REVIEWER IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE  Big bang nucleosynthesis strongly

favors the very light isotopes.

Heavy elements
Formation of Elements in the Big Bang and  were formed only billions of years later,
Stellar Evolution after the formation of stars.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Formation of light elements: Big Bang  It is the formation of heavy elements by
Nucleosynthesis the fusion of lighter nuclei in the interior
of stars.
 Big bang theory states that the universe
developed 13.7 billion years ago from a Nuclear Synthetic Pathways That Can
very small, extremely dense, and hot Produce Heavier Elements
state called a “singularity” that
expanded rapidly. 1. Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen cycle
 This rapid expansion caused the (CNO)
universe to cool down and become less a process of stellar nucleosynthesis in
dense, forming new particles- the which stars on the Main Sequence
protons, neutrons, and electrons. fuse hydrogen into helium via a six-
 As the universe cooled down and the stage sequence of reactions.
subatomic particles formed, it entered
the phase called big bang 2. Proton-Proton Fusion
nucleosynthesis. The proton-proton chain is the simplest
Nucleosynthesis form of nuclear fusion that occurs in
 Is the process that creates a new atomic main-sequence stars. Proton-proton
nucleus from pre-existing nucleons, chain involves the fusion between 4
primarily protons and neutrons. hydrogen nuclei (H-1) to form a helium
Deuterium nucleus (He-4).
 also called heavy 3. Triple Alpha Process
hydrogen, isotope of hydrogen with a In the triple-alpha process, stars fuse
nucleus consisting of one proton and three helium nuclei, also called alpha
one neutron, which is double the mass particles together (left) to create a
of the nucleus of ordinary hydrogen single carbon atom with a surplus of
(one proton). energy, known as a Hoyle state.
Isotope
 It is a form of an element that has the Hoyle State can split back into three alpha
same atomic number as that of the particles or relax to the ground state of stable
original element but with a different carbon by releasing a couple gamma rays
atomic mass or mass number. (center). Inside supernovae, however, the
Nuclear Fusion creation of stable carbon can be enhanced with
 The process by which light nuclei fuse the help of extra protons (right).
together to form a heavier nucleus.
When this happen, a tremendous amount Formation of Heavy Elements: Neutron
of energy is released. capture reaction

Formation of Heavier Elements:  Elements heavier that iron cannot be

Stellar Nucleosynthesis formed through fusion as tremendous
 Elements formed by fusion with five to amounts of energy are needed for the
eight nucleons are very unstable. This reaction to occur.
is the main reason why lithium and  Heavy elements are formed in a
beryllium only occur in trace amounts supernova.
during the big bang.
SUPERNOVA- is a massive explosion of a star.  Polarity of a bond is dependent on the
 In a supernova, neutron capture electronegativity of an atom.
reactions take place, leading to the
formation of heavy elements. NON POLAR
 are asymmetric, either containing lone
Neutron Capture Reaction pairs of electrons on a central atom or
 heavy elements are created through the having atoms with different
addition of more neutrons to existing electronegativities bonded.
nuclei instead of fusion of light nuclei.  there are no positive or negative poles
 A tremendous amount of energy is formed in the molecule
needed to form heavier atoms. Electronegativity
 It refers to the ability of an element to
attract electrons.
DETERMINING THE POLARITY OF A
MOLECULE  If the electronegativity difference is
from 0 to 0.4, then the bond is likely
Molecular Geometry NONPOLAR.
 Pertains to the three-dimensional  If the difference is between 0.5 to1.8,
arrangement of atoms in a molecule then the bond formed is said to be
POLAR.
Valence- means outermost; therefore, when we  Beyond the said values, the bond is
say valence electrons, we refer to the electrons more likely IONIC.
found in the outermost shell of an atom.
EXAMPLE:
OCTET RULE 1. HF – electronegativity difference
 States that atoms tend to lose, gain, or = 4.0 – 2.1 = 1.9 (polar)
share electrons with other atoms in order 2. CBr – electronegativity difference
to have a stable configuration of 8 = 2.8-2.5 = 0.3 (non polar)
valence electrons. 3. LiF- electronegativity difference
 Most of the elements satisfy this rule =4.0 – 1.0 = 3.0 (ionic)
except for hydrogen and helium that
follow the duet rule.
DUET RULE Properties of Polar Molecules
 The duet rule states that hydrogen and  Molecules which are said to be polar,
helium may have no more than two like water, have higher boiling and
electrons in their valence shells. melting points compared to non-polar
 The rule comes from quantum molecules having the same molecular
mechanics, which says that the lowest weight.
energy level (n = 1) of an atom can  In terms of solubility, the “Like
contain only two electrons. dissolves like” rule applies. This means
 The duet rule applies to H and He, that polar molecules can be dissolved in
because they are the first two atoms polar substances and non-polar
in the Periodic Table. molecules can be dissolved in non-polar
substances.
 Polar substances dissolve in polar
Determining Bond Polarity solvent
Polar  Dipoles are formed due to the difference
If bonded atoms are identical, then you can electronegativities between the bonding
easily say that the bond between them is polar. elements.
This means that electrons are not shared equally
between the atoms.
 Intermolecular Forces And Properties Of Differentiate The Types of Intermolecular
Substances Forces

The Kinetic Molecular Theory 1. DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES

 It is essential in explaining the behavior  Attractive forces between polar
of gases but it can also be used to covalent molecules
understand the properties of matter in  These interactions occur when
liquid and solid states. partially positively charged
 The different characteristics of these molecules interact with the partially
various states depend on the negatively charged part of the
arrangement and motion of their nearby molecule.
molecules.  It is the strongest intermolecular
forces of attraction
 They occur due to the unequal
ARRANGEMENT OF PARTICLES sharing of electrons by the covalent
bonded atoms.
Properties Solid Liquid Gas
Shape/ has definite takes the takes the
Volume shape and shape of shape and ELECTRONEGATIVITY- It is the tendency of
volume the volume of an atom to attract electrons towards itself.
container the
and has container
definite 2. ION-DIPOLE FORCES
volume  The greater the electronegativity of an
Compressibili noncompressib slightly highly atom, the greater is its partial negative
ty le compressib compressib
le le charge when it bonds to another atom
Density high high low with lower electronegativity, making the
Arrangement very close close but far apart other atom partially positively charged.
of particles random and
random  It happens when a polar molecule is
Movement of very slow moderately very fast attracted to ions.
particles fast
Examples salt, sugar water, oil helium, air
 Usually involved in solutions where an
ionic compound is dissolved in a polar
solvent.
The Kinetic Molecular Model (KMT)  Cations interact with dipoles more
 are attractive forces between particles strongly than anions because the charges
such as atoms, molecules, and ions. of cations are smaller than those of
 Important to how molecules interact and anions.
form biological organisms.
3. DISPERSION FORCES
Intermolecular forces  Also known as London Forces, after the
 intermolecular forces play important German physicist, Fritz London. He
roles in determining the properties of initially postulated the existence of
substances. dispersion forces (1930) based on
 Another type of force that holds the quantum theory.
particles of a substance together  dispersion forces are weak attractive
 They are forces that exerted within a forces that are present between all types
single molecule of molecules.

4. HYDROGEN BONDING
 It is a special bond of a very strong
dipole-dipole interaction.
 It occurs among polar covalent
molecules containing hydrogen and one
 of three small highly electronegative Vapor pressure
elements like fluorine, oxygen or  Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted
nitrogen. by the vapor molecules above the
 The hydrogen bonding is the same in a surface of a liquid equilibrium at a
dipole-dipole interaction, where the given temperature.
attraction occurs with the partially  When a container is closed, preventing
positively charged hydrogen and the the vapor to escape, the molecules in
partially negatively charged atoms of vapor phase collides with the walls and
another molecule. cause the pressure which is called vapor
pressure.

Properties of Liquids, and Explain the Effect

of Intermolecular Forces on these Properties BOILING POINT AND HEAT OF
VAPORIZATION
SURFACE TENSION  When a liquid is heated, its molecules
 It is the property of a liquid that causes escape into vapor opposing the
the molecules on the surface of a liquid atmospheric pressure.
to resist an external force.  When the temperature increases the
 A liquid is pulled by gravity in all vapor pressure of the liquid also
directions and attracting all the increases until bubbles are formed in the
molecules around it. liquid and rise to the surface, releasing
 The molecules at the surface are the vapor into the air, a process called
subjected to attractional pull by the boiling.
liquid molecules on all sides, but no  The temperature at which the vapor
attraction upward, making the liquid pressure of a liquid is equal to the
surface contract like a sheet of rubber pressure of gas above it is called the
stretched sideways. boiling point of a liquid.
 The surface tension of a liquid increases
as the temperature decreases;
conversely, surface tension decreases
when temperature increases. MACROMOLECULES

VISCOSITY  Carbon compounds and cells

 It is the resistance of a liquid to flow Life as we know it is carbon based.
 It is also referred to as the thickness of a  A carbon atom can form chemical bonds
liquid. with other carbon atoms in long chains
 It is the tendency of a liquid to resist or rings.
flowing when the molecules slide to  Carbon compounds in living things
each other. include: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
 A stronger attraction within a liquid and nucleic acids.
makes the liquid more viscous.
 Viscosity of the liquid decreases if the THE ELEMENT CARBON
temperature increases.  95% of all compounds are organic
 Example: Glucose C6H12O6
 The process of changing liquid to vapor Polymers – large organic molecules made of
is called evaporation. smaller parts known as monomers (Building
blocks of polymers)
 The process of converting vapor to Dehydration synthesis- the chemical process of
liquid is called condensation. joining monomers to form polymers. At the end
of each monomer is a (H) hydrogen atom and a
(-OH) group. Every time a monomer is added a
molecule of water is given off.

HYDROLYSIS -the chemical breakdown of

polymers into monomers through the addition of
water; essentially the opposite of dehydration
synthesis.

FOUR MACROMOLECULES OF LIFE

Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are energy-rich
compounds made from carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.
 Cells use carbohydrates to get and store
energy.
 Carbohydrates are also called sugars or
starches.
 Plant cells store energy as starch.
Rice, potatoes, and wheat are plant starches.

Lipids
 Lipids are made by cells to store energy
for long periods of time.
 Lipids include fats, oils, and waxes.
 LIPIDS “Lipos-FAT”
 LIPIDS-1 Glycerol and fatty acid tails

Proteins
 Proteins are very large molecules made
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and sometimes sulfur.
 Protein molecules are made of smaller
molecules called amino acids.
 R-Group (Makes each Amino Acid
Different; 20 different amino ACIDS) -
Contain Nitrogen

Nucleic acids
 Nucleic acids are compounds made of
long, repeating chains called
nucleotides.
 DNA is a nucleic acid that contains the
information cells need to make all of
their proteins.
 Nucleotide – monomer of nucleic acids
 Some scientists refer to DNA as the
“blueprints” for life.