanthemums and roots of tropical vegetables respectively. Chemical weed control was
verified earlier in the 20th century in France though the first organomercury seed dressings were
familiarized in Germany in 1913. Until the mid of 20 th century, pesticides which had
arsenic-based origin were leading (Ritter et al., 2009). In 1939, the current chemical age of
pesticides started with the disclosure of the insecticidal capability of dichlorodiphenyl
trichloroethane (DDT) in Switzerland and the advancement of organophosphorous insect
repellent sprays in Germany. The primary soil-acting carbamate herbicides were found in the UK
in 1945 and, at the same time, the organochlorine bug spray chlordane was presented in the US
and Germany. The commercial manufacturing of phenoxy acid herbicides started in the
meantime in the United Kingdom. Paul Müller exposed that DDT was an extremely effective
insecticide (Figure 7.1 and 7.2).

Figure 7.1. Applications of pesticides in various sectors.

80 Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019)

Figure 7.2. Consumption of chemical pesticides in various states/Uts during 2010-11 to 2016-17 (Source:
GOI, 2019).

Organochlorines, for example, DDT were prevailing, but they were substituted by
organophosphates and carbamates in the United States by 1975.
From that point forward, pyrethrin mixes have turned into the predominant insecticide (Ritter et
al., 2009). Herbicides turned into common during the 1960s, driven by "triazine and other
nitrogen-based combinations, carboxylic acids, for example, glyphosate and 2,4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (Ritter et al., 2009). During the 1960s, a thoughtful risk to biodiversity
was observed that DDT was inhibiting many fish-eating birds from reproducing. Numerous
fungicides were introduced amid the 1970s, e.g., benomyl, and new foundational combinations,
for example, metalaxyl and triadimefon. Amid the most recent 20 years, a superior
comprehension of natural/biochemical systems has brought about the generation of pesticides
that are powerful at lower doses. Another and vital age of insecticides, for instance, includes
engineered light-stable pyrethroids created from normally happening pyrethrins.
New ways to deal with the structure and to strategies for application give a chance to lessen the
danger of pesticide harming, and danger of malignancy. Rachel Carson composed the top selling
book ‘Silent Spring’ about biological amplification. The farming utilization of DDT is currently
restricted under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic pollutants; however it is as yet
utilized in some emerging countries for preventing malaria and other tropical infections by
spraying on inside dividers for killing or repelling mosquitoes (Lobe, 2006).
Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019) 81
Classification of pesticides

Pesticides can be categorized by target life form (e.g., herbicides, fungicides, bug sprays,
pediculicides and rodenticides (Gilden et al., 2010), chemical arrangement (e.g. natural, inorganic,
engineered, or organic (biopesticide), and physical state (for example vaporous fumigant)
(Amdur et al., 1997). Biopesticides incorporate microbial pesticides and biochemical pesticides
(US-EPA, 2017). Plant-determined pesticides, or "botanicals", have been growing rapidly. These
consist of the pyrethroids, nicotinoids and rotenoids a fourth group that incorporates scilliroside
and strychnine (Kamrin, 1997). The different classifications of pesticides are given in Table 7.1-7.3.
According to the kind of pest they control, pesticides are frequently denoted. Pesticides can in like
manner be considered as either biodegradable pesticides, which will be destroyed down by
microorganisms and other living creatures into innocuous compounds and which may take
months or years before they are broken down are tenacious pesticides: it was the persistence of
DDT, for instance, which prompted its amassing in the food chain and food web and its killing of
fowls at the uppermost level of the food chain.

Table 7.1. Classification of pesticides based on target pest (Aktar et al., 2009).
Type Target pest
Algicide Algae
Avicide Birds
Bactericide Bacteria
Fungicide Fungi
Herbicide Weeds
Insecticide Insects
Miticide Mites
Molluscicide Snails, slugs
Nematicide Nematodes
Piscicide Fish
Rodenticide Rodents

Table 7.2. Classification of pesticides based on toxicity criteria (WHO, 2009).

Type Toxicity level LD50 for the rat (mg/kg body weight)*
Oral Dermal
Ia Extremely hazardous <5 <50

Ib Highly hazardous 5–50 50-200

II Moderately hazard- 50–2000 200–2000

ous
U Unlikely to present 5000 or higher
acute hazard
*LD50 is the amount of the substance required to kill 50% of the test population.
82 Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019)

Table 7.3. Classification of pesticides based on the mode of formulation (Mascarelli, 2013).
Physical state Pesticide characteristics

Emulsifiable concentrates Do not need constant agitation to each appli-

cation.

Wettable Powders Require constant agitation prior to each appli-

cation

Granules Obtained by mixing the active ingredient with

clay

Baits Obtained by mixing the active ingredient with

food

Dusts Dusts cannot be mixed with water and they

must be applied dry
Insecticides
Neuro-active insecticides chemically alike to nicotine constitutes a category termed as
Neonicotinoids. The most broadly utilized bug spray worldwide is Imidacloprid which is from
the neonicotanoid family (Yamamoto, 1999). Neonicotinoids went under expanding investigation
because of their ecological impact were connected to unfriendly environmental
impacts in the late 1990s, as well as loss of birds because of a reduction in insect populations and
honey-bee colony collapse disorder (CCD). The use of selected neonicotinoids were limited by the
European Union and some non E.U countries in 2013 (Cressey, 2013). Organophosphate and
carbamate bug sprays have a comparable method of activity. They influence the sensory system
of target bugs (and non-target organisms) by disturbing acetylcholinesterase movement, the
enzyme that controls acetylcholine, at nerve neural connections. This restraint is responsible for
over-stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system and an expansion in synaptic
acetylcholine. (Colovic et al., 2013) Several of these insecticides are very toxic, initially
manufactured in the mid of twentieth 20th century. Although ordinarily utilized previously,
numerous more established synthetic substances have been expelled from the market because of
their health and ecological impacts (for example DDT, chlordane, and toxaphene). (ATSDR,
2002). Nevertheless, in the environment, several organophosphates are not persistent. Pyrethroid
insecticides were created as an engineered variant of the naturally occurring pesticide pyrethrin,
which is found in chrysanthemums. They have been changed to expand their stability in nature.
Certain manufactured pyrethroids are harmful to the nervous system. (Soderlund, 2010).

Herbicides
Various sulfonylureas have been commercialized for weed control, including: flazasulfuron
rimsulfuron, amidosulfuron, sulfometuron-methyl, metsulfuron-methyl terbacil, (Appleby et al.,
Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019) 83
2002) nicosulfuron, and triflusulfuron-methyl. These are expansive range herbicides that kill
plants weeds or pests by hindering the enzyme acetolactate synthase. During the 1960s, more
than 1 kg/ha (0.89 lb/ acre) crop assurance chemical was typically applied, while sulfonylureates
permit as meager as 1% as much material to accomplish the equivalent effect (Lamberth et al.,
2013).

Biopesticides
Biopesticides are particular kinds of pesticides originated from such common materials as plants,
animals, microbes, bacterias and certain minerals. For instance, canola oil and preparing soft
drink have pesticidal applications and are considered biopesticides. Biopesticides fall into three
noteworthy classes: Microbial pesticides which comprise of , entomopathogenic fungi or viruses
(and sometimes incorporates the metabolites that microorganisms or fungi produce).
Entomopathogenic nematodes are additionally regularly classed as microbial pesticides, despite
the fact that they are multi-cellular. (Coombs, 2013; Borgio et al., 2011). Naturally occurring
materials that control (or monitor in the instance of pheromones) pests and microbial infections
are herbal pesticides or biochemical pesticides (Pal et al., 2013). Plant- incorporated protectants
(PIPs) have hereditary material from different species joined into their genetic material (for
example Genetically Modified crops). Their utilization is questionable, particularly in numerous
European countries (US NPIC, 2017).

Environmental impacts of pesticides

Pesticides which are applied to land float to aquatic systems and there they are harmful to fishes
and non-target creatures. These pesticides are poisonous themselves as well as interact with
stressors which include injurious algal blooms. With the abuse of pesticides, a decrease in
populations of various fish species is detected (Scholz et al., 2012). There are three ways by which
aquatic animals are exposed to harmful pesticides (Helfrich et al. 2009). Dermally: Absorption via
skin directly; Breathing: During breathing, uptake through gills; Orally: Through drinking
contaminated water. The dangers related with the utilization of uncontrolled utilization of these
poisons can't be ignored. The pesticide impacts on populations of oceanic and terrestrial plants,
creatures and birds, it is the need of great importance to consider. Accumulation of pesticides in
the food chains is of most prominent worry as it straightforwardly influences the predators and
raptors. However, incidentally, pesticides can likewise decrease the amount of weeds, bushes and
insects on which higher orders feed. Spraying of bug sprays, herbicides and fungicide have
additionally been connected to decreases in the number of inhabitants in rare species of animals
and birds. Furthermore, their long term and regular utilization lead to bioaccumulation as
discussed above (Pesticides lessen biodiversity, 2010). Around 80 % of the dissolved oxygen is
given by the aquatic plants and it is essential for the sustenance of aquatic life. O 2 levels decreases
drastically due to the killing of aquatic plants by the herbicides and eventually leads to lack of
84 Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019)

oxygen to the fishes and decreases fish production (Helfrich et al. 2009). In any case, pesticides
reach underground through drainage of degraded surface water, improper disposal and
unplanned spills and spillages (Pesticides in Groundwater, 2014). Aquatic environments are
encountering significant harm because of floating of pesticides into the lakes, lakes and streams.
Atrazine likewise indirectly influences the immune system of certain amphibians and dangerous
to some fish species (Forson and Storfer, 2006; Rohr et al., 2008). Amphibians are mainly
influenced by pesticides contaminated surface waters, notwithstanding overexploitation and hab-
itat loss (The Asian Amphibian Crisis, 2009). Carbaryl has been discovered dangerous for a few
land and water proficient species, while, herbicide glyphosate is known to cause high death rate
of tadpoles and juvenile frogs (Relyea, 2005). Little centralizations of malathion have been ap-
peared to change the abundance and composition of plankton and periphyton population that
therefore influenced the development of frog tadpoles (Relyea and Hoverman, 2008). In addition,
chlorpyrifos and endosulfan likewise cause severe harm to amphibians (Sparling and Feller,
2009). Meanwhile pre- agricultural times, 20– 25 % of the bird populations have deteriorated. One
of the significant reasons for this enormous decay is the utilization of pesticides which was not
known before 1962. Pesticide amassing in the tissues of bird species prompts their death. Bald
eagle populations in the USA declined basically on account of exposure to DDT and its metabo-
lites (Liroff, 2000). By killing earthworms on which birds and mammals feed, fungicides can
circuitously reduce their populations. Granular types of pesticides are veiled as diet grains by
birds. Organophosphate bug sprays are exceedingly dangerous to birds and they are known to
have harmed raptors in the fields. Sub-lethal amounts of pesticides can influence the sensory
system, causing communal changes (Pesticides lessen biodiversity, 2010). A few soil organisms
are engaged with the obsession of atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates. Chlorothalonil and
dinitrophenyl fungicides have been appeared to disrupt nitrification and de-nitrification bacteria
subordinate procedures (Lang and Cai, 2009). By acting as bioindicators of soil pollution and as
models for soil noxiousness testing earthworms play a significant role in the soil ecosystem.
Earthworms likewise add to soil productivity. Pesticides have not saved Earthworms from their
lethal impacts and the later is presented to the previous primarily by means of polluted soil pore
water. Schreck et al. (2008) conveyed that bug sprays or potentially fungicides produce neurotoxic
impacts in earthworms and after a long term contact they are physiologically harmed (Schreck et
al., 2008). Glyphosate and chlorpyrifos have injurious impacts on earthworms at the cellular level
triggering DNA destruction. feeding activity and practicality of earthworms is influenced by
Glyphosates (Casabé et al., 2007). Goulson studied the damages of neonicotinoids on environment
and animal life. He stated that as neonicotinoids tend to amass in the soil, thus, they can kill
earthworms like Eisenia foetida species (Goulson, 2013).

Routes of pesticide exposure to human

There are four regular ways pesticides can move in the human body: dermal, oral, eye, and
Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019) 85
respiratory pathways. The noxiousness of pesticides can differ contingent upon the sort of
contact, for example, dermal, oral, or respiratory (inhaltion). As would be commonly expected,
the hazard of pesticide pollution typically rises on the dosage (concentration) and basic periods
notwithstanding poisonous quality of chemical of interest (Meenakshi et al., 2012). Exposure to
pesticides can happen straightforwardly from occupational, household use and agricultural,
while they can likewise be conveyed through eating regimen.
Besides, the overall public might be exposed to pesticides because of their application on golf
courses, around major roads, and so forth. The fundamental courses of human introduction to
pesticides are through the food chain, water, air, soil, fauna and flora (Anderson and Meade,
2014). Pesticides are dispersed all through the human body through the circulatory system
however can be discharged through skin, urine, and exhaled air (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos,
2011).

Dermal exposure
Dermal exposure is a standout amongst the most widely recognized and compelling courses
through which pesticide applicators are exposed to pesticides (Anderson and Meade, 2014).
Dermal assimilation may happen because of a sprinkle, spill, or spray drift, when mixing,
stacking, arranging, and additionally cleaning of pesticides (Salvatore et al., 2008). Absorption
may likewise result from exposure to large quantities of residue. Pesticide makings change
comprehensively in physicochemical properties and in their ability to be assimilated through the
skin (Beard et al., 2014), which can be impacted by the sum and span of exposure, the presence of
different materials on the skin, temperature and moistness, and the utilization of individual
defensive stuff (Macfarlane et al., 2013). On chlorpyrifos risk assessment, the Environmental
Protection Agency assessed momentary dermal exposure for an aeronautical implement to be 50
lgkg-1 day-1 with a retained portion of 1.5 lgkg-1 day-1, accepting a 3 % dermal retention (US-EPA,
2007).

Oral ingestion
The consumption of the chemical through the mouth into the digestive tract is called as oral
ingestion. This happens through occupational, intended or in-intentional pesticide use when very
minor quantity of spray vapor enters the nose and mouth and is gulped during spraying
(Thundiyil et al., 2008). When a pesticide is introduced through oral contact, the most serious
poisoning may result. Oral exposure of a pesticide typically rises by chance due to inattention or
for intended reasons (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011). The most common instances of
unintentional oral exposure were accounted for to happen when pesticides were exchanged from
their unique marked container to an unlabeled bottle or food vessel (Gilden et al., 2010). There are
numerous cases in which individuals have been harmed by drinking pesticides kept in soda pop
containers or subsequent to drinking water stored in pesticide-contaminated bottles (US-EPA,
2007). Labors handling pesticides or equipment for their application can likewise consume
86 Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019)

pesticides on the off chance that they don't wash their hands before eating or smoking (US-EPA,
2007).

Respiratory exposure
Because of the presence of unstable constituents of pesticides, their potential for respiratory
introduction is extraordinary (Amaral, 2014). Inward breath of adequate amounts of pesticides
may make genuine harm to throat, nose and lung tissues (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011).
Though, the danger of pesticide exposure is in overall comparatively small when pesticides are
sprayed in huge drops with traditional application equipment. In any case, if low-volume
equipment is utilized to apply a concentrated material, the potential for respiratory exposure is
greater because of the creation of minor drops (Amaral, 2014).

Eye exposure
The potential for chemical damage is great for tissues of the eye. A few pesticides were accounted
for to be captivated by the eyes in sufficient amounts to cause genuine or even lethal disorder
(Gilden et al., 2010). Granular pesticides represent a specific danger to the eyes relying upon the
mass and weight of individual particles (Jaga and Dharmani, 2006). In the event that pesticides
are applied through power equipment, the pellets may skip off vegetation or different surfaces at
high speed to cause critical eye harm (Fareed et al., 2012). Eye safety is additionally required when
estimating or mixing concentrated or very poisonous pesticides. Defensive face shields or goggles
ought to be worn at whatever spraying pesticides or to avoid eye contact with dirt.

Human health impacts of pesticide

Studies recommend that pesticides might be connected with different illnesses including
leukemia, malignancies and asthma. The threat of health risks because of pesticide exposure
depends on how poisonous the constituents are as well as on the dimension of exposure.
Furthermore, certain individuals, for example, kids, pregnant ladies, or maturing populations
might be more profound with the impacts of pesticides than others. Human exposure whether
specifically or through eating routine may result in intense and postponed health impacts
(Kaushik et al., 2009). WHO estimations demonstrate that more than 500,000 individuals expired
from self-poisoning in western Pacific and south east Asia in 2000 alone (WHO, 2001). In
emerging countries, the assessed yearly frequency rate in agricultural laborers was observed to be
18.2 per 100 000 all day workers and 7.4 per million younger students (Bolognesi and Merlo,
2011).
In India, harming because of pesticides was first informed in 1958 in Kerala where over in excess
of 100 individuals expired after feeding on parathion polluted wheat flour (Karunakaran, 1958).
Long term impacts related with pesticides incorporate lymphomas, leukemia, soft tissue
sarcomas, mind, bone and stomach malignant growths, harm to peripheral and central nervous
Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019) 87
system, birth defects, reproductive complaints, disruption of the immune system and death
(Michael et al., 2013).

Cancer
Studies have uncovered the close relationship of pesticides and the development of malignant
growths in the both children and adults. Individuals who are intently connected with pesticides
exposure were observed to be at more serious risk to different malignancies, for example, Burkitt
lymphoma, leukemia, neuroblastoma, Wilm's tumor Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, soft tissue
sarcoma, ovarian disease, tumors of lung, rectum, stomach, colon and bladder (Bonner et al., 2017;
Polanco Rodriguez et al., 2017; Schinasi and Leon, 2014).
Prostate cancer: Environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) for example, different
pesticides and industrial chemicals are discharged into our environment and posture genuine
medical issues. Increment rate of hormone subordinate diseases, for example, bosom, testis,
prostate and of the male reproductive system have been related with the hormone disrupters
(Skakkebaek, 2002). Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is an organophosphate pesticide and is broadly utilized in
agricultural fields. Organophosphates are metabolically actuated and are irreversible inhibitor of
cholinesterases and perform as neurotoxins (Amitai et al., 1998). Chlorpyrifos when given to
mouse with PTEN deletion makes the creature inclined to prostate malignancy. Chronic exposure
for a time period of 32 weeks to chlorpyrifos did not encourage prostate malignancy in creatures
but rather achieved appropriate stages to restrain acetylcholinesterase action in plasma (Svensson
et al., 2013), recommending more examinations are expected to conclude CPF as a cancer-causing
agent. In a meta-examination, expanded danger of prostate cancer was studied in the farmers
related with a polluted pesticide with exceedingly dangerous 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-
p-dioxin (TCDD). Five studies till 2006 were taken to explore 26706 individuals exposed to the
pesticide which demonstrated a positive connection with pesticide exposure and death because of
prostate malignancy (Kabir et al., 2018).
Breast cancer: In an investigation, an unobtrusive increment in the threat of breast cancer was
observed to be related with intense occasions in a subgroup of young females who were exposed
in childhood and puberty (Niehoff et al., 2016). A hazard study was directed in the life partners of
pesticide applicators in an Agriculture Health Study. Among 30,003 women, 25.9% reported the
utilization of organophosphate (OP) pesticides and 718 women exposed to OPs were determined
to have malignant growth during the follow-up period. Organophosphate utilization was related
with a raised threat of bosom malignancy (RR=1.20, 95% CI 1.01– 1.43), a standout amongst the
most normally utilized OP, malathion was related with the raised danger of thyroid disease and
utilization of diazinon was positively connected with expanded danger of ovarian malignant
growth (RR=1.87, 95% CI 1.02– 3.43) (Lerro et al., 2015).
Colorectal cancer: Colorectal malignancy (CRC) is the second important reason for
cancer-associated deaths in the United States men and women mutually (Raina et al., 2016). In an
Agriculture Health Study (AHS), a study was done to demonstrate the connection among
88 Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019)

pesticides and colorectal cancer. The vast majority of the pesticides were not found to have a
relationship with colorectal cancer. For rectal malignancy, chlorpyrifos has appeared huge
exposure-response pattern that was expanded by 2.7 fold. Aldicarb was observed to be
fundamentally connected with colon cancer and most elevated exposure increased the hazard by
4.1 overlap (95% certainty interim: 1.3– 12.8). But, strong confirmations are missing to verify a
close connection between these pesticides and colorectal cancers which requires further
investigations with point by point process (Lee et al., 2007).

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL)

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is an assorted gathering of malignancies which influences lymph and
immune system; it comprises of in excess of 20 unique malignancies. In the previous couple of
decades, this specific sort of threat has been expanded around the world (Alavanja and Bonner,
2012). Rising proof demonstrate that exposure to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) builds the
danger of developing NHL. In a meta-analysis, the danger to pesticide exposure for NHL was
considered, positive relationship for dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, hexachlorocyclohexane,
chlordane, and hexachlorobenzene were informed (Luo et al., 2016). It is informed that immune
dysfunction is straightly associated with NHL. Malathion assaulted immune cells specifically
while diazinon caused interruption of a neuro- immune system that includes a cholinergic
arrangement of lymphocytes (Hu et al., 2017).

Alzheimer’s disease (chronic neurodegenerative disease)

Alzheimer's illness (AD) is a standout amongst the most widely recognized reasons for dementia
in matured people. The characteristic highlights of the disorder incorporate the existence of
extracellular amyloid– beta (Aβ) plaques, neuronal death and the loss of neurotransmitters.
Environmental pollutants are observed to be emphatically connected with the pathogenesis of
AD. Numerous investigations have discovered that chronically exposed people to pesticides have
a high occurrence of psychological, behavioral and psychomotor dysfunction and Alzheimer's
ailment dementia. Organophosphate pesticides are found to repress acetylcholinesterase likewise
as the medications used to treat AD, have likewise appeared to cause deviations in microtubule
preparations and tau hyper-phosphorylation (Zaganas et al., 2013).

Reproductive disorders
Disclosure to pesticides in susceptible phases of life interferes with sexual growth, reproduction
and fertility of a living being. It might prompt a few unwanted results like reduced fertility,
infertility, premature births, undiagnosed miscarriages, birth defects, teratogenecity,
transformations, mutations hereditary deformities and malignant growths (Sheiner et al., 2003).
Exposure to specific pesticides in adequate dosages may build the threat of sperm abnormalities,
decreased fertility, aberrant abortions, defects in birth and fetal development impediment
(Frazier, 2007). Carbosulfan, a carbamate pesticide has demonstrated an expansion in
Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019) 89
chromosomal aberrations (CA), bone marrow micronucleus formation (MN), and sperm variation
in mice. At all three intense amounts utilized in the investigation (5, 2.5 and 1.25 mg/kg) there
was a increment in the CA which was concentration dependent, sperm head abnormalities and
micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (PCEs) and, yet did not influence the all over sperm
count. These discoveries demonstrate carbosulfan as a strong genotoxic agent and could likewise
go about as a powerful germ cell mutagen (Giri et al., 2002).

Respiratory disorders
During the 1700s, Bernardino Ramazzini was one of the primary scientists who informed the
threats of respiratory disorders are more prominent in farmers (Hoppin et al., 2006). Numerous
clinical and epidemiological investigations have conveyed a relationship between pesticide
exposure and indications of asthma and bronchial hyper-reactivity. Pesticide exposure may add
to the intensification of asthma by inflammation, disturbance, immunosuppression, or endocrine
interruption (Hernández et al., 2011). The association between early life disclosure to
organophosphates and respiratory results amongst 359 mothers and children in USA was
additionally examined Raanan et al. (2014). They determined that such exposure could prompt
respiratory signs consistent with childhood asthma. In a cross-sectional investigation in Africa
covering female farm laborers (n=211), the predominance of ocular-nasal indications was
decidedly connected with entering a pesticide-sprayed field (OR = 2.97; 95% CI: 0.93– 9.50)
(Ndlovu et al., 2014).

Liver and kidney disorders

Liver and kidneys are the primary body part for detoxification and excretion in human body.
Every harmful compound in the body store here for conversion and excretion (Tomer et al., 2015).
Therefore, these have a tendency to accumulate high amounts of chemicals and poisons
prompting structural and functional abnormalities. Conceivable mechanism for the activity of
pesticides can be clarified with regards to tissue susceptibility to free radicals. Pesticides like
chlorpyrifos which are Lipophillic pesticide, target lipoidal films and yield ROS and oxidation
and corruption of lipid layer (Kumar et al., 2011). Critical positive relationship between plasma
levels of oxidative stress parameters (propelled oxidation protein items and malonaldehyde) And
absolute pesticide level demonstrated amplification of oxidative stress with increased
accumulation of pesticides in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients (Fetouiet et al., 2010) stress
with amplified accumulation of pesticides in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients (Fetouiet et
al., 2010).
Increased pesticide load pressurizes liver to effort extra for purification. This prompts expanded
creation of digestive enzymes. Liver working tests amongst 86 pesticide sprayers from northwest
Ethiopia indicated raised extents of alkaline phosphatase, glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase
and glutamate pyruvate transaminase (Ejigu and Mekonnen, 2005).
90 Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019)

Dermal Effects
Dermal abnormalities have generally been found in farm workers and pesticide applicators. Use
of organochlorine pesticides prompts chloracne (Longnecker et al., 2005), rashes and pain
(Dasgupta et al., 2007) and stimulating sensation when the pesticides are fell on skin (Fukuyama et
al., 2009). In an investigation directed in China, 106 (11.6 %) applicators out of 910 were found to
have intense dermal poisoning indications like urticaria, hyperhidrosis, blisters, dermatitis,
swelling and pruritus (Zhang et al., 2011). Utmost pesticide related dermatoses are contact
dermatitis, both irritant and allergic. Uncommon clinical structures likewise happen, including
ashydermatosis, erythema multiforme, parakeratosis, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda skin
hypopigmentation, hair and nail issue (Spiewak, 2001).

Conclusion

The above discussion plainly features the hazard anxieties of unpredictable utilization of
pesticide, results in numerous negative impacts in the ecological parts and human wellbeing.
Pesticides have turned out to be a gift for the agronomists as well as people all around the globe
by expanding agricultural yield and by giving innumerable benefits to society in a roundabout
way. In any case, the worry of hazards presented by pesticides to human wellbeing and the earth
has raised worries about the safety of pesticides. Despite the fact that pesticides are created to
counteract, expel, or control destructive bugs, worries of the dangers of pesticides towards the
earth and human wellbeing have been raised by numerous investigations. Despite the fact that
we can't totally take out the dangers related with pesticide use, however we can avoid them in
one way or the other. Exposure to pesticides and thus the unkind results and unwanted impacts
of this introduction can be limited by a few methods, for example, alternative cropping methods
or by using well-maintained spraying equipments. Besides, there ought to be a focus on figuring
out what kinds of synthetic compounds or formula are the most proper apparatuses for
environmental and ecological management of pests. Uncertainly pesticides are utilized in suitable
amounts and utilized just when required or vital, at that point pesticide dangers can be reduced.
Likewise, if a less harmful formulation or low portion of a poisonous formulations is utilized, the
destruction can be controlled. By way of " The right dose differentiates a poison from a remedy "
said by Paracelsus once.
In addition, both general society and private divisions, for example, government offices, NGOs,
and makers of pesticides should put a lot more noteworthy effort into research, item
improvement, product testing and registration, and implementation of pesticide utilization
strategies, while pushing state funded training concerning pesticides. This is the time that
requires the best possible utilization of pesticides to ensure our environment and ultimately
health threats related with it. To decrease the exhausted utilization of pesticides, it is a serious
need to endorse the organic cultivating practices and search for the operative bio-pesticides or
biological creatures to control agricultural pests to decrease the utilization of synthetic pesticides.
Vinod Kumar and Piyush Kumar (2019) 91
Acknowledgement

The author are highly thankful to the Department of Zoology and Environmental Science,
Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, for providing necessary facilities during this study.

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Cite this chapter as: Kumar, V. and Kumar, P. (2019). Pesticides in agriculture and environment: Impacts on human health.
In: Kumar, V., Kumar, R., Singh, J. and Kumar, P. (eds) Contaminants in Agriculture and Environment: Health Risks and
Remediation, Volume 1, Agro Environ Media, Haridwar, India, pp. 76-95, https://doi.org/10.26832/AESA-2019-CAE-0160-
07