ENG-18-DCE: English Language Teaching

Unit III: Language Skills

Writing

Writing refers to the graphical representation of ideas .Writing is a process

wherein the ideas are given a proper and systematic shape through the medium
of written form. The important guidelines for effective writing are as follows:

C - Collect your ideas

O - Organise your ideas

D - Make your first Draft

E - Edit your work

R - Revise your work

Elements of Style:

1. Clarity of thought: is the most important feature of writing. In the words

of Walter Wells, “There should be no vagueness, not the slightest doubt
or confusion over what the message says not even for an instant.” Before
your hands do your work, let your mind do its own.
2. Economy: Economy of words is another factor that should be borne in
mind. Selecting the word that fits best into the context, avoiding
wordiness and using one’s judgement in deciding the appropriate length
 of sentences and paragraphs all go into making your writing a piece of
effective communication
3. Adaptability: To adapt your communication, you have to analyse your
audience or receiver. You should be aware of their intelligence level,
educational level and also of their maturity level. Knowing all these
factors makes it easy for you to select words that will effectively
communicate to them.

WHAT IS READING?
Reading is a skill which enables us to get a message; recognizing the written
words (written symbols); getting (understanding) the meaning; used to teach
pronunciation; grasping information from texts.
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Reading is a complex activity that involves both perception and thought.
Reading consists of two related processes: word recognition and
comprehension. Word recognition refers to the process of perceiving how
written symbols correspond to one’s spoken language. Comprehension is the
process of making sense of words, sentences and connected text. Readers
typically make use of background knowledge, vocabulary, grammatical
knowledge, experience with text and other strategies to help them understand
written text

Several types of reading may occur in a language classroom. One way in which
these may be categorized , as suggested by Brown (1989) can be outlined as
follows:

A. Oral
B. Silent
I. Intensive
a. linguistic
b. content
II. Extensive
a. skimming
b. scanning
c. global

The first distinction that can be made is whether the reading is oral or silent.
Within the category of silent reading, one encounters intensive and extensive
reading. Intensive reading is used to teach or practice specific reading strategies
or skills. The text is treated as an end in itself. Extensive reading on the other
hand, involves reading of large quantities of material, directly and fluently. It is
treated as a means to an end. It may include reading simply for pleasure or
reading technical, scientific or professional material. This later type of text,
more academic, may involve two specific types of reading, scanning for key
details or skimming for the essential meaning. A relatively quick and efficient
read, either on its own or after scanning or skimming, will give a global or
general meaning.

Intensive Reading:

Brown (1989) explains that intensive reading "calls attention to grammatical

forms, discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of
understanding literal meaning, implications, rhetorical relationships, and the
like." He draws an analogy to intensive reading as a "zoom lens" strategy.

Long and Richards (1987) say it is a "detailed in-class" analysis, led by the
teacher, of vocabulary and grammar points, in a short passage."
Intensive Reading, sometimes called "Narrow Reading", may involve students
reading selections by the same author or several texts about the same topic.
When this occurs, content and grammatical structures repeat themselves and
students get many opportunities to understand the meanings of the text. The
success of ”Narrow Reading" on improving reading comprehension is based on
the premise that the more familiar the reader is with the text, either due to the
subject matter or having read other works by the same author, the more
comprehension is promoted.

Extensive Reading

Brown (1989) explains that extensive reading is carried out "to achieve a
general understanding of a text."

Long and Richards (1971, p.216) identify extensive reading as "occurring when
students read large amounts of high interest material, usually out of class,
concentrating on meaning, "reading for gist" and skipping unknown words."

The aims of extensive reading are to build reader confidence and enjoyment.

Extensive reading is always done for the comprehension of main ideas, not for
specific details.

Harold Palmer (1917) in Britain and Michael West (1926) in India were the first
to pioneer the theory of extensive reading as an approach to foreign language
teaching and to reading, in particular. Palmer chose the term "extensive reading"
to distinguish it from "intensive reading".

The 1929 Coleman Report on "Modern Foreign Language Study", introducing

the Reading Method, recommended the inclusion of extensive reading in its
Method (as distinct from inclusive reading).
Students were to read in the second language without a conscious effort to
translate.
Emphasis was placed on developing independent silent reading and increasing
reading rate of individual students.

Frequency word counts were developed and used as a basis for graded readers.

Scanning

Scanning ia a quick reading, focusing on locating specific information.

Scanning involves quick eye movements, not necessarily linear in fashion, in

which the eyes wander until the reader finds the piece of information needed.

Scanning is used when a specific piece of information is required, such as a

name, date, symbol, formula, or phrase, is required. The reader knows what the
item looks like and so, knows when he has located what he was searching for. It
is assumed then, that very little information is processed into long-term
memory or even for immediate understanding because the objective is simply
matching.

Scanning is used often with technical, scientific or professional materials to

locate specific information.

Scanning is a valuable skill for second language learners to develop because

often they do not require a detailed read of a text. There are many everyday uses
for scanning, relevant to a purpose, such as reading a schedule.

Skimming
Skimming is a quick reading to get:

- to know the general meaning of a passage to know how the passage is

organized, that is, the structure of the text to get an idea of the intention of the
writer

Skimming is a more complex task than scanning because it requires the reader
to organize and remember some of the information given by the author, not just
to locate it.

Skimming is a tool in which the author's sequence can be observed, unlike

scanning in which some predetermined information is sought after.

Skimming is used when reading some some general question in mind.

Skimming is used in making decisions on how to approach a text such as when

determining if a careful reading is deserving.

Skimming is used to build student confidence and an understanding that it is

possible to gain meaning without reading every word in a text.

Skimming is used as part of the SQ3R method of reading, often for speed
reading. This method involves the student in surveying, questioning, reading,
reviewing and reciting. Skimming is used for the initial survey and for review.

Skimming is a skill that a student may want to develop if they are planning to
continue with academic studies. It is often used in reviewing for a test.

Intensive and Extensive Reading Together

It is common for both approaches to reading to be used in the same class. For
example, where extensive reading is encouraged, the teacher may have all the
students read the same text so they can discuss the topic together or learn a
specific skill such as writing an outline.

In a class where intensive reading is mostly used, students may be asked to read
texts of their own choosing to report back on, in either an oral or written format.
In both approaches, it is not the nature of the skills that are of most interest but
rather, the results.

Skimming and Scanning Together

Skimming and scanning are sometimes referred to as types of reading and at

other times, as skills.

Skimming involves a thorough overview of a text and implies a reading

competence. Scanning is more a limited activity, only retrieving information
relevant to a purpose.

Brown (1994) suggested that "perhaps the two most valuable reading strategies
for learners as well as native speakers are skimming and scanning." (p.283)

Pugh (1978) suggested that since scanning is a less complex style of reading it
can be introduced first. Skimming requires greater fluency and more practice is
required, so it should be introduced later.

Often skimming and scanning are used together when reading a text. For
example, the reader may skim through first to see if it is worth reading, then
read it more carefully and scan for a specific piece of information to note.
Students need to learn that they need to adapt their reading and techniques to the
purpose of the reading.

By practicing skimming and scanning, the individual learns to read and select
specific information without focussing on information that is not important for
meaning.

Faulty Reading Habits

The following are some of the bad habits which tend to cause people to read
slowly

A. Moving your lips when you read

Moving your lips slows you to a fast talking rate, about 150 words per
minute. Put your fingers on your lips to stop the motion.

B. Vocalizing

Vocalizing means that you are pronouncing words in the voice box of
the throat without making sounds. This also slows your reading rate to
that of speaking. To check, rest your fingertips lightly against the
vocal cord area of your throat. If you feel a vibration, or if you find
that your tongue is moving, you are vocalizing.

C. Reading everything at the same speed

When reading, set your rate according to your purpose for reading and
the difficulty level of the material. Practice adjusting your rate to suit
your material. The more difficult the material, the slower the rate.
 D. Regressing out of habit

Regressing means rereading a word, phrase, or sentence out of habit

and not because of need. Sometimes, it is necessary to reread
something, especially in a difficult passage. But habitual, unnecessary
regressing really slows you down. Use a card or paper to cover the
text after you read it to prevent regressing.

E. Reading one word at a time

Do you think one word at a time, or in phrases? Slow readers tend to

see only one word at a time. Good readers will see several words at a
time and their eyes will stop only three or four times as they move
across a page. Reading in idea-phrases speeds your reading and
improves your understanding of what you have read. Mark the phrases
in the sentences of a passage, then practice seeing more than one word
at a time.

The best way to read faster is to practice reading just a little faster than is
comfortable. Changing reading habits is not easy, after all you have been
reading that way for many years. It takes several weeks of conscious effort in
order to change bad reading habits.

Word Building

In linguistics, a homonym is one of a group of words that share the same

pronunciation but have different meanings, whether spelled the same or not. A
more restrictive definition sees homonyms as words that are simultaneously
homographs (words that share the same spelling, regardless of their
pronunciation) and homophones (words that share the same pronunciation,
regardless of their spelling)– that is to say they have same pronunciation and
spelling, but different meanings. The relationship between a set of homonyms is
called homonymy. Examples of homonyms are the pair stalk (part of a plant)
and stalk (follow/harass a person) and the pair left (past tense of leave) and left
(opposite of right). A distinction is sometimes made between "true" homonyms,
which are unrelated in origin, such as skate (glide on ice) and skate (the fish),
and polysemous homonyms, or polysemes, which have a shared origin, such as
mouth (of a river) and mouth (of an animal)

In non-technical contexts, the term "homonym" may be used (somewhat

confusingly) to refer to words that are either homographs or homophones. The
words row (propel with oars) and row (argument) and row (a linear arrangement
of seating) are considered homographs, while the words read (peruse) and reed
(waterside plant) would be considered homophones; under this looser definition,
both groups of words represent groups of homonyms.

Homographs (literally "same writing") are usually defined as words that share
the same spelling, regardless of how they are pronounced. If they are
pronounced the same then they are also homophones (and homonyms) – for
example, bark (the sound of a dog) and bark (the skin of a tree). If they are
pronounced differently then they are also heteronyms – for example, bow (the
front of a ship) and bow (a ranged weapon).

Homophones (literally "same sound") are usually defined as words that share the same
pronunciation, regardless of how they are spelled. If they are spelled the same then they are
also homographs (and homonyms); if they are spelled differently then they are also
heterographs (literally "different writing"). Homographic examples include rose (flower)
and rose (past tense of rise). Heterographic examples include to, too, two, and there, their,
they’re.
Polysemes

Polysemy poly-, "many” is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or
symbol) to have multiple meanings (that is, multiple semes or sememes and
thus multiple senses), usually related by contiguity of meaning within a
semantic field. It is thus usually regarded as distinct from homonymy, in which
the multiple meanings of a word may be unconnected or unrelated. They are
words with the same spelling and distinct but related meanings. The distinction
between polysemy and homonymy is often subtle and subjective, and not all
sources consider polysemous words to be homonyms. Words such as mouth,
meaning either the orifice on one's face, or the opening of a cave or river, are
polysemous and may or may not be considered homonyms.

Man

1. The human species (i.e., man vs. animal)

2. Males of the human species (i.e., man vs. woman)
3. Adult males of the human species (i.e., man vs. boy)

This example shows the specific polysemy where the same word is used at
different levels of a taxonomy. Example 1 contains 2, and 2 contains 3.

Mole

1. a small burrowing mammal

2. Consequently, there are several different entities called moles (see
the Mole disambiguation page). Although these refer to different
things, their names derive from 1. :e.g. A Mole burrows for
information hoping to go undetected.
Bank

1. a financial institution
2. the building where a financial institution offers services
3. a synonym for 'rely upon' (e.g. "I'm your friend, you can bank on
me"). It is different, but related, as it derives from the theme of
security initiated by 1.

However: a river bank is a homonym to 1 and 2, as they do not share

etymologies. It is a completely different meaning. River bed, though, is
polysemous with the beds on which people sleep.
Book

1. a bound collection of pages

2. a text reproduced and distributed (thus, someone who has read the
same text on a computer has read the same book as someone who
had the actual paper volume)
3. to make an action or event a matter of record (e.g. "Unable to book
a hotel room, a man sneaked into a nearby private residence where
police arrested him and later booked him for unlawful entry.")

Affixation

In English grammar and morphology, affixation is the process of adding a

morpheme (or affix) to a word to create either (a) a different form of that word
(e.g., bird → birds), or (b) a new word with a different meaning (bird →
birder). Affixation is the most common way of making new words in English.

The two primary kinds of affixation are prefixation (the addition of a prefix)
and suffixation (the addition of a suffix). Clusters of affixes can be used to form
complex words.
A prefix is a letter or group of letters attached to the beginning of a word that
partly indicates its meaning. Examples of prefixes include anti- (against), co-
(with), mis- (wrong, bad), and trans- (across).

The most common prefixes in English are those that express negation: a- (as in
the word asexual), in- (incapable), non- (nonsense), un- (unhappy).

The word prefix contains the prefix pre- (which means "before") and the root
word fix (which means "to fasten or place"). Thus the word
prefix literally means "to place before."

Suffixation is a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme is attached

to the end of a stem. The kind of affix involved in this process is called a suffix.
Example (English) The past tense suffix -ed attaches to the end of the stem walk
to form the past tense verb walked. An affix added to the end of a word or
stem, serving to form a new word or functioning as an inflectional ending, such
as -ness in gentleness, -ing in walking.

Antonyms are two words that have opposite meanings. Synonyms are words
that have the same or nearly the same meaning. Homonyms are words that are
pronounced the same, and are sometimes spelled the same, but have different
meanings.

Antonym Examples

 Achieve – Fail
 Idle – Active
 Afraid – Confident
 Ancient – Modern
 Arrive – Depart
 Arrogant – Humble
 Ascend – Descend
  Attack – Defend
 Blunt – Sharp
 Brave – Cowardly

Synonym Examples

 Annihilation, destruction, carnage, extinction

 Benefit, profit, revenue, yield
 Cunning, keen, sharp, slick
 Destitute, poor, bankrupt, impoverished
 Deterioration, pollution, defilement, adulteration
 Enormous, huge, gigantic, massive
 Fertile, fruitful, abundant, productive
 House, dwelling, abode, domicile