CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 INTRODUCTION

The stated problem and objectives in chapter one, could be studied on the

foundation of the existing knowledge in the literature. Research becomes valid if it

is based upon the previous researches and established works in that particular area.

Hence, a review of the literature was done by the researcher in the field of

metacognition and other selected variables. This chapter presents the related

literature on the relevant factors.

2.1 METACOGNITION

Lai (2011) observes that metacognition has received considerable attention in

the educational psychology literature and educational psychologists have long

promoted the importance of metacognition for regulating and supporting student

learning. He further refers Nelson (1992) who cited a 1990 survey in the American

Psychologist listing metacognition among the top 100 topics in cognitive and

developmental psychology.

Koriat suggests that the topic of metacognition is able to pull researchers

from traditionally disparate areas of investigation under one roof. The topic of
metacognition is producing synergy between different areas of investigation

concerned with monitoring and self regulation ( Koriat, 2007) .

In the following sections research trends related to metacongnition,

academic self-concept, hemispheric dominance, learning styles and gender are

discussed are reported.

The word metacognition has Greek origin. The Greek prefix ‘meta’ means

‘to transcend’. Hence, the construct ‘metacognition’ refers to thinking that transcends

first level of thinking . It refers to second order knowledge or function (Biehler &

Snowman, 1986). A commonly quoted definition of metacognition is given by

Flavell (1976) who is considered as a pioneer in the field of metacognition. Flavell

(1976) defines metacognition as “One’s knowledge concerning one's own cognitive

processes and products or anything related to them. .Metacognition refers, among

other things, to the active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of

these processes in relation to the cognitive objects or data on which they bear.”

(p.232).

Flavell (1979) classifies metacognitive knowledge of a person into three

types: (a) “person” knowledge, is knowledge about the nature of human beings as

cognitive processors; (b) “task” knowledge, is knowledge about the demands of

different tasks; and (c) “strategy” knowledge, is knowledge about the types of

strategies likely to be most useful. Flavell notes that these different types of

knowledge can interact.

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 Literature review on metacognition reveals confusion over the meaning of

the word, this is due to its origin from different disciplines like philosophy,

developmental psychology and cognitive psychology. Flavell (1981, p.37), even

considered metacognition as ‘fuzzy concept’. Moreover, the complexity and

multifaceted nature of metacognition is another reason for its fuzziness and lack of

unified conceptual theoretical structure.

Under this all-inclusive term ‘metacognition’ fall many interrelated areas

of research like e.g. self-regulation, executive control, metamemory, and

metalearning. It is often difficult to distinguish between what is meta and what is

cognitive (Brown, 1987). However, we must note that these two processes operate at

two different levels. The contents and functions of metacognition and cognition also

differ.

Wilson & Clarke (2004) considers three functions of metacognition, i.e.,

metacognitive awareness, metacognitive evaluation and metacognitive regulation.

They describe the three functions in the following way. Metacognitive awareness is

one’s awareness of their cognitive or learning processes. Metacognitive evaluation

involves evaluating one’s cognitive processes, capacities and limitations .

Metacognitive regulation is involved whenever an individual uses his/ her

metacognitive skills to direct their knowledge and thinking. Thus, in metacognitive

thinking , learners not only reflect on their knowledge or thought processes, but also

evaluate and/or regulate their own thinking. Wilson & Clarke(2004).

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 It is well accepted by many researchers that , basically metacognition

includes two constituent parts: knowledge about cognition and monitoring of

cognition ( eg. Flavell, 1979; Schraw & Moshman, 1995) . Metacognitive knowledge

involves awareness of and knowledge about one's own cognition ( Pintrich,2002).

Jacobs and Paris (1987) further classified the knowledge component of metacognition

into declarative, procedural, and conditional aspects of knowledge. They classified

metacognitive control into three processes , i.e., planning, evaluation, and regulation.

Schraw and Moshman (1995) followed a different perspective of

metacognition away from studying metacognition as a topic by itself. Instead they

formulated theories about learners’ theories about their own cognition. Schraw and

Moshman (1995 ) postulated that every individual has three types of metacognitive

theories: tacit, informal, and formal metacognitive theories.

Assessment of metacognition proved to be a challenging task for a number

of reasons. Some of the reasons pointed out by Lai, E. R. (2011) in his review of

literature on assessment of metacognition are: (a) the complexity of the construct,

(b) inaccessibility to direct observation, (c) it may be confounded with other

relevant varaibles; and (d) decontextualized from in-school learning.

Veenman, et.al. (2006), pointed out that many methods for the assessment of

metacognition are being used, such as questionnaires, and all these assessment

methods have their pros and cons. Many studies have used experimental approach

to study different areas of metacognition like metamemory and ease of learning .

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 However, these experimental studies are conducted in artificial laboratory

situations and are not connected to natural school learning situations, thus lacking

ecological validity.

Many research studies used self-report questionnaires or rating scales for

measuring metacognition. For example, Lai (2011) cites the study by Kramarski

and Mevarech (2003) ,who used a metacognitive questionnaire, assessing both

general metacognition and doman-specific metacognition. . Cross and Paris

(1988) used Reading Awareness Interview and strategy rating task. , Sperling et al.

(2002) used Junior Metacognitive Awareness Inventory in their study.

Shraw (1998) considers metacognition as a multidimensional phenomena

with two aspects, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition. Schraw and

Dennison (1994) developed the metacognitive awareness inventory as a quick and

easy means to assess metacognitive awareness.

Phakiti (2003) investigated the relationship of cognitive and metacognitive

strategy used to English as Foreign Language reading achievement test performance

and found that a) the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies had a positive

relationship to the reading test performance; and b) highly successful test takers

reported significantly higher metacognitive strategy use than the moderately

successful ones.

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 Rysz (2004) while identifying metacognitive thoughts adult students had while

learning elementary probability and statistics concepts, found that students can earn

above average grades using limited or no metacognitive awareness. However, those

who provided evidence of metacognitive awareness and self monitoring were better

able to report an understanding of probability and statistics concepts.

Bigozzi & Vezzani (2005) investigated the effects of individual writing on

metacognitive awareness concerning scientific concepts. They found that

individual writing enhances the use of metacognitive terms and the frequency of use

regarding terms, which distinguish appearance from reality.

Mason & Nadalon (2005) found that overall students’ metacognitive

competence is significantly correlated with their achievement in subjects. Similarly,

Coutinho (2006) concluded that students with good metacognition tend to be

successful students. Students with poor metacognition tend to perform poorly.

Thus from the review on metacognition it can be concluded that metacognition is very

important component with respect to learning environment.

2.2 ACADEMIC SELF- CONCEPT

Arens, et.al. points out that students’ academic self-concept has received a lot

of attention in educational research during the last two decades. They suggest that

this is due to predictive power of academic self-concept for a broad scope of

academic outcomes, such as interest, persistence, coursework selection, and

academic achievement. High level of academic self-concept is assumed to be a

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 desirable outcome and mediator in favourable educational outcomes. ( Arens,

et.al., 2011).

Rosen et al.(2010) point out that academic self-concept is formed and

developed through interactions with a student’s significant others (i.e., parents,

teachers, or peers) and therefore is dynamic as a student progresses through

schooling.

McGrew argues that , young children initially develop very positive but

biased self-concepts when compared to external reference indicators. However, as

they grow the self -concept becomes more differentiated, reality- based, less positive,

and synchronous with external criteria of evaluation .The Big –Fish Little –Pond

[BFLP] effect occurs when students compare their personal academic

performance/ability with that of their peers (an external frame of reference).

(McGrew, 2007).

Byrne (1986) informs that the construct ‘ academic self-concept’ - is

studied from two perspectives : the dimensionality of the construct (within network

relations) and its relation with other variables (between-network relations) referred as

the nomological network of a construct. Within-network studies examine the

structure of the academic self-concept construct itself often by means of exploratory

and confirmatory factor analyses. Between –network studies aim at exploring the

construct of self-concept onto a nomological network of other constructs that provide

external validity criteria. Many researches are conducted on academic self concept

and it’s relation with academic achievement in between-network investigations .

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 Areepattamannil & Freeman (2008) noted that, historically, self-concept

emphasized global component of self-concept. In contrast, the recent models of

academic self-concept by Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton (1976) take the domain-

specific perspective that supports a multidimensional view of self-concept.

Rosen, et. al. (2010) observed that the issue of causality—whether academic

self-concept demonstrates a causal relationship to achievement or vice versa—is an

often-studied and unsettled issue in academic self-concept research. They have

discussed three popular models of causal relationships between self-concept and

academic achievement: the skill-development model, the self-enhancement model,

and the reciprocal effects model. In the skill-development model, academic self-

concept is a consequence of prior academic achievement. In the self-enhancement

model, prior self-concept is a strong determinant of academic achievement. The

reciprocal effects model argues that prior self-concept predicts subsequent self-

concept and subsequent academic achievement. Furthermore, prior academic

achievement predicts subsequent self-concept, hence reciprocal effects. Rosen, et

al., (2010) also mention that Marsh and his colleagues in a series of studies

spanning nearly 10 years, consistently reported that there is reciprocal effect between

academic self-concept and academic achievement.

Research has been conducted to study the relation between academic self

concept and several other variables related to learning. For example, Hartman

,Everson ,Tobias & Gourgey (1991) investigated the relationship between academic

self concept, metacognitive problem solving and ethnicity . The students responded
44
to questionnaires such as 1) Thinking About Problem Solving Scale. 2) Michigan

State Self Concept of Ability Scale, an 8- item instrument assessing student general

academic self concept 3) The version of the same instrument assessing self concept

in 4 content areas; mathematics, Science, English & Social studies. The sample

selected for the study was 214 pre- freshmen of summer program designed to improve

their basic skills before starting their formal college experience. The study results

showed zero order correlation when computed between metacognition measures,

TAPS and different self concept indices indicating TAPS had moderately positive

relationship with other variable. The strongest relationship were between general self

concept and subject- specific self concepts.

Many studies were conducted to examine relation between academic self

concept and academic achievement. Rosen, Glennie, Dalton, Lennon and Bozick

(2010) reviewed 42 abstracts based on academic self concept. They analysed the

correlational relationship between self- concept and academic outcomes and found it

is overwhelmingly positive. Studies show that students feel more competent in

academic areas in which they achieve well and global and academic domain- specific

self- concept are positively related to academic achievement, measured by grades and

test scores.

Arreepattamannil and Freeman (2008) has reported that there is a positive

relationship between academic self- concept and academic achievement for both non-

immigrant and immigrant adolescents of Canada.

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 Closely related to academic achievement is perception of engagement,

membership and authenticity of students in class room situation. Wengler (2009)

found in his study there is a strong correlation between academic self concept and

student engagement. A strong positive correlation (r (52) =.68, , p < .001) was found

between the dependent variable of academic self – concept and the independent

variable of engagement for the entire population. When academic self – concept and

student perceptions of membership was analyzed a moderately strong positive

correlation (r(52) = .45, p < .001) was found. This suggest that roles and membership

have a magical effect on the students. A strong positive correlation (r(52) = .46, p <

.001) was also noted between Academic self concept and student perception of

Authenticity.

2.3 HEMISPHERIC DOMINANCE

Leng & Hoo (1997) point out that recent advances in neuroscience and

cognitive psychology are providing a clearer understanding of the three pound human

brain. According to them the newest element in cognition is hemisphericity which is

another dimension of individual differences.

Claycomb presented a detailed discussion on hemisphericity. She cited the

triune brain theory proposed by Mac Lean which explains the evolution of human

brain and considers neocortex as the latest and most advanced structure. The

neocortex is divided into right and left hemispheres. These two hemispheres follow

a sort of division of labour , and are specialized in different cognitive functions. In

such division of labour most verbal and structured cognitive functions are left

hemisphere behaviours, whereas, perceptual and intuitive functions are right

hemispheres ( Claycomb, 1978).

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 To understand research on brain activity and its implications for educators.

Claycomb (1978) conducted a critical analysis of research on human brain and its

function. She concluded that theories of brain formation suggest that educating all

areas of the brain must be the concern of educators. Researchers suggest that basic

education must include informational, processing skills, nonlogical behaviour and

artistic activities that form our creative life. Brain dysfunction may be the reason for

many learning disabilities. Many social and emotional problems have their roots in

brain dysfunction. Hence, teachers are required to deal with varied approaches to

such students. Implicit in all research in the area of hemisphericity is that varied

modalities must be used in instruction to match different learning styles.

Morton and Rafto’s (2006) review provides support to hemisphericity

from the field of neurosciences where studies are conducted using quantitative

approach. They are critical about the view that hemisphericity is gradient between

right and left brain dominance with most people being intermediate. In their opinion,

hemisphericity is due to an inherent biological location of the ‘executive system’

within the asymmetrical bilateral brain. This ‘executive system’ is either on left or

right hemisphere depending on the hemisphericity of the individual. Further, they

suggest that hemisphericity results into an inherent bias in thinking orientation,

behavioral style, and personality.

Most importantly, Morton and Rafto (2006) provide neuroanatomical basis

for the right or left brain orientation of individuals as assessed by four biophysical

methods. They argue that such neuroanatomical correlates of behavioural laterality

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were essentially to be congruent with the larger side of the ventral gyrus of the

anterior cingulate cortex, as revealed by a 3 minute Magnetic Resonance Imaging

[MRI] procedure [ Morton and Rafto, unpublished, as cited in Morton and Rafto

(2006). Further, this anatomically-defined executive structure is taken as the

criterion to define an individual behavioural hemisphericity. In this context ,

hemisphericity is considered as measurable, dyadic cognitive and behavioural

orientation differences. Moreover, these brain-orientations are due to the existence of

an inherent unilateral executive system either in the right or left asymmetric cerebral

hemispheres. In their study the conclusions drawn were, a) due to the unilateral

nature of the executive system the existence of hemisphericity is inevitable, b) there

are quantitative methods to assess any person in terms of their probable right or left

brain orientation. c)Number of traits that separate the cognitive and behavioral styles

of Right and Left- bops [brain-oriented persons] have been identified, most of which

have no known ties to brain asymmetry as yet. The major contribution of their study

is the identification of hemisphericity as second dyadic personal identifier in

addition to gender.

Ali & Kor,(2006) investigated the difference in brain hemisphericity and

learning styles on students confidence in using the Graphic calculator (GC) to learn

mathematics. The sample size of the study was 44 and the analysis showed the

subjects differ significantly in their hemispheric preferences and learning styles.

Sequential- global and sensing intuitive learning styles were found to associated

significantly with brain hemisphericity. However, no significant association was

found with between hemisphericity and gender, race and program of study.

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 From the above discussion it can be said that brain hemisphericity is a

quantifiable . Its association with several variables are mentioned in literature but

very little very little research literature is available on relation between hemisphericity

and metacognitive awareness.

2.4 LEARNING STYLES

‘Learning styles’ is a topic which is studied extensively by psychologists and

educationists. Educators acknowledge that there are individual differences in learning

methods of students and such differences in learning methods are referred to as

learning styles. (Garg, ,2011).

Vermunt (1996, p. 2) defines learning style as “a coherent whole of learning activities

that students usually employ, their learning orientation and their mental model of

learning”.

Learning Style Models

Coffield et.al., (2004) pointed out that research on learning style is extensive

yet conceptually confusing. In their extensive review on learning during post-16

pedagogy, Coffield et.al., (2004) identified 71 learning styles models from learning

styles literature [published during the period 1902 to 2002], and they organized these

into five families of learning style models . They also evaluated 13 influential

models. In their review they observed that many studies on learning style used

Curry’s model as a basis of conceptual framework. In Curry’s Onion model (1983),

the cognitive personality styles occupy inner layer which is more stable and less

easily modifiable. The instructional aspects are placed in the outer layer which are

easier to modify but not so important in learning process. As pointed out by

Coeffield, et al. ,(2004) learning styles are placed by some in middle layer while few
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place them in outer layer. This sort of situation exists due to lack of conceptual

clarity in the field of learning styles.

A number of models are presented to explain learning styles, as well as many

researches are conducted to understand learning styles in the context of different

variables. However, in this Felder-Silverman Learning Styles Model [FSLSM ] is

taken as a theoretical base to study the learning styles . Hence a brief description of

FSLSM is given .Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model (FSLSM) classifies

students on the basis of their learning preferences or learning styles. These

preferences are grouped into four dichotomic categories or dimensions. The learner’s

prefer one or the category of learning style of the four dimensions proposed in

FSLSM model .

The Index of Learning Styles (ILS) is an inventory developed to measure

learning styles based on FSLSM model. The Index of Learning Styles (ILS) is a 44-

questionnaire designed to assess learning style preferences of the four dimensions

proposed in the Felder-Silverman model. It was developed in 1988 by Richard Felder

and Linda Silverman with the aim of providing learning and teaching insights to

Engineering faculty members. (Felder and Brent, 2005)

Severins, & Tendan, (1994) conducted a meta- analysis of several articles

based on studies conducted after 1980 on gender difference in learning styles.

Curry’s onion model was used to classify the definitions on learning styles and to

reconstruct the theoretical frameworks. The extent to which learning style is

considered stable or variable in different context determine its position in the model.
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Narrative review was taken to review the articles as well as quantitative study was

also used. According to Curry Model it was found out most of the theoretical

framework fell in the middle or outer layer of the Model. This location indicates that

strong influence of learning context on women’s and men’s learning styles. While

there were difference between Learning styles, research design rarely included

learning context. On Kolb’s instrument the results showed that men were more likely

than women to prefer the abstract conceptualization mode of learning .

Wood, (2011) conducted a study to find the learning styles preference of

English trainees mixed method is used for the study. Data was collected using Felder

& Solomon (1994) Index of Learning Styles questionnaire and three

phenomenological based interviews examining the learning journey of the English

trainees and consider to what extent their learning styles preference impact on their

learning and development as teachers. He concluded there are ‘typical’ and ‘atypical’

learning style preference for trainees in different subject disciplines. In particular,

these can be seen in relation to the sensing- intitutive and visual- verbal learning

styles dimensions of Index of learning styles. Qualitative analysis indicate that the

Learning styles preference is apparent in their memories of prior education and

learning , their evaluation of university and school based teacher training and their

choice they make as teachers in the classroom. Where as Vawda, (2005) investigated

the learning style of first year university student specifically to learn the learning

style as per faculty and explore the relationship between learning style and academic

performance for students in various faculties Explorative descriptive correlational

research was conducted with quantitative framework. It was found out across the six

faculties the Accommodator learning style was the most represented, followed by the
51
Diverger learning style. No significant relationship was found between learning styles

and academic performance.

2.5 GENDER DIFFERENCES

Gender differences, is an important area of study in the field of education as

the gender of learner is an influencing factor in learning contexts. The purpose of

research of Aydin and Coskun (2011) to analyze geography teacher candidates’

metacognitive awareness and to find out whether a significant difference exists

according to gender and grade level. 84 students were in the study. The study

demonstrated that geography teacher candidates have a medium – high level of

metacognitive awareness and the result did not show significant difference according

to gender and class level variable. Corine (1994) studied mathematical problem

solving and the role of metacognition strategies and beliefs she found out there is no

gender difference in any variable except in the high knowledge group. High

knowledge group boys out performed girls in one problem. Rahaman et al (2010)

investigated the impact of metacognition awareness on performance of students in

chemistry. 900 was their sample and the finding indicated that metacognitive

awareness significantly correlated with performance of students. The highly

metacognitively aware science students performed well on the test. Results further

indicated that there was no significant difference in the metacognitive awareness of

male and female students. However the study of Sulaiman, Abdullah & Ali (2006) on

a sample of 389 physics students in Johor Bahru showed that the gender differences

for both metacognitive and problem-solving skills were significant (α= 0. 05) and in

favour of female students in stage one. In stage two the sample was 816 and result

indicated no significant difference in gender for both variables. However in stage

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three with a sample of 1300 the result showed that female physics students generally

had significantly higher level of metacognitive awareness than boys.

In light of Tatarintseva (2002) review on gender differences in learning styles

it is plausible to conclude that males are more peer motivated, nonconformist. In light

of this observations it is plausible to assume that males are more assessment oriented

and tend use surface approaches towards learning. Whereas females being more

conformists, self-motivated or adult-motivated, it is plausible to assume that females

are knowledge-oriented and tend to use deep approaches towards learning. Deep

approaches towards learning demand use of metacognitive skills and this could be one

of the reasons for higher metacognitive awareness in females compared to males

found in another study.

The impact of some students’ related factors on their metacognitive awareness

was examined by Rahaman et.al (2011). 1800 students of grade X participated in the

study. The sample was selected from 120 secondary schools. Metacognitive

awareness was measured using metacognitive inventory. Results further indicated that

there was no significant difference in the metacognitive awareness of male and female

students.

Gender differences are also researched in connection with academic self

concept. Belfi, Goos, Fraine & Damme, (2012) examined the effects of the

composition of a secondary school’s class group in terms of students’ school well-

being and academic self- concept, by comparing the findings of previous research.

The independent variables selected are class composition by ability and class
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composition by gender. The dependent variables selected were : school well being,

Academic self concept. The results of this literature review indicate that ability

grouping is beneficial for strong students’ school well being but rather detrimental for

the school well being of weak students. Also single sex education is more favorable

for girls’ non achievement outcomes than for boys’ non achievement outcomes. Class

compositions can lead to differential effects as well as opposing effects within the

same students. Hence grouping of students is a delicate practice and it must be

handled with care to reduce delinquency and drop out.

Yukeselturk and Bulut (2009) analysed gender difference in self- regulated

learning components, motivational beliefs and achievement in self- regulated online

learning environment. The study revealed that there was no statistically significant

mean difference among variables with respect to gender and also the amount of

variance in male and female students’ achievement can be explained with several

variables.

Choudhary, Dullo and Tandon (2011) in their study on gender differences in

learning style preferences of first year medical students found both males and females

preferred multimodal learning but in different degree. Significant variation between

the genders were revealed (p<0.05). 92.98% males and 76.27% females preferred

information to reach them via multiple sensory modalities. There was a significant

gender difference in the percentages of males and females who preferred multimodal

or unimodal styles of information presentation(p<0.05) where as there was no gender

difference in the percentage of males and females who preferred bi- tri – or

quadmodal styles of information presentation(p<.05). Cooper (2005) explored

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metacognitive development in professional educator. Results indicated that

metacognition improves significantly with age and with years of teaching experience.

There was no significant difference between gender and metacognition.

From the above studies it can be noted that researchers have taken efforts to

investigate gender differences in metacognitive awareness, academic self concept and

other variables related to learning. However, the findings of the studies are mixed

wherein a few are favouring females, a few favouring males and a few showing no

gender differences.

2.6 DETAILED REVIEW OF RESEARCH RELATED TO

THE VARIABLES

2.6.1 Review of Research Related to Metacognition

2.6.1.1 Haller,E.P., Child,D.A., and Walberg,H.J.(1988). Can Comprehension be

Taught? A quantitative synthesis of “Metacognitive” Studies

Objective: To assess the effect of ‘metacognitive’ instruction on reading

comprehension.

Method: Meta analysis of 20 studies with a population of 1553 were compiled and

quantitatively analysed.

Result: For 115 effect sizes or the contrast between control and experimental group

the mean effect size was 0.71 which is quite high. In this meta analysis study the

metacognitive instruction was quite effective for junior high students(7th and 8th

grades). Among the metacognitive skills, awareness of textual inconsistency and self

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questioning as both a monitoring and regulating strategy were most effective.

Reinforcement was the most effective teaching strategy.

2.6.1.2 Vermunt,J.D(1996).Metacognitive, cognitive and affective aspects of

learning styles and strategies: A phenomenographic analysis.

Objective: The focus of the study was to understand i) how do students perform

metacognitive, cognitive, and affective learning functions.ii) how is the learning

functions regulated by internal and external sources iii) what learning styles can be

discerned from the view point of learning functions and regulation?

Method: The students were selected from a open distance university and a regular

university. They were interviewed extensively about their learning strategies, mental

models of learning,learning orientations and interpretations and appraisals of

instructional measures.The interviews were analysed in a phenmenographic way.

Results: Indicated that there is a large difference among students in the manner in

which they carry out learning functions and the difference are associated with internal

and external sources. It was also found out that four qualitatively learning styles can

be discerned; undirected, a reproduction directed, a meaning directed and application

directed learning style. Mental models of learning and learning orientation are related

to the way in which students interpret, appraise and use instructional measures to

regulate their learning activities.

2.6.1.3 Hartman,H.,Everson,H.,Tobias,S.,&Gourgey,A.(1991). Self Concept and

metacognition in Ethnic minorities.

Objective: The study investigated the relationship between academic self concepts

metacognitive problem solving and ethnicity

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Method: The student responded to questionnaires such as 1) Thinking About Problem

Solving Scale. 2)Michigan State self concept of Ability Scale.3) An 8 item instrument

assessing student general academic self concept 4) Version of the same instrument

assessing self concept in 4 content areas; mathematics, science, English & social

studies. The sample selected for the study was 214 pre- freshman summer program

designed to improve their basic skills before starting their formal college experience.

Conclusion: The study results showed zero order correlation when computed between

metacognition measures, TAPS and different self concept indices indicating TAPS

had moderately positive relationship with other variable. The strongest relationship

were between general self concept and subject- specific self concepts Ethnicity results

showed that Asians had the strongest intercorrelation of metacogntion and general self

concept.

2.6.1.4 Schraw,G.,Dunkle,M.E.,Bendixen,L.D., and Roedel,T.D.(1995). Does a

General Monitoring Skill Exists?

Objective: To examine whether monitoring is better characterised as a domain

specific or a domain – general phenomenon.

Method: Two experiments were conducted on college students. experiment one 134

under graduate students along with their course took 4 option multiple choice

questions for 7 domains. In experiement two 135 undergraduates attempted 5 multiple

choice questions with a brief questionnaire.

Result: The result showed qualified support to the domain- general hypothesis which

states that monitoring within a specific domain is governed by general metacogntive

processes in addition to domain specific knowledge. The study shows that monitoring

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experience within specific domain is gradually generalized until it become

metacogntive skill that spans all cognitive domain.

2.6.2 Review of Research Related to Academic Self-Concept

2.6.2.1 Wengler,T.J.(2009). Academic Self – Concept and its relationship to student

perceptions of engagement, membership, and authenticity in an alternative high

school setting.

Objective: The objective of the study was to determine if a correlation exists between

the academic self- concept of students at an alternative suburban high school and their

perceptions of engagement, membership, and authenticity within their learning

environment.

Method: Quantitative correlational study involving student responses to two distinct

survey instruments were used in the study. One instrument assessed students’

academic self –concepts, and the other determined students feelings of engagement,

membership, and authenticity within their learning environment. Pearson product-

moment coefficient was calculated to find the correlation.

Conclusion: It was found out that there is a strong correlation between academic self

concept and student engagement. A strong positive correlation (r (52) =.68, , p <

.001) was found between the dependent variable of academic self – concept and the

independent variable of engagement for the entire population. When academic self –

concept and student perceptions of membership was analyzed a moderately strong

positive correlation (r(52) = .45, p < .001) was found. This suggest that roles and

membership have a magical effect on the students. A strong positive correlation (r(52)
58
= .46, p < .001) was also noted between Academic self concept and student perception

of Authenticity.

2.6.2.2 Tan,J.B.Y,& Yates,S.M.( 2007) A Rasch Analysis of the Academic self –

concept Questionnaire.

Objective: The purpose of the study was to answer two questions: will the items in

the ASCQ fit the Rasch model? Can academic self- concept be formed by two

subscales: academic confidence and academic effort?

Method: The total sample comprise of 88 male and 32 female students and their age

ranged from 9 years 5 months to 12 years 7 months with a mean age of 11 years 1

month. The instrument used was the Academic Self – Concept Questionnaire,

students’ scores in the Primary Three Examination taken by all participants at the end

of their 3rd year of primary schooling were used as the academic variable. Obtaining a

mark in this exam between 85-100 percent was allocated to Band 1 mark range of 75-

84 percent was allocated to Band 2, Band 3 had the mark range of 50- 74 percent.

Band 4 was below 50 percent. The data were analysed using Rasch(1980)

measurement techniques.

Conclusion: The study used the Rasch model to assess the unidimensionality and

item – person fit of the an academic self- concept Questionnaire(ASCQ) that is based

on the Confucian Heritage Culture(CHC) perspective. The ASCQ largely satisfies the

Rasch model for unidimensionality. But four items had poor infit statistics suggesting

that they do not contribute significantly to the scale hierarchy. Rasch model also

confirmed the unidimensionality of the two subscales- Academic Confidence and

Academic Effort.

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2.6.2.3 Belfi,B., Goos, M., Fraine,B.D & Damme,J.V(2012). The effect of class

composition by gender and ability on secondary school students’ school well- being

and academic self-concept: A literature review.

Objective: The objective of the present study is to examine the effects of the

composition of a secondary school’s class group in terms of these two features on

students’ school well- being and academic self- concept, by comparing the findings of

previous research. The independent variables selected are class composition by ability

and class composition by gender. The dependent variables selected were : school well

being, Academic self concept

Method: The study used 19 peer reviewed articles written in English after 2000. The

sample was selected from secondary school. 10 publications examined are on the

effect of class composition by ability and 9 publications studied the effect of class

composition by gender on students’ school well – being and academic self concept.

Conclusion: The results of this literature review indicate that ability grouping is

beneficial for strong students’ school well being but rather detrimental for the school

well being of weak students. Also single sex education is more favorable for girls’

non achievement outcomes than for boys’ non achievement outcomes. Class

compositions can lead to differential effects as well as opposing effects within the

same students. Hence grouping of students is a delicate practice and it must be

handled with care to reduce delinquency and drop out.

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2.6.2.4 Brunner,M., Keller,U., Hornung,C., Reichert, M. & Martin, R.(2009).

The cross-cultural generazability of a new structural model of academic self

concepts.

Objective: The study is to find out a new multidimensional nested- factor model of

academic self concepts that incorporates both domain – specific and general academic

self concepts, and the position of general academic self concepts at the apex of the

self concept hierarchy

Method: The sample selected comprises of 15 year old students in 26 countries (N =

106,680). Strict mechanisms and multi- stage sampling mechanism were applied to

get high representation of the data. The instruments used in the PISA study consists of

the items from the Self Description Questionnaire which is considered to be a the best

self – concept instrument. To make the questionnaire small three best items were

selected from the 10 item self concept scales for verbal, mathematics, and academic

self- concepts by the statistical experts after pilot testing. Statistical analyses were

conducted in two steps for first order factor model and the nested- factor model of

academic self- concepts.

Conclusion: The finding showed that the nested- factor model provided a good fit to

the data in each of the 26 countries. General and domain – specific academic self-

concepts were meaningfully related to gender as well as to student achievement.

Further more, it showed that the relationship between academic self concepts and

student characteristics may differ substantially depending on whether the model

applied does or does not account for the influence of general academic self- concept

on domain- specific measures of academic self concepts.

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2.6.2.5 Rinn, A.N., Plucker,J.A., & Stocking,V.B.(2010). Fostering gifted

students’ Affective Development: A look at impact of Academic Self-Concept.

Objective: The purpose of the conceptual paper is to suggest educationist with a

framework for understanding the academic self- concepts of gifted students.

Academic self concept is theoretically linked with other constructs, including

academic achievement and aspirations, it is very important that educators be aware of

the experience gifted students may face.

Discussion: According to them academic self concept is an idea or set of idea one

has about oneself. Since they were working with gifted adolescents a number of

strategies to decrease the negative effects of social comparison on student’s academic

self concept suggested as follows: a) Be familiar with the extend of self – concepts

that may he held by each talented student. b) self -concept must not be viewed as a

means to its own end. Give realistic praise and challenge to the gifted students. c)

information about the student characteristics ie learning styles, motivation self

concept, can help in planning learning experience. d) student must be given balanced

exposure to competitive, co operative and individualistic activities in the classroom.

e) Provide student with feed back about individual growth instead of comparison with

other students. f) expose teachers with opportunities to learn more about the special

needs of gifted students.

2.6.2.6 Ferla, J., Valcke.M., and Cai, Y.(2009). Academic Self – efficacy and

academic self – concept: Reconsidering structural relationships.

Objective: The purpose of the study is to examine i) whether academic (eg. Math )

self – efficacy and academic self- concept represent tow conceptually and empirically

distinct psychological constructs when studied with the same domain. ii) the nature of
62
relationship existing between both self – constructs. iii) their antecedents iv) their

mediating and predictive qualities for background variables such as gender and prior

knowledge and outcome variables such as math performance, math interest, and math

anxiety

Method: the study is based on the Belgian data from the 2003 PIA survey. The

measures selected are Math self efficacy, Math self concept, Math anxiety, and Math

Interest. Along with this gender, prior math grade, difficulty level of secondary

studies and Math score. Amos 6 with maximum likelihood Estimation was used to

analyse the data.

Result: i) Math self – efficacy and math self- concept are conceptually and

empirically different constructs .ii) students ‘academic self – concept strongly

influences their academic self – efficacy beliefs. iii) academic self- concept is a better

predictor for affective – motivational variables, while academic self- efficacy is the

better predictor academic achievement.

2.6.2.7 Hope,E.W.(2009). A model of Academic Self – Concept Perceived

Difficulty, Social Comparison, and Achievement Among Academically

Accelerated Secondary Schools Students.

Objective: The purpose of the study is to find the relationship of ability, academic

achievement, social comparison, perceived level of difficulty, academic self- concept,

and future goals in populations of accelerated high schools students.

Method: The sample comprise of three groups(Inter national Baccalaureate ,

Advanced Placement, and Residential high school in the campus). Several instruments

were used based on the variables used in the study.

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Result: The three groups have different patterns of self concept according to the

model in the study. The three groups perceived difficulty and achievement were

larger predictors of academic self – concept than the social comparison variables.

The study found strong relationship between a student’s academic self- concept and

his or her future educational aspirations.

2.6.2.8 Ghazvini,S.D (2011). Relationships between academic self-concept and

academic performance in high school students.

Objective: The purpose of the study was to find the relationship between academic

self – concept and academic performance.

Method: The sample consists of 363 students selected by multistage cluster sampling

method. The questionnaire was made by the researcher, scholastic marks were used.

Result: There is a close relationship between academic self – concept and measure of

academic performance.

2.6.2.9 Marsh,H.W and Martin,A.J.(2011). Academic Self Concept and

Academic Achievement: Relations and causal ordering

Objective: The purpose of the review is to examine support for the reciprocal effects

model(REM) that posits academic self- concept and achievement are mutually

reinforcing, each leading to gain in the other – and its extension to other achievement

domains.

Method: Review of theoretical, methodological, and empirical support for the REM a

meta analysis.

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Result: ASC has direct and indirect effects on achievement. An increase in ASC

result in increase in achievement. It also plays a central role in other educational

outcomes.

2.6.3 Review of Research Related to Hemispheric Dominance

2.6.3.1 Ali, R.M., & Kor, L.K (2007) Association between Brain Hemisphericity,

Learning Styles and Confidence in using Graphics Calculator for Mathematics.

Objective: To investigate the difference in brain hemisphericity and learning styles

on students’ confidence in using the graphics calculator (GC) to learn mathematics.

Method: The sample size was 44 undergraduate mathematics students in Malaysia

and the instruments used were Brain – Dominance Questionnaire, Index of learning

Style Inventory, and Confidence in Using GC to Learn Mathematics Questionnaire.

Conclusion: The statistical analysis showed that the sample differ significantly in

their hemispheric preference and learning styles Sequential- global and sensing

intiuitive learning styles were found to associate significantly with brain

hemisphercity. However, there was no significant association between brain

hemisphericity witth gender, race and program of study. Finally, the study also

revealed that GC confidence rating ae not significantly different across brain

hemisphericity as well as learning styles.

2.6.3.2 Oliver,E.M.(2009). Relationships between problem solving strategies and

brain hemisphericity in high school students.

Objective: To study the association between problem solving strategies and brain

hemisphericity

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Method: A sample of 98 ninth grade students were randomly selected from a high

school in south east Texas to be surveyed. The students completed a demographic

questionnaire, an open –ended mathematics problem and the style of learning and

thinking questionnaire.

Results: students who tested high for left brain dominance tended to prefer a written,

logical explanation strategy to solve certain complexity levels of the mathematics

problems. Students who tested high in right brain dominance, tended to prefer

drawing diagram to solve certain complexity levels of the mathematics problem. The

study concluded that the general characteristics associated with each hemisphere of

the brain, also apply to mathematical problem solving. Hence the researcher

concludes that using teaching strategies that are associated with both hemispheres

develop more whole brained mathematical problem solvers.

2.6.3.3 Erduran Avci,D., and Yagbasan,R.(n.d.). A Study on impact of Brain –

based learning Approach on Students’ achievement and retention of Knowledge

about “Work-Energy”.

Objective: The purpose is to find the effect of brain- based learning approach on 7th

grade students’ achievement and retention of knowledge about “work – energy’ issue.

Method: The sample is 91 students of 7th grade in experimental and control group.

Pre test Post test control group design is used. Lectures were conducted based on

brain based learning approach.

Result: The results show 43.3% of the experimental group use slight preference

toward left, 26.7% show slight preference toward the right dominance 20% moderate

preference for the left. Brain based instruction affect achievement of the students.

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2.6.3.4 Morton, B.E and Rafto, S.(2006) Sex and Aggression: Corpus Callosal

size is linked to Hemisphericity not Gender

Objective: To find the relation between Corpus callosum cross sectional area (CCA)

and hemisphericity

Method: magnetic resonance imaging(MRI), 113 subjects

Result: Midline CCA of 113 subjects were significantly correlated not with

handedness or sex but with hemisphericity. Right brain oriented individuals of both

sexes had significantly larger CCA than left brain – oriented persons of either sex.

There are quantitative methods to assess any person in terms of their probable right or

left brain orientation. A primary standard has been discovered that enables the

absolute hemisphericity of an individual to be determined, based on anatomical

landmarks within the brain. Many traits that separate the cognitive and behavioural

styles of R- and L- brain oriented person have been identified, most of which have no

known ties to brain asymmetry as yet. Hence brain hemisphericity must be included in

the studies and observation support many binary behaviours correlated with

hemisphericity which are currently mistaken for sexual traits.

2.6.4 Review of Research Related to Learning Styles

2.6.4.1 Claycomb, M (1978) Brain research and learning

Objective: To understand research on brain activity and its implications for educators

Method: A critical analysis of the Human Brain and its functions is done. A narrative

description of various researches through the years and specifically highlighting the

concept of triune brain, division of labour concept between left and right hemisphere

are done.

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Conclusion: theories of brain formation suggest that our concern as educators must

be for educating all areas of the brain. Researches suggest that basic education must

include informational, processing skill, non logical behaviour and artistic activities

that form our creative life. Brain dysfunction may be the reason for many disabilities.

Many social and emotional problems have their roots in brain dysfunction. Hence a

teacher require to deal with varied approach to such students. Implicit in all research

is that in instruction use many modalities to match different learning styles. Also

stress on individual approach to instruction is stressed.

2.6.4.2 Severins,S.E & Tendan,G.T.M(1994). Gender difference in learning

styles: a narrative review and quantitative meta – analysis.

Objective: The study is a meta- analysis on several articles based on gender

difference in learning styles conducted after 1980.

Method: Curry’s onion model was used to classify the definitions on learning styles

and to reconstruct the theoretical frameworks. The extent to which learning style is

considered stable or variable in different context determine its position in the model.

Narrative review was taken to review the articles as well as quantitative study was

also used. The two instruments used are Kolb’s learning style inventory and

Entwistle’s Approaches to studying inventory to determine the direction and

magnitude of gender differences in various samples

Conclusion: According to Curry Model it was found out most of the theoretical

framework fell in the middle or outer layer of the Model. This location indicates that

strong influence of learning context on women’s and men’s learning styles. While

there were difference between Learning styles, research design rarely included

learning context. On Kolb’s instrument the results showed that men were more likely
68
than women to prefer the abstract conceptualization mode of learning . On Entwistle’s

ASI a difference was found on the affective component of approaches to studying.

2.6.4.3 Vawda,A. (2005) The learning style of first year university students.

Objective: To learn the learning style of first year university student specifically to

learn the learning style as per faculty and explore the relationship between learning

style and academic performance for students in various faculties

Method: Explorative descriptive correlational research conducted with quantitative

framework.

Conclusion: Across the six faculties the Accommodator learning style was the most

represented, followed by the Diverger learning style. No significant relationship was

found between learning styles and academic performance.

2.6.4.4 Price, S.M.(2009). How Perceived Cognitive Style, Metacognitive

Monitoring and Epistemic Cognition Indicate Problem Solving Confidence

Objective: The study was conducted to measure perceived cognitive style,

metacognitive monitoring and epistemic cognition, hierarchal model of cognitive

processing as an indicator for problem solving confidence. The tries to find out

whether cognitive indicators can be used as a diagnostic foundation for improving ill-

structured problem solving capacity for adult professionals who develop software or

use soft ware systems to solve ill – structured problems.

Method: A 95-item questionnaire was used to determine 1) the relationship between

cognitive style and problem solving confidence, 2) the relationship between

metacognitive monitoring and problem solving confidence, 3) the relationship

between epistemic cognition and problem solving confidence, and 4) whether

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cognitive style, metacognitive monitoring, and epistemic cognition explain a

significant amount of variance in problem solving confidence. Multivariate analysis

and backwards (stepwise) linear regression were conducted to establish the

relationship between each of the study variables.

Result: The analysis determined that measured scores for the perceived cognitive

style and metacognitive monitoring were moderately significant predictors of problem

solving confidence as evidenced by a regression model that explained 20.5% of the

expected variance.

2.6.4.5 Wood, C.(2011). New dogs old tricks: the influence and impact of learning

styles preference on the learning and development of PGCE English trainees.

Objective: to study the learning styles preference of PGCE English trainees.

Method: mixed method is used for the study. Data was collected using Felder &

Solomon (1994) Index of learning styles questionnaire and three phenomenological

based interviews examining the learning journey of the English trainees and consider

to what extent their learning styles preference impact on their learning and

development as teachers.

Conclusion: There are ‘typical’ and ‘atypical’ learning style preference for trainees

in different subject disciplines. In particular, these can be seen in relation to the

sensing- intuitive and visual- verbal learning styles dimensions of Index of learning

styles. Qualitative analysis indicate that the Learning styles preference is apparent in

their memories of prior education and learning , their evaluation of university and

school based teacher training and their choice they make as teachers in the classroom.

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2.6.5 Review of Research Related to Academic Achievement

2.6.5.1 Landline,J., Stewart,J.(1998). Relationship between Metacognition,

Motivation, Locus of control, self efficacy, and Academic Achievement.

Objective: The purpose of the study was to find the relationship between

Metacognition and certain personality variables and the role they play in academic

achievement.

Method: A sample of 108 students were selected for the study. The instruments used

were i) learning process questionnaire for assessing the extent to which students

endorse different metacognitive approaches to learning. Ii) general information

questionnaire- to find the general information of the respondents.iii) Harter’s scale of

Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic orientation in the classroom- this was used to assess

students’ motivational orientation toward learning. Iv) The Nowicki – Strickland

Scale is a scale to measure individual locus- of – control v) The general Self- Efficacy

Scale to measure general expectations of self – efficacy.

Result: The results indicate that there is a positive relationship between

metacognition, motivation, locus of control, self- efficacy and academic average.

Hence there is a relation between metacognition and the selected personality

variables.

2.6.5.2 Mevarech .Z.R. & Amrany,C(2008) Immediate and delayed effects of

meta-cognitive Instruction on regulation of cognition and mathematics

achievement.

Objective: To examine the effect of Metacognitive instruction on the mathematics

achievement in the final examination. Also to examine the differential effects of

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metacognitive instruction on two components of metacognition: knowledge about

cognition and regulation of cognition.

Method: A sample of 61 students who studied mathematics for matriculation exam

were selected and half of them were subjected to meta cognitive instruction called

IMPROVE and other became the control group. The data was collected in three areas

i) matriculation exam results, ii) Metacognitive Awareness Inventory of Schraw

(1994) and Interviews. Analyses were both quantitative and qualitative methods.

Result: It was found that IMPROVE students outperformed their counterparts on

mathematics achievement and regulation of cognition, but not on knowledge about

cognition. Furthermore, during the matriculation exam, IMPROVE students executed

different kinds of cognitive regulation processes than the control students.

2.6.5.3 Coutinho, S.A (2007). The relationship between goals, metacognition, and

academic success.

Objective: The study investigated the relationship between mastery goals,

performance goals, metacognition and academic success.

Method: The participants were 179 undergraduates of a Midwestern University and

survey method was used. The students completed the 25 item goals inventory, 52 item

Metacognitive Awareness Inventory and a demographic sheet.

Results: Analyses revealed a partial mediation effect in the relationship between

mastery goals and academic performance. Performance goals were unrelated to

academic performance and the study suggests that students with mastery goals reap

the rewards of academic success.

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2.6.5.4 Young , A and Fry, J.D.(2008). Metacognitive awareness and academic

achievement in college students

Objective: The purpose of the study was to determine how Metacognitive awareness

relates to broad and single measures of academic achievement in college students.

Method: A sample of 178 students completed MAI face to face out of which, 45 were

graduates and 133 were undergraduates 158 were online respondents.

Result: Correlations were found between Metacognitive awareness and cumulative

GPA as well as end of course grades. Scores on the MAI significantly differ between

graduates and undergraduates.

2.6.5.5 Rahman,F.,Jumani,N.B.,Chaudry,M.A., Chisti,S.H., Abbasi, F.(2010).

Impact of Metacognitive Awareness on Performance of Students in Chemistry.

Objective: To study the impact of metacognitive awareness on students’ performance

in chemistry.

Method: The sample size for the present study is 900 students of grade X.

metacognitive awareness was measured using MAI and the performance of students

was measured with the help of researcher made test in the subject of chemistry.

Result: Indicated that metacognitive awareness was significantly correlated with the

performance of students. The highly metacognitively aware science students

performed will on the test. Also there was no significant difference in the

metacognitive awareness of male and female students.

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2.6.5.6 Trainin,G., Swanson, H.L. (2005). Cognition, Metacognition and

Achievement of College students with learning disabilities [LD]

Objective: The purpose of the study was to study find how successful college

students with LD compensated for their deficits in phonological processing. For this

the researchers compared the cognitive and metacognitive performance of students

with and without LD.

Method: The sample size was 40 (20 LD and 20 normal) from four universities of

southern California. They were matched closely as possible on demographic variables

such as ethnicity, college major, gender and academic standing. Though achievement

levels for both group were comparable students with LD scored significantly lower

than students without LD in word reading, processing speed, semantic processing and

short – term memory. Differences were also found between groups in self- regulation

and number of hours of studying.

Result: students with LD compensated for their processing deficits by relying on

verbal abilities, learning strategies, and help seeking.

2.6.6. Review of Research Related to Gender Differences

2.6.6.1 Kusumoto,K (2009). Gender effects on College Students’ Academic

Knowledge Awareness

Objective: The purpose of the study is to find whether there is gender difference or

correlation in an academic achievement with concerning of accurate knowledge

awareness among college students.

Method: An academic test was provided in the last week of the semester for the

students. On the side of the test Knowledge Monitoring Accuracy (KMA) were

displayed on the right side of the test items. Along with the test items answering they
74
were required to answer the KMA also. Students were told there were no right or

wrong answer for KMA and had no effect on their academic grades. Thus they

completed their exam as well as the KMA questionnaire simultaneously. In this study

KMA scores were analysed

Results: There were no significant difference among variables between male and

females. Significant positive correlations were reported between KMA complex and

academic scores as well as academic scores and KMA positives and significant

negative correlations were reported between academic scores and KMA negatives. It

was concluded that there are no differences in gender but still KMA still identify

student learning awareness appropriately. This study reveals that higher KMA

positives positively relates to better academic achievement and students with higher

KMA negatives, negatively relates to lower academic achievement in educational

situations.

2.6.6.2 Cooper, S.S.(2009) Metacognitive Development in Professional Educators

Objective: The purpose of the study was to examine the metacognitive skills of

adults.

Method: Metacognitive awareness inventory was completed by 214 pre-service and

experienced teachers. Metacognitive awareness Inventory developed by Schraw and

Dennison (1994) was used for the study.

Result: The results indicated that metacognition improves significantly with age and

with years of teaching experience. male and female respondents showed no significant

difference in metacogniton.

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2.6.6.3 Rahaman, F(2010) Comparison of Metacognitive Awareness of Secondary

School teachers.

Objective: The purpose of the study is to examine the difference between

metacognition of English and Science teachers in secondary school.

Method: The sample of the study consisted of 100 English teachers and 100 science

teachers in secondary school.

Result: It was found out science teachers performed better than English teachers on

metacognitive inventory and teaching experience of teachers significantly accounted

for difference in metacognitive awareness score of teachers. The study did not find

any significant gender difference in metacognitive awareness of teachers.

2.7 REVIEW OF RESEARCH IN INDIAN CONTEXT

2.7.1. Review of Research Related to Metacognitive Awareness and

Academic Self- Concept

2.7.1.1 Srivastava ,R and Joshi, S.(2011). The effect of school and area on

academic self- concept and Academic Achievement of Adolescents

Objective: The purpose of the study is examine the i)effect of school on academic

self- concept and academic achievement of adolescent ii) the effect of area on

academic self- concept and academic achievement of adolescents.

Method: To measure academic self- concept, Indian adaptation of March Academic

Self Description Questionnaire II was used. Index of academic achievement was

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prepared from two previous annual examination of the students along with the

personal data sheet.

Result: Academic self-concept and academic achievement of adolescents were higher

in the high facility schools than the low facility schools. Academic achievement of

urban adolescents was also higher as compared to rural adolescents. A student needs a

good academic self- concept in order to be success in their later life. To achieve this

success, school and area of residence do affect the adolescent’s academic self-

concept and academic achievement.

2.7.2 Review of Research Related to Metacognitive Awareness and

Learning Styles

2.7.2.1 Acharya,C.(2002) Students’ learning style and their Implications to

teachers.

Objective: The purpose of the article is to discuss prominent research on learning

styles and the implication of learning styles in teaching strategies.

Discussion: Learning styles are studied by psychologists and various models are

developed such as of Kolbs, Dunn and Dunn. Awareness of learning styles can help

faculty to be sensitive to the various students with various learning styles. They can

prepare learning experiences to match the wide array of learning styles of the class.

The theories of learning styles can be condensed into four dimensions. i) Personality

of the learners. ii) Information processing iii) Social and Situational Interaction

among learners. iv) Identifying learning styles. Some of the strategies to promote

effective learning using data on learning styles are; i) conduct research and get

77
information about learning styles ii) Establish curricular experience that help students

learn how to learn. Iii) Inventories of learning styles and other processes can be used

to help make students aware of their own preferences and strengths.

2.7.2.2 Sharma, A.A(2009). Learning styles across culture: Study on Learning

styles of students pursuing Management Education in India.

Objective: The purpose of the study is to explore the learning styles of students

pursuing management education in India and its implication on the educators.

Method: The sample comprised of 175 students with well balance representation

from males and females. For the purpose of the study, HELP(Hardy Educational

Learning Profile) an adult cognitive learning style instrument developed by

Dr.Christopher Hardy and Dr.Susan Hardy was used.

Result: Both the genders have outer focussed interaction, preference for concrete

information and objective decision making style. ANOVA test was performed on the

three dimensions of the HELP questionnaire to test the significance of difference

between the mean scores of male and female students on dominant learning

characteristics. The test substantiated the conclusion that there was great similarity in

both genders displaying outer interaction focus and taking objective decision. But

there was some disparity between them on information gathering process with males

showing higher preference to concrete information as compared to females.

2.7.2.3 Sharma,P(2011). A study of learning- thinking style of Secondary School

students in relation to their academic achievement.

Objective: The study attempts to find out the relationship and significance of

difference between academic achievement and learning – thinking style of secondary

school students.
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Method: Normative Survey Method was applied for the study and standard X was

used for the study.

Result: The analysis indicated that learning – thinking style and academic

achievement of secondary school students are positively and significantly related to

each other. Academic achievement is a factor which influence the learning – thinking

style of secondary school students. Male and female secondary school students are not

different in respect to their academic achievement whereas they are different in

respect to their learning – thinking style.

2.7.3 Review of Research Related to Metacognitive Awareness and

Academic Achievement

2.7.3.1 Dixit,M.N.(2011) Readiness towards the Use of Meta-cognition and its

relationship with academic achievement of Higher Secondary Students.

Objective: To study the readiness towards the use of meta-cognition in the learning

process of higher secondary students.

Method: Survey method was used for the study and the sample comprised 214 final

year students of higher secondary school in Ahmedabad. Meta cognition Use

Readiness Scale(MURS) was used to collect the data.

Results: It was found out that there is a significant difference in the readiness towards

the use of meta-cognition of higher secondary students on the basis of gender

differences. Also there was significant difference among the higher secondary

students in the readiness towards the use of meta-cognition on the basis of academic

streams. There was positive correlation between the readiness towards the use of

metacognition and academic achievement.

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2.7.3.2 Mamta,Garg.(2011). Peeping into the learning world of secondary

teacher trainees: can their academic success be predicted?

Objective: The purpose of the study was to examine the styles of learning and

thinking, study habits, achievement motivation of teacher trainees along with their

attitude towards teaching and perception for B.Ed course. Also the predictors that may

determine the academic success of the pre- service teachers were analysed.

Method: By random sampling technique 200 pre service teachers were extracted for

the study. The scales used for the study were i) Socio economic status scale ii) styles

of learning and thinking – SOLAT tool iii) Deo – Mohan Achievment Motivation(n –

Ach) Scale. iv)Study habit Inventory v) Teacher attitude Inventory vi) perception

about B.Ed course scale developed by the researcher.

Result: The data was analysed by product moment correlation, factor analysis, and

multiple regression. No significant correlation were obtained between age and three

variable of academic performance that is theory papers, skill in teaching, and total

marks. This means the academic performance of on – campus trainees is not related

with their age. But socio- economic status had positive and significant relationships

with performance of trainees in their skills in teaching exam and overall performance.

The performance in theory paper had nonsignificant relationship with socio-

economic status. There was no significant correlation between left or right

hemispheric learning styles and academic performance. In fact left hemispheric

thinking styles trainees had negative correlation with their performance in theory

papers, showing their marks were low in theory papers. Right hemispheric thinking

styles have non – significant relationship with academic performance. The study

habits have nine predictors of which budgeting time, reading ability, note taking,
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memory, healthy habits and overall study habits have positive and significant

relationships with their theory paper marks. The performance in skill in teaching of

on- campus teacher trainees is related positively and significantly with notes- taking

where as the condition for study is negatively correlated with the performance in skill

in teaching. The overall academic performance of these trainees is significantly and

positively correlated with budgeting time and healthy habits. These enhance the

performance of on campus teacher trainees in theory papers and aggregate marks.

Achievement motivation have positive correlation with academic motivation,

academic challenge, meaningfulness of task, attitude towards teachers, individual

concern, general interest and dramatics. Performance skills in teaching have

significant negative correlation with achievement anxiety and sport. Attitude of the

trainees towards teaching profession has significant correlation with performance in

theory papers and performance in skills in teaching.

2.7.4 Review of Research Related to Metacognitive Awareness and

Gender Differences

2.7.4.1 Gupta,R.(2010)Empowerment and gender difference in Education Status.

Objective: To study the effect of gender on Madyamik results

Method: Multistage stratified clustered sampling was adopted in the study. Total

sample was 1530. Detailed mark sheet were collected and socio economic information

was also collected

Results: It was found that average marks obtained by boys and girls did not differ

significantly. Significant differences were observed in average marks of boys and

girls group for various regions having various degree of urbanisation. Boys performed

81
well in mathematics, geography, physical science and girls performed better in

Bengali and History.

2.7.4.2 Sheeja,S.V and Annaraja,P.(2011).Teaching Competency of secondary

teacher education students in relation to their metacognition.

Objective: To explore the effectiveness of metacognitive skills in developing the

teaching competency among secondary teacher education students.

Method: Survey method was used for the study with a sample of 600 students. It was

selected by stratified random sampling technique. The scales used were metacognitive

inventory and teaching competency scale. t-test

Result: Male and female teacher education students differed significantly in

metacogntion. Female students are better than male students. Rural and urban students

differed significantly in metacogntion with urban students mean scores were better

than the rural students. Male and female students do not differ significantly in

teaching competency except in the dimension of interest in profession. Urban students

are better than rural college students in their interest in profession, instructional

strategy and classroom behaviour, except in the dimension of attitude towards

children and teaching competency in total. It was found that there is significant

relationship between metacognition and teaching competency of secondary of

secondary teacher education students.

82
2.7.5. Review of Research Related to Metacognition

2.7.5.1 Narayanan,A(2009). Resilience, Metacognition and Complexity

Objective: To examine the relationship between resilience and certain cognitive

variables

Method: Resilience was assessed by using Resilience Scale for Adolescents. Sample

114 high school in the age group of 15-16 years. Both male and female students were

included in the study.

Result: Findings showed that among the aspects of attributional schemata

investigated in this study complex explanation and metacognition had significant

effect on resilience. The highly resilient had higher preference for complex rather than

simple explanation for explaining human behaviour and used metacognition

concerning explanations more than those who had low resilience.

2.8 IMPLICATIONS OF THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE

FOR THE PRESENT STUDY

Number of studies have been conducted on metacognition in relation to various

variables, such as math and verbal ability; motivation and locus of control; self

efficacy, academic average; and learning styles. Not many studies were found in

relation with hemisiphericity, some studies found were in relation to sex and

aggression , learning styles and problem solving strategies. Similarly academic self

concept was studied in relation to achievement, academic self efficacy, affective

development. Only one study was found between self concept and metacognition of

ethnic minorities. There were some studies on learning styles and metacognition and

83
learning styles and learning development. These studies has become the foundations

for the present studies.

The present study is a correlation study between metacognitive awareness and

selected variables such as academic self concept, hemispheric dominance, learning

styles, academic achievement and gender differences in metacognitive awareness. No

study was found for metacognition in relation to such a wider array of educational

relevant variables. It was also noted that very few studies are done on metacognition

in India.

2.9 SUMMARY

The review of researches shows that metacognitive awareness is positively correlated

with academic achievement. Metacognitive factors have significant relations with

academic self-concept. With respect to gender differences no particular trend could be

analyzed as the research conducted has used more of specific purposes. However,

most of the studies show no gender differences in metacognitive awareness.

84
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