Theories of Human Development

Students, I also want you to search the web and

get some literature about some early views of
human development in addition to what I will
provide you in this lecture.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget is one of the most influential figures in the study

of child development. He developed his cognitive-
developmental theory based on the idea that children actively
construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the
world around them. Piaget was interested in the development
of “thinking” and how it relates to development throughout
childhood. His theory of four stages of cognitive development,
first presented in the mid-20th century, is one of the most
famous and widely accepted theories in child cognitive
development to this day.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget believed that as children grow and their brains develop,

they move through four distinct stages that are characterized
by differences in thought processing. In his research, he
carefully observed children and presented them with problems
to solve that were related to object permanence, reversibility,
deductive reasoning, transitivity, and assimilation (described
below). Each stage builds upon knowledge learned in the
previous stage. Piaget’s four stages correspond with the age
of the children and are the sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operational, and formal operational stages.

Sensorimotor Stage

The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to age 2. It is

characterized by the idea that infants “think” by manipulating
the world around them. This is done by using all five senses:
seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling.
Children figure out ways to elicit responses by “doing”, such
as pulling a lever out, or throwing an object to see what
happens. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child
develops object permanence, which is the understanding that
even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz,
Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000). For example, a child learns that
even though his mother leaves the room, she has not ceased
to exist; similarly, a ball does not disappear because a bucket
is placed over it.

By the end of this stage, children are able to engage in what

Piaget termed deferred imitation. This involves the ability to
reproduce or repeat a previously-witnessed action later on;
rather than copying it right away, the child is able to produce a
mental representation of it and repeat the behavior later on.
By 24 months, infants are able to imitate behaviors after a
delay of up to three months.

Preoperational Stage

The preoperational stage occurs from age 2 to age 7. During

this stage, children can use symbols to represent words,
images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage
in pretend play. A child’s arms might become airplane wings
as she zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might
become a brave knight with a sword. Language development
and make-believe play begin during this stage. Logical thinking
is still not present, so children cannot rationalize or
understand more complex ideas. Children at this stage are
very egocentric, meaning they focus on themselves and how
actions will impact them, rather than others. They are not able
to take on the perspective of others, and they think that
everyone sees, thinks, and feels just like they do.

Concrete Operational Stage

The concrete operational stage occurs from age 7 to age 11. It

is characterized by the idea that children’s reasoning becomes
focused and logical. Children demonstrate a logical
understanding of conservation principles, the ability to
recognize that key properties of a substance do not change
even as their physical appearance may be altered. For
example, a child who understands the principles of
conservation will recognize that identical quantities of liquid
will remain the same despite the size of the container in which
they are poured. Children who do not yet grasp conservation
and logical thinking will believe that the taller or larger glass
must contain more liquid.

Conservation task: This video features three children

completing conservation tasks. The first two children are
confronted with a classic conservation task concerning liquid
volumes. The first child does not understand conservation (the
principle that even though the appearance of substances may
change, their key properties remain the same) and is likely in
the preoperational stage. The second child understands
conservation, demonstrating the concrete operational stage.
The third child fails to show an understanding of conservation,
and thus is likely still in the preoperational stage of cognitive
development.

Children begin to organize objects by classes and subclasses,

and they can perform mathematical operations and understand
transformations, such as addition is the opposite of
subtraction and multiplication is the opposite of division. They
still think in very linear ways and can only conceptualize ideas
that can be observed directly—they have not yet mastered
abstract thinking (described below). By the end of this stage,
children will develop true mental operations and master the
concepts of reversibility, transitivity, and
assimilation. Reversibility is the idea that something can be
changed back to its original state after it has been altered (for
example, pouring water back and forth between two
differently shaped glasses and still having the same amount of
water). Transitivity is the concept of relation—for example, if
A is related to B and B is related to C, then A must also be
related to C. Finally, assimilation is the absorption of new
ideas, information, or experiences into a person’s existing
cognitive structure, or what they already know or understand
of the world.

Piaget determined that in this stage, children are able to

incorporate inductive reasoning, which involves drawing
inferences from observations in order to make a
generalization. In contrast, children struggle with deductive
reasoning, which involves using a generalized principle in
order to try to predict the outcome of an event.
Formal Operational

The formal operational stage occurs from age 11 to adulthood.

It is characterized by the idea that children develop the ability
to think in abstract ways. This enables children to engage in
the problem-solving method of developing a hypothesis and
reasoning their way to plausible solutions. Children can think
of abstract concepts and have the ability to combine various
ideas to create new ones. By the end of this stage, children
have developed logical and systematic thinking, are capable of
deductive reasoning, and can create hypothetical ideas to
explain various concepts.

Beyond Formal Operational Thought

As with other major contributors of theories of development,

several of Piaget’s ideas have been challenged by later
research. For example, several contemporary studies support
a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget’s
discrete stages (Courage & Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006).
Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones
earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia &
Spelke, 2010).

Many developmental psychologists suggest a fifth stage of

cognitive development, known as the postformal stage
(Basseches, 1984; Commons & Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998).
In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations
and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as
adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way
that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal
thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of
how they handle emotionally charged issues.

It seems that once we reach adulthood, our problem-solving

abilities change: as we attempt to solve problems, we tend to
think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as
relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief & Diehl, 1999).
Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past
experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving
strategies using postformal thought vary depending on the
situation. Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems
to be an ideal solution to a disagreement with a coworker may
not be the best solution for a disagreement with a romantic
partner.

Attachment Theory
Attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby and Mary
Ainsworth, describes the dynamics of long-term relationships
between humans.

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

John Bowlby’s contributions to the theory of attachment

formation are heavily influenced by ethology (the scientific
study of human and animal behavior), including an emphasis
on the evolutionary origins and biological purposes of
behavior. According to Bowlby, children are biologically
predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as the
result of genetics. In 1969 Bowlby studied mother-infant
interactions and concluded that infant smiling, babbling,
crying, and cooing are built-in mechanisms to encourage
parents to attach to, and thereby care for, the infant. Keeping
the parent in close proximity ensures the infant will avoid
danger. Bowlby introduced the idea of the caregiver as a
“secure base” for the child, and that this secure base was
either successfully created during childhood or was not.

The development of parent-infant attachment is a complex

process that leads to deeper and deeper attachment as the
child ages. This attachment (or lack thereof) has lifelong
implications for the child as he or she reaches adulthood.
Bowlby conceived of four stages of attachment that begin
during infancy: preattachment, attachment-in-the-making,
clear-cut attachment, and formation of reciprocal
relationships.

 Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks): Built-in signals, such

as crying and cooing, bring a newborn baby into close
proximity with their caregiver. Babies recognize a
caretaker’s smell and voice and are comforted by these
things. When the caretaker picks up the baby or smiles at
 her, the beginnings of attachment are forming. However,
complete attachment has not yet occurred, so the baby is
still comfortable being left with an unfamiliar person.
 Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks to 8 months):
Attachment is getting stronger during this stage, and
infants respond differently to familiar people than they do
to strangers. For example, a 5-month-old baby will be
more “talkative” with his mother rather than with an uncle
he sees only once a month. He will also be calmed more
quickly by the mother’s presence than by the
uncle’s.Separation anxiety (becoming upset when a
trusted caregiver leaves) has not set in yet but will be
seen in the next stage. Parents continue to build
attachment by meeting the baby’s basic needs for food,
shelter, and comfort.
 Clear-cut attachment (8 months to 18 months):
Attachment to trusted caregivers continues to strengthen
in this stage, and separation anxiety is likely in a
caregiver’s absence. Toddlers generally want to be with
their preferred caregiver at all times, and they will follow
the caretaker, climb on them, or otherwise do things to
keep the caregiver’s attention. Parents and other
important adults in the child’s life continue to strengthen
attachment by being receptive to the child’s needs for
attention, meeting basic needs, and playing with the
child.
 Formation of reciprocal attachment (18 months to 2
years): Rapid language growth facilitates the
understanding of new concepts, and children begin to
understand a parent’s coming and going. For example,
children can now understand that a parent returns home
from work at a certain time each day, so separation
anxiety lessens—although the child may do things to gain
extra time with the parent prior to departure or to keep
the parent from leaving. Parents can help a child form
secure attachment by explaining things to them, by being
present as much as possible, and by continuing to meet
basic needs.
Ainsworth’s Types of Attachment

In 1970, Mary Ainsworth built on and expanded Bowlby’s ideas,

coming up with a more nuanced view of multiple types of
insecure attachment. Ainsworth’s primary contribution to
attachment theory comes in the form of a study known as the
Strange Situation. In this study, Ainsworth placed children
between the ages of 1 and 2 in unfamiliar situations to assess
the type and level of their attachment to their caregivers. Her
research showed that children generally use the parent as a
secure base from which to explore an unfamiliar room, and
they become upset or uncomfortable when the parent leaves
and a new individual (not known to the child) enters the room.

Ainsworth identified four primary types of attachment: secure,

avoidant, and resistant/ambivalent. Depending upon how the
children attached to their parents, they would act in
predictable ways in the Strange Situation experiment.

 Secure: Children with this form of attachment use the

caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the
room. They are comforted by the parent and show a clear
preference for the caregiver (for example, by protesting or
avoiding the unfamiliar person).
 Avoidant: These children avoid contact with the
caregiver and show little interest in play. They do not
seem to mind when the caregiver leaves, and they treat
the stranger in a similar fashion to the caregiver. The
child may act in a rebellious manner and have lower self-
esteem as they get older. The children of parents who do
not meet their basic needs or are inattentive may form
avoidant attachment.
 Resistant/Ambivalent: Children with this form of
attachment are unable to use the caregiver as a secure
base, and they seek out the caregiver prior to separation.
They are both distressed by the caregiver’s departure and
angry when the caregiver returns. They are not easily
calmed by the caregiver or the stranger, and they feel
anxiety with the caregiver due to inconsistent attachment
patterns.
In 1990, a fourth category, known as disorganized
attachment, was added by Ainsworth’s colleague Mary
Main. Children with these attachment patterns engage in
stereotypical behavior such as freezing or rocking. They act
strangely with the caregiver and do not appear to know how to
attach, doing such things as approaching with their back
turned or hugging the stranger upon their entry to the room.
Disorganized attachment generally results from the child being
maltreated or neglected in some way.

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development

Freud’s psychosexual theory of development suggests that

children develop through a series of stages related to
erogenous zones.

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud developed his psychosexual theory of

development through his work with emotionally troubled
adults. Now considered controversial and largely outdated, his
theory is based on the idea that parents play a crucial role in
managing their children’s sexual and aggressive drives during
the first few years of life in order to foster their proper
development.

Freud’s Structural Model

Freud believed that the human personality consisted of three

interworking parts: the id, the ego, and the superego.
According to his theory, these parts become unified as a child
works through the five stages of psychosexual development.
The id, the largest part of the mind, is related to desires and
impulses and is the main source of basic biological needs.
The ego is related to reasoning and is the conscious, rational
part of the personality; it monitors behavior in order to satisfy
basic desires without suffering negative consequences.
The superego, or conscience, develops through interactions
with others (mainly parents) who want the child to conform to
the norms of society. The superego restricts the desires of the
id by applying morals and values from society. Freud believed
that a struggle existed between these levels of
consciousness, influencing personality development and
psychopathology.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and

behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as
discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through
a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper
nurturing and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck
in, or fixated on, that stage. According to Freud, children’s
pleasure-seeking urges (governed by the id) are focused on a
different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each
of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic,
latency, and genital.

 Oral (0-1 years of age): During this stage, the mouth is the
pleasure center for development. Freud believed this is
why infants are born with a sucking reflex and desire their
mother’s breast. If a child’s oral needs are not met during
infancy, he or she may develop negative habits such as
nail biting or thumb sucking to meet this basic need.
 Anal (1-3 years of age): During this stage, toddlers and
preschool-aged children begin to experiment with urine
and feces. The control they learn to exert over their bodily
functions is manifested in toilet-training. Improper
resolution of this stage, such as parents toilet training
their children too early, can result in a child who is
uptight and overly obsessed with order.
  Phallic (3-6 years of age): During this stage, preschoolers
take pleasure in their genitals and, according to Freud,
begin to struggle with sexual desires toward the opposite
sex parent (boys to mothers and girls to fathers). For
boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a
boy’s desire for his mother and his urge to replace his
father who is seen as a rival for the mother’s attention. At
the same time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him
for his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety.
The Electra complex, later proposed by Freud’s protégé
Carl Jung, involves a girl’s desire for her father’s attention
and wish to take her mother’s place.
 Latency (6-12 years of age): During this stage, sexual
instincts subside, and children begin to further develop
the superego, or conscience. Children begin to behave in
morally acceptable ways and adopt the values of their
parents and other important adults.
 Genital (12+ years of age): During this stage, sexual
impulses reemerge. If other stages have been
successfully met, adolescents engage in appropriate
sexual behavior, which may lead to marriage and
childbirth.

Criticism of Freud’s Theories

Freud’s psychosexual theory is controversial and has been

thoroughly criticized. First, even though Freud’s stages are
related to children, he based most of his theory on his work
with troubled adults; he in fact never worked with children.
Second, many believed his work was too focused on human
sexuality.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development focus on the

resolution of different crises to become a successful complete
person.
Erikson’s Theory

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took

Freud’s controversial theory of psychosexual development and
modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that
the ego makes positive contributions to development by
mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of
development. This mastery helps children grow into
successful, contributing members of society. During each of
Erikson’s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict that
must be successfully overcome in order for a child to develop
into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.

Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on

(and expand upon) Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson
proposed that we are motivated by the need to achieve
competence in certain areas of our lives. According to
psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of
development over our lifespan, from infancy through late
adulthood. At each stage there is a crisis or task that we need
to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task
results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality.
Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the

cultural implications of development; certain cultures may
need to resolve the stages in different ways based upon their
cultural and survival needs.

Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults

can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic
needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their
caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to
their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust;
their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place.
Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs
can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby
may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated
cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely
grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they

learn that they can control their actions and act on their
environment to get results. They begin to show clear
preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as
food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the
issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to
establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For
example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a
2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress
herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the
situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on
her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on
her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which
could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they
are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over
their world through social interactions and play. According to
Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative
vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while
interacting with others, preschool children can master this
task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs
when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then
support the child’s choice. These children will develop self-
confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are
unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or
stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of
guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face

the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare
themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They
either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their
schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they
feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t
measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or
have negative experiences at home or with peers, an
inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and
adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity

vs. role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main
task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with
questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with
my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many
different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various
roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their
“adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage
have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to
their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other
people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not
make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to
conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may
develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion.
They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the
future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will
likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are

concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have
developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to
share our life with others. However, if other stages have not
been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble
developing and maintaining successful relationships with
others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self
before we can develop successful intimate relationships.
Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in
adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and
emotional isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as
middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social
task of middle adulthood is generativity vs.
stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and
contributing to the development of others through activities
such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During
this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next
generation, often through childbirth and caring for others; they
also engage in meaningful and productive work which
contributes positively to society. Those who do not master
this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they
are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they
may have little connection with others and little interest in
productivity and self-improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of

development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this
stage is calledintegrity vs. despair. He said that people in late
adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of
satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of
their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can
look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who
are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has
been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,”
and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with
feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive

theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of
children. Kohlberg believed that moral development, like
cognitive development, follows a series of stages. He used the
idea of moral dilemmas—stories that present conflicting ideas
about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old boys about
morality and values. The best known moral dilemma created
by Kohlberg is the “Heinz” dilemma, which discusses the idea
of obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg
emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons about a
dilemma that determines positive moral development.

After presenting people with various moral dilemmas,

Kohlberg reviewed people’s responses and placed them in
different stages of moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg, an
individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional
morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional
morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-
conventional morality (once Piaget’s idea of formal operational
thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve. Each level
of morality contains two stages, which provide the basis for
moral development in various contexts.

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development: Kohlberg identified three levels of

moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each
level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.

Level 1: Preconventional

Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of

morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe
the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers.
A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or
internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or
wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences
that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience -and- Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid

being punished. For example, an action is perceived as morally
wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the
punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived
to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which

right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to
be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited
interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might
further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for
others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a
“you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An
example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a
chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents
offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.

Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality

is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children
continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is
now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure
positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules
and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a
rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in

ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good
behavior and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention

because of their importance in maintaining a functioning
society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and
obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as
valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is
beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage
three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—
thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules.
Most active members of society remain at stage four, where
morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Postconventional

Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of

morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and
values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and
should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a
growing realization that individuals are separate entities from
society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent
with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by
their own ethical principles—principles that typically include
such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view
rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question.
Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral
evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their
behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused
with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some
theorists have speculated that many people may never reach
this level of abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions,

rights, and values. Such perspectives should be mutually
respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are
regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those
that do not promote the general welfare should be changed
when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest
number of people. This is achieved through majority decision
and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is
theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning

using universal ethical principles. Generally, the chosen
principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on
ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only
insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to
justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if
they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the
individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not
because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their
best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously
agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists,
he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently
operated at that level.
Critiques of Kohlberg’s Theory

Kohlberg has been criticized for his assertion that women

seem to be deficient in their moral reasoning abilities when
compared to men. Carol Gilligan (1982), a research assistant
of Kohlberg, criticized her former mentor’s theory because it
was based so narrowly on research using white, upper-class
men and boys. She argued that women are not deficient in
their moral reasoning and instead proposed that males and
females reason differently: girls and women focus more on
staying connected and maintaining interpersonal
relationships.

Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for emphasizing justice

to the exclusion of other values, with the result that it may not
adequately address the arguments of those who value other
moral aspects of actions. Similarly, critics argue that
Kohlberg’s stages are culturally biased—that the highest
stages in particular reflect a westernized ideal of justice
based on individualistic thought. This is biased against those
that live in non-Western societies that place less emphasis on
individualism.

Another criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that people

frequently demonstrate significant inconsistency in their moral
judgements. This often occurs in moral dilemmas involving
drinking and driving or business situations where participants
have been shown to reason at a lower developmental stage,
typically using more self-interest driven reasoning (i.e., stage
two) than authority and social order obedience driven
reasoning (i.e., stage four). Critics argue that Kohlberg’s
theory cannot account for such inconsistencies.