HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

TYPE OF PAVEMENT
Depending upon the desired strength of the pavement needed for the intensity of the traffic, the
highways may be classified into the following groups:
1. Earth roads and gravel roads
2. Soil stabilized roads
3. Water bound macadam (W.B.M.) roads
4. Bituminous roads
5. Cement concrete roads.
The selection of base course and the surface course is governed by the following factors:
(a) Type and intensity of traffic or traffic volume.
(b) Funds available for construction and subsequent repair of the highway.
(c) Type of sub-grade soil and drainage conditions.
(d) Availability of construction material at site or within a reasonable distance from the site.
(e) Climatic conditions.
(f) Plant and equipment available.
(g) Time available to complete the project.
(h)Altitude at which the road is to be constructed.
 Though the selection of type of pavement is influenced by all the above noted factors, but of all,
the most important factors is the traffic volume or intensity.
 If the traffic intensity varies from 30 to 200 tonnes per day then low cost roads, i.e., earth and
soil stabilized roads can be used successfully.
 Water bound macadam has been found quite suitable for traffic intensity up to 500 tonnes per
day. The bituminous and cement concrete roads can be considered suitable for traffic intensities
of 1500 tonnes and over 2000 tonnes respectively.
 However this would depend upon the thickness of the pavement section, type of sub-grade soil
and the desired life of the pavement.
 In highway construction usually stage construction technique is adopted. This means improving
the pavement structure to match with the increase in traffic intensity.

EXECUTION
The execution of highway project broadly may be divided into two groups.
1. Earth work.
2. Pavement construction.

1. EARTH WORK.
The earth work mainly consists of preparing the sub-grade to bring it to a suitable grade and camber
by compacting it adequately to withstand the subsequent loads.
The subgrade may be either in excavation or embankment depending upon the topography and the
finalized vertical alignment of the road.
Embankment. When the grade line of a highway is required to be raised above the existing ground
level then embankments are constructed.
Grade line may be raised due to the following reasons:
1. To keep the subgrade above the high ground water-table.
2. To prevent damage to the pavement from capillary water as well as from surface water.
3. To maintain the design standards of the highway with respect to vertical alignment.

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PREPARATION OF SUBGRADE
The preparation of subgrade includes all operations before the pavement structure is laid and
compacted.
Thus this operation includes:
• site clearance,
• grading (cutting and embankment) and
• Compaction.
 The subgrade may be situated at the natural ground level or on embankment or in excavation.
 In all situations the site should be cleared off and top layers of soil consisting of grass, roots,
rubbish and other organic matter should be removed.
 After this, the grading operation is adopted to bring the vertical profiles of the subgrade to
designed grade and camber.
 Before placing the pavement on the subgrade it should be fully compacted.

A. EARTH ROADS
Earth road is one whose foundations as well as wearing course are made out of the soil available at
site.
The type of construction depends on the type of soil available at site.
The camber provided in earth roads is very steep and varies between 1 in 20 to in 25.
In order to provide good drainage to earth roads, a steep cross slope is very essential.
The maximum cross slope of 1 in 20 is recommended to avoid erosion due to rain water and formation
of cross ruts.
Materials
For earth roads soils of the following properties are considered satisfactory:
Table 10.1.
Properties of soil
Base course
Wearing course
Clay content Silt content Sand content Liquid limit
Plasticity Index
< 5% 9 — 32% 60 — 80%
< 25% <6
10 — 18% 5 — 15% 65 — 80% < 35% 4—10

Construction procedure
i. Location.
 The centre line and road edges are marked on the ground along the alignment by driving wooden
pegs into the ground.
 Reference pegs may also be driven to help in following the desired vertical profile of the road
during construction.
ii. Preparation of subgrade.
This includes the following operations:
(a) Clearing of site.
(b) Excavation and construction of embankment to give the desired grade to the road.
(c) Shaping of subgrade.

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 The site is cleared of grass and root etc. and graded to the desired camber. The surface is rolled and
watered.
iii. Pavement construction.
 On the prepared subgrade, the soil from the borrow pits is dumped on the subgrade and
pulverised.
 The field moisture content is checked and additional water is added by sprinkling, if necessary.
 Then the soil is spread and rolled in layers of about 15 cm. thickness so that compacted thickness
does not exceed about 10 cm of each layer.

B. GRAVEL ROADS
 Gravel roads are considered superior than earth roads as they can carry heavier traffic.
 The carriage way of such roads is constructed of gravel.
 In gravel roads camber generally is provided of the order of 1 in 25 to 1 in 30.
 A well compacted gravel or crushed stone road is fairly strong and non-slippery during rainy
season
 Gravel rods may be constructed of the following two types:
a) Trench type
b) Feather edge type
a) Trench Type.
As shown in Fig. 10.3, this type of gravel roads is more common in India. In this type of roads a shallow
trench is excavated in the prepared subgrade.
The trench serves as a barrier for the gravel and prevents them from spreading over the subgrade.
b) Feather edge type.

2. PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
MACADAM ROAD
Macadam roads may be classified into four groups as follows depending upon the method of binding
action.
i. Water bond macadam. It is the layer of broken stone aggregates bound together by stone dust
or screening and water applied during construction, and compacted by heavy smoothed wheel
rollers.
ii. Traffic bond macadam. It is the wearing surface composed of broken stones or gravel,
consolidated by the action of traffic. This type of surface generally is built gradually by
successive application of two or more layers. The compacted thickness of each layer may vary
from 2.5 to 5.0 cms.
iii. Bituminous macadam. It is the compacted layer of clean crushed stone of reasonably uniform in
size. Over this layer a second layer of crushed stone together with bituminous material heavily
sprayed. Much of the bituminous material penetrates into the voids and binds the stones
together, to fill the surface voids of the first course, a uniform thin layer of smaller aggregate is
spread and rolled. Then again a light application of bituminous material is applied and a thin layer
of still smaller aggregates is spread and rolled. Then again a light application of bituminous
material is applied and a thin layer of still smaller aggregates is spread and rolled. This is generally
known as penetration Macadam.
iv. Cement macadam. It is similar to bituminous macadam. Only difference is that in this case
cement is used in place of bitumen.
Material for W.B.M. roads
For W.B.M. constructions following materials are required.
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 1. Coarse aggregate
2. Screenings
3. Filler materials
Construction procedure
1. Preparation of subgrade. The site is cleared and weak spots corrected and rolled. To check the
spreading of aggregate beyond the carriageway or to provide confinement to the loose aggregate
while compacting by rolling either a trench cut in the subgrade and proper camber is provided or earth
or brick bunds are made. On clayey subgrade a blanket of granular material of thickness of about 10
cm is provided. The subgrade should be well drained and checked for stability etc.
2. Pavement construction
(a) As stated above suitable bunds are made on both sides of the road along the edges to confine or to
check the aggregate from spreading while rolling.
(b) Spreading of aggregate. The coarse aggregate is spread on the prepared surface of subgrade
evenly in layers.
The thickness of each layer should be such that it gives 7.5 cm thick layer on compaction.
The profile of the road is checked by placing templates across the road every 6 metres.
To ensure proper camber and grade the surface is checked from time to time.
The depth of each layer is checked by using a depth block.
The longitudinal variation in the surface is checked by placing a three metre long straight edge
parallel to the centre line.
Coarse aggregate should not be spread in length of more than 3 days average work in advance of
rolling.
3. Dry-rolling
 The objective of this rolling is to key the coarse aggregate thoroughly. After spreading, the
coarse aggregate and checking all irregularities, the rolling is done by a 6 to 10 tonnes, 3 wheeled
power rollers.
 Usually rolling is started from the edges with roller running forward and backward till the
aggregate is fully compacted.
 The roller is then moved gradually from edges towards the centre parallel to the centre line.
 The overlapping is done uniformly in such a fashion that the half width of surface is covered by
the rear wheels as the rolling proceeds.
 Rolling should be continued, till the entire area is rolled with the rear wheels.
 The irregularities and weaknesses of the coarse aggregate layer are corrected with additional
material as the rolling proceeds.
 Rolling should be continued till there is no creeping or wave of aggregates visible ahead of the
roller.
Application of screening
 The next step is the application and keying of screening. After the coarse aggregates are set and
keyed thoroughly by rolling, the screenings are spread uniformly and rolled.
 Generally, spreading, brooming and rolling operations are carried out simultaneously.
 The quantity of screenings is generally used to fill about 50% of total voids and the rest 50%
voids are filled with filler materials.
Wet rolling
 After spreading the screenings, the surface of the layer is sprinkled with water and rolled again.
 The sprinkling of water and rolling is continued till all the voids are filled and wave of grout
flushes ahead of the roller.
 This indicates that all voids are filled with chocking material.
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 The quantity of water and screenings are generally dependent upon many factors such as size and
nature of aggregate, type of surface desired etc.
Application of filler.
 The filler material is applied in two successive thin layers. The plasticity index of the filler
material should not be more than 9.
 After the application of the filler, water is sprinkled on the surface and the slurry is allowed to
fill the voids.
 Now rolling is done with 6 to 10 tonne roller. To wash down the binding material off the wheels of
the roller water is poured on them.
Surface Finishing
 The section prepared as discussed above is allowed to dry overnight and then a thin layer about
0.6 cm thick of sand or earth spread over the surface. The surface lightly sprinkled with water
and rolled again.
Shoulders
 These are made of the same cross slope as that of pavement and are compacted by rolling.
 After proper drying and set of the W.B.M. it is opened to the traffic.

BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS
The bituminous roads are those roads in which the surfaces are treated with some bituminous
materials such as bitumen, coal tar, or asphalt.
These roads are called as black top roads. This type of road construction is becoming popular day by
day due to scarcity of funds and non-availability of cement.
Secondly, stage development is possible in this type of roads depending upon the traffic demand.
Types of Bituminous construction
Numerous types and methods are in use for the construction of bituminous pavements. Followings are
the various types of bituminous surfaces:
1. Surface painting or surface dressing.
2. Seal coat and other interface treatment like prime coat and tack coat.
3. Penetration or Grouted macadam.
4. Premix, it may be any of the following type:
(a) Bituminous bound macadam.
(b) Carpet.
(c) Bituminous concrete.
(d) Rolled asphalt or sheet asphalt.
(e) Mastic asphalt.
 In the above methods, the bituminous binders are used as bitumen, road tar, cut back, or
emulsion.
 The choice of particular binder depends upon the type of construction, availability of materials,
equipments, climatic conditions etc. definitions.
Bitumen
 "A viscous material having adhesive properties derived from petroleum either by natural or
refinery process, and substantially soluble in carbon disulphide".
 In general it is blackish-brown in colour, sticky, semi-solid and melts on heating.
 Bitumen is obtained by partial distillation of crude petroleum either by nature or artificially in
refineries.
 Thus the bitumen is a by-product of the frictional distillation of crude petroleum. It also occurs in
natural state.
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Asphalt
 It is natural by-product of distillation of crude petroleum. In fact it is a substance containing
high percentage of bitumen and some inert mineral substances.
 The main difference between bitumen and asphalt is that when crude petroleum is fractionally
distilled in refineries the product is called "bitumen" while the natural distilled product is known
as asphalt.
 It is blackish-brown is colour, non- inflammable, but burns with a smoky flame at 250°C
temperature.
 According to the source, asphalt can be defined as:
o Lake asphalt. It is natural asphalt, found in lakes; it contains about 40 to 70% bitumen and
about 30% water, lime, clay and sand etc. lake asphalt is refined by boiling it in tanks. In this
process the water evaporates, and the impurities float to the surface and are removed. It is
the best material for road construction.
o Rock asphalt the asphalt occurring within porous rock structure such as sand stone or lime
stone is known as rock asphalt and quarried and refined. It contains about 20% bitumen and
rest stone.
Coal tar
 It is a residual by-product obtained by destructive distillation of coal for the manufacture of coal
gas.
 It is used as preservative for timber and road making.
Cut back
 To modify the properties or reduce the viscosity of bitumen or asphalt, a fraction of the
distillate is mixed to it. The new product obtained is known as cut back.
 When the cut backs are spread on the road or mixed with aggregates, the volatile oil evaporates
leaving behind thick oil.
 Cut backs contain about 80% asphalt and 20% solvent. The type of solvent to be used depends
upon the rate of evaporation required of the cut back to suit the type of road construction.
Emulsions
 A mixture of two unmixable liquids, the one dispersed in the other in the form of droplets is
known as emulsion.
 Bitumen emulsion consists of asphalt or tar particles of size about 3 micron (3 x 10~3mm)
dispersed in water in the presence of some emulsifying agent added at the rate of 1%.
 Bitumen emulsion can be applied at normal temperature without heating; it is useful for damp
surfaces.
 When bitumen emulsion is spread over the road surface, the water is evaporated or soaked by the
surface and the bitumen particles reunite again.
 At this stage its colour changes from brown to black. Before applying bitumen emulsion, the road
surface should be thoroughly cleaned and slightly damped with water.
Prime coat
The first single coat of liquid bitumen given upon the untreated compacted surface of gravel or
W.B.M. bases etc. before placing bituminous wearing surface is called the prime coat.
Functions
i. The most important function of the prime coat is to promote bond or adhesion between the
base and the wearing surface.
ii. It binds together any loose aggregate in the base.
iii. It plugs the capillary voids.

6
Tack coat
 A single initial coat of bituminous material applied on surfaces previously treated before giving a
new bituminous wearing surface is known as tack coat.
 It ensures the better adhesion between the existing surface and the new bituminous surface.

SURFACE DRESSING
 In order to give better stability and good surface to water bound macadam or gravel road a thin
layer of bituminous material is applied on the prepared surface.
 After sprinkling the bitumen, coarse sand or fine mineral aggregates are spread over the surface
and rolled. The compacted thickness of this layer generally varies from 2 to 3 cm.
Purpose
The mixed traffic destroys the W.B.M. surface very soon without a proper cover to it. Thus to
prevent this defect, a thin cover is provided which is known as surface dressing.
The main functions of the surface dressing are as follows:
1. To provide a dust free pavement surface over the base course.
2. To provide water proof layer to prevent infiltration of surface water.
3. To protect base course and provide stability to the whole structure.
Construction Procedure
 Surface dressing can be done on a new W.B.M. or on existing surface.
 If the surface dressing is to be given to a new W.B.M. road surface then in the construction
process the bindage and bindage layers are omitted.
 In this case, the road materials are properly rolled after sprinkling water and the surface
dressing is applied.
 In case of an old road or existing W.B.M., the surface is reconditioned, i.e., brought to proper
gradients and camber after repairing all defects.
 It is then cleaned with wire brush so that all dust is removed and the aggregates exposed at least
up to a depth of 1.25 cm., but they should not be loosened.
 Surface dressing can be done in a single coat or in double coat. Surface dressing is done only in
dry and clear weather at or above the atmospheric temperature of 16°C.
1. Preparation of surface. The existing surface is reconditioned as explained above, if the existing
base course is made of porous aggregates or stabilized soil, a prime coat is applied.
2. Application of binder. On the prepared surface a uniform layer of bituminous binder is applied at
the specified rate given in Table 10.2. Generally 2 kg binder per square metre surface is sufficient.
Binder should not be excessive on any portion as it would cause bleeding.
3. Application of chippings. After spraying binder chippings are spread as per specifications in a
uniform layer over the entire surface.
4. Rolling of 1st layer or final coat. Rolling is started from the edges towards the centre
longitudinally with overlapping not less than 1/2 of the width of rolling wheel.
When the half surface is rolled, then rolling again is started from the other edge.
The rolling should be continued till the particles are firmly interlocked. This is called final rolling if
single coat is required. If double coat is required, the second binder is applied to the prepared
surface and chippings spread as per requirement. Finally it is rolled.
5. Finishing. The surface so prepared is checked for its Cross profile etc. and opened to traffic after
24 hours.

INTERFACE TREATMENT

7
Generally bituminous treatment is given to existing W.B.M. road surfaces. In all bituminous
constructions it is essential that a good bond should exist between the newly laid bituminous layer and
the existing surface at the interface. For durability of the bituminous layer, it is also essential that
the base course should be impervious otherwise some of the binder may go to the voids of the base
leaving much less binder in the surface layer for binding the pieces of aggregates. Thus depending
upon the condition of the existing base two types of interface treatments are recommended.
1. Prime coat. It is recommended when the first coat of bituminous surfacing is done on an existing
pervious texture base such as W.B.M. road.
2. Tack coat. It is usually recommended when the bituminous surfacing is done over an existing
cement concrete top or already existing black top surface road.
3. Seal coat. It is usually recommended as a final coat over certain pervious bitumen pavements. Thus
a seal coat is a very thin surface treatment or a single coat of surface dressing usually applied on the
existing black top surfaces.
The main functions of seal coats are as follows:
(a) To develop the skid resistance texture of the surface.
ib) To make the surface water-proof, i.e., to seal the surface pores so that water may not seep in it.
(c) To increase the life of the surface.
4. Grouted or penetration Macadam. In water bound macadam the strength is developed due to
mechanical interlocking and bond due to soil binder. The stresses induced due to heavy mixed traffic
destroys these surfaces very soon. Thus in
order to increase the stability of such roads,
bitumen is used as a binder. In the penetration macadam construction, the bitumen is spread over the
compacted aggregate surface. The bitumen penetrates into the voids from the surface, filling up a
part of voids and binding the aggregates together. When the bitumen penetrates upto half of the
thickness of road surface then it is
BITUMEN SURFACE DRESSING -SURFACE OF ROAD METAL
i

>r/jk<-v>(i
(GRADE FOUNDATION LAYER
Fig. 10.5. Typical cross section of W.B.M. road.
HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
1.8
called semi-grouted.
If the bitumen penetrates upto full depth then it is called full grout. Full grout is adopted in regions
of very heavy rainfall and semigrout in average rainfall areas. Generally the depth of full grout is kept
between 5 to 7.5 cm and semi-grout thickness as 5 cms.
10.14.1. Construction process
1. Preparation of existing surface. The underlying course is reconditioned, lightly scarified and
brushed. Priming coat is applied if required.
2. Spreading of aggregate and rolling. The coarse aggregates are spread with proper edge protection.
The cross-section profile is checked with a template. Now the aggregates are rolled dry with a 10
tonne roller starting from the edges. The over lap is restricted to 30 cm. Rolling is continued till the

8
sign of crushing of aggregates are seen or formation of waves in front of roller are ceased. The
profile of dry compacted aggregates is again checked and corrected if found necessary.
3. Application of bitumen. Over the dry and compacted surface of coarse aggregates, the binder
(bitumen) is uniformly spread either with pressure distributor or hand sprayer. Generally for every 10
m2 surface, 50 kg and 68 kg bitumen is required for 5 cm and 7.5 thickness compacted surface
respectively.
4. Spreadings of chippings. After the application of the bitumen the chippings or key aggregates are
spread and rolled. Generally 10 to 12 mm size key aggregates are used. The quantity of key aggregates
required for every 10 m2 area for 5 cm and 7.5 cm. compacted surface are 0.15 m and 0.18 m3
respectively. The quantities of coarse aggregates required for every 10 m2 area are 0.60 m3 and 0.90
m3 for 5 cm and 7.5 cm thickness respectively.
Seal coat. Premixed sand bitumen or surface dressing type seal coat is applied either immediately or
after a few days.

PREMIX METHOD
In this group of methods, the aggregates and binder is mixed prior to placing and spreading over the
desired surface. In this group of methods following methods are included: (a) Bitumen bound
macadam. (b) Bituminous carpet,
(c) Bituminous concrete. (d) Sheet asphalt. N
(e) Mastic asphalt.
1. Bitumen bound macadam
General. In the bitumen bound macadam the binder and aggregates are mixed prior to placement and
the finished thickness is kept from 5 to 7.5 cm. The size of aggregates varies with thickness. The
maximum size for 7.5 cm thick layer is limited to 37 mm.
(a) In hilly regions, the bitumen bound macadam have been found more resistant to frost action than
normal base courses.
(b) In regions of high water table, the bitumen bound macadam offers an impervious cut off.
(c) By the use of bitumen bound macadam superior quality aggregates may be replaced by medium
quality aggregates. Thus great economy may be effected in regions where medium quality aggregates
are available.
Construction procedure
1. Preparation of existing surface. The existing surface is reconditioned to proper camber profile and
cleaned properly.
2. Application of prime or tack coat. On the prepared surface a thin layer of binder is applied. For
every 10 m2 area of surface 4.0 to 7.5 kg. of binder is required for black top surface and 7.5 to 10 kg
for untreated W.BJM. surface layers.
3. Premix. The aggregates of proper gradation and binder are separately heated at about 120°C and
then placed in a mixer. In the mixer they are mixed till a homogeneous mixture is obtained.

1.9
ROAD ENGINEERING
4. Placement. The mixture so prepared is placed on the already prepared surface and spread in
uniform desired thickness with rakes. The camber is checked with template. Minimum time should be
spent between the placement of the mix and its rolling.

9
5. Rolling and finishing operation. Rolling is done with a 8 to 10 tonne roller. The rolling is commenced
from edges towards centre of the pavement with uniform overlapping. The finished surface should
not show separate lines of marking due to defective rolling. The wheels of the roller should be kept
damp to avoid stiking of mix to wheels which may not give good finish.
2. Bituminous Carpet
Its construction is usually recommended for surface course layer only. Bituminous carpet is a premix
prepared from 10 to 12 mm size chippings with sand and bitumen binder. The thickness of this type of
carpet varies from 2 to 2.5 cm.
Construction Procedure
1. Preparation of existing surface. Before applying carpet over the existing surface, it is
reconditioned properly by filling pot-holes etc. with pre-coated aggregates. If the surface is made of
soft-aggregates, a prime coat is applied, otherwise over old bitumen or W.B.M. surface a tack coat is
applied before placing the carpet premix.
2. Application of prime or tack coat. The bitumen binder is heated to the specified temperature and
tack or prime coat is applied just before spreading the premix.
3. Preparation of mix. The chippings and bitumen are heated separately to the specified temperature
and then mixed properly till a homogeneous mix is obtained. It is spread over the prepared surface
with suitable rakes and rolled.
4. Rolling and finishing. Before rolling, the profile is checked with a template and rolling started. At a
time, premix is laid on a length of 15 metres and rolled. To avoid adhension of mix to the wheels it is
kept wet with the help of wet gunny bags or sprinkling water. Rolling is done till it stopped showing
wave infront of the roller.
5. Application of seal coat. In low rainfall areas a premixed medium coarse sand is applied over the
carpet. Generally for every 10 m2 area 0.06 m3 of sand and 6.83 kg binder is required. In high rainfall
areas, i.e. where rainfall is more than 125 cm per year a liquid seal is sprayed with a layer of chippings
applied over the carpet. The chippings of 6 mm size are used at the rate of 0.091 m' per 10 m area.
The chippings are rolled with a light roller and the pavement is opened to the traffic after 24 hours.
3. Bituminous Concrete
Bituminous concrete premix pavement surface construction is the best and can be used for heavier
and mixed traffic. In this method coarse and fine aggregates are used along with bitumen to give
dense mass. The thickness of the bitumen concrete layer depends on the traffic intensity and the
quality of the base course.
The mix is carefully designed and the aggregates and bitumen heated separately upto specified
temperature and mixed together till all the particles are coated with bitumen. The construction of
bituminous concrete surfacing is done in two layers: (/) binder course, («) wearing course.
Advantages of bituminous concrete surfacing
1. It provides a resilient, water-proof, dust free, smooth riding surface.
2. It can withstand heavy vehicles excellently.
3. A carefully designed and constructed bituminous concrete layer is comparable to cement concrete
pavements in durability and riding qualities etc.
Construction Procedure
1. Preparation of existing base course layer. The existing base course is reconditioned, filling pot
holes etc. The ruts and irregularities are filled in with premixed chippings at least one weak in
advance of
HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
1.10

10
laying the surface course. It is desirable to give binder course before laying bituminous concrete
surface layer.
2. Preparation and placing of premix. It is also called hot mix. The ingredients of the mix are taken in
predetermined proportion. The aggregates and binder are heated separately up to the specified
temperature of 180°C and mixed in a hot mix plant of required capacity. The hot mix is collected and
spread over the prepared surface. The camber and thickness of concrete layer is carefully checked.
The quality control of the concrete is of much importance.
3. Rolling. After placing the concrete, it is compacted by rolling at a speed of not more than 5 km/per
hour. The number of passes depends upon the thickness of the layer. The initial rolling is done by 8 to
12 tonne roller and intermediate rolling with fixed wheel pneumatic roller of 15 to 30 tonnes having a
tyre pressure of 7 kg/cm2. The wheels are kept damp with water.
Materials. The binder varies from 6 to 7.5% of the mix by weight. Coarse aggregate to fine aggregate
ratio 2:1.
10.16. CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
Cement concrete pavements have proved much superior than other type of pavements due to the
following reasons:
1. Cement concrete pavements give excellent riding surface and pleasing appearance.
2. The life of cement concrete pavements is much more than any other type of pavements.
3. Cost of maintenance is low.
4. Their design is rational.
Besides above noted advantages of cement concrete pavements they have certain drawbacks also as
noted below:
1. Their initial cost is high.
2. A large number of longitudinal and transverse joints have to be provided which are a source of
weakness.
3. It requires at least 28 days curing, during which period pavements cannot be opened to the traffic.
10.16.1. Construction of Cement Concrete pavement
Cement concrete pavements can be constructed by the following methods:
1. Cement grout method
2. rolled concrete method
3. Cement concrete slab method.
1. Cement grout method. This method is similar to bituminous grouted or penetration construction
method. In this method the well graded aggregate of specified specifications generally from 18 to 25
mm in size are laid on the prepared subgrade and rolled dry. The rolled or compacted thickness of the
aggregates should be 75 to 80% of the loose thickness. Then a mixture of sand and cement in water is
allowed to penetrate into the rolled surface. The ratio of cement to sand may vary from l.l| to l:2j.
The grout sets in the
voids of the aggregates and binds them together, giving them strength and stability. This method is
suitable for base course only.
2. Rolled concrete layer method. This method is suitable for base only. In this method a lean mix of
cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate is used. The mix of the specified specifications is
prepared and spread over the prepared base and rolled similar to W.B.M. Generally compacted
thickness should be about 80% of the loose thickness. After rolling is completed, it is left for curing
for 28 days.
3. Cement concrete slab method. This method comprises of laying concrete in bays, i.e. in small
portions at a time. This can be done in two ways.
(a) Alternate bay method
11
(b) Continuous bay method
1.144
ROAD ENGINEERING
(c) In alternate bay method of pavement construction, the pavement surface is divided into a large
number of bays and concreting is done in alternate bays.
The left bays are concreted after a weak or so. This method has certain advantage and disadvantages
as well.
Advantages
1. To provide construction joints is easy.
2. It provides ease in working.
Disadvantages
1. Large number of transverse joints have to be provided. This reduces the smooth riding qualities of
the surface and increases cost of construction.
2. During rainy period, surface water collects on the sub-grade between finished bays.
3. Construction is spread over the full width of the road, hence the traffic has to be diverted, which
entails further expenditure.
(u) In the continuous bay method, all the bays are laid in sequence. In this method construction joints
have to be provided at the end of the day's work.
This method is preferred due to the fact that in this method concreting can be completed in half
width of the pavement at a time. During this period traffic can be allowed to use the other half
portion. Thus the expenditure required for diverting the traffic can be saved.
Construction Procedure
1. Preparation of subgrade or sub base. The subgrade or sub base should be thoroughly compacted and
extended at least 30 cm both sides beyond" the edges of the pavement. It should be properly
drained. No soft patches be left in it. The subgrade is prepared as above and its correctness is
checked at least two days before the placement of concrete, it should be kept moist by sprinkling
water at the time of placing concrete. If necessary it can be saturated with water for 6 to 20 hours
before placing concrete in case of porous subgrade. Forms. Wooden or steel forms may he used.
Generally the length of one form is kept 3 metres. The steel forms are made of M.S. channels.
The wooden forms are made of good quality timber. They are jointed neatly and are set with
exactness to the required grade and alignment. They are provided sufficient rigidity by proper
support so that they may not deviate much from their positions.
Mix. Generally the coarse aggregates should be of strong and durable stone. It should be free from
harmful materials such as coal, iron pyrites, mica, clay and fine particles passing through a 75 micron
sieve. Natural sand should be used as fine aggregate. The proportion of cement, sand and coarse
aggregate should be such that the 28 days strength of the resulting concrete should not be less than
280 kg/cm .
The concrete may be prepared either in batch mixer or manually. The concrete is placed over the
prepared subgrade and compacted either by power driven vibrators or by a vibrating hand screed.
Before the initial set of the cement the edges of the slab are finished carefully with the edging tools.
Now the surface is left for curing. After proper curing for 28 days it is opened to the traffic. Some
times 14 days curing is also sufficient.
10.17. JOINTS IN CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
Due to the changes in atmospheric temperature, the temperature of pavement slab also changes. The
change of concrete slab temperature causes movement of the slab, thereby inducing stresses in it
known as temperature stresses. Thus to minimise temperature stresses in the pavement slab
following types of joints are provided in the slab:
12
(a) Expansion joint (b) Contraction joint
(c) Warping joint
The joints are provided transversely along the full width of the pavement slab. In addition to the
above
HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
1.13
joints, construction joints are also provided. The construction joints are provided at the close of
day's work and the commencement, of the same the next day. Generally concreting is done in one lane
width at a time. Thus the two lanes also are jointed together by a joint, known as longitudinal joint.
Thus joints may also be classified depending upon the direction of their placement as follows:
1. Transverse joints 2. Longitudinal joints
Transverse joints may further by classified as:
(a) Construction joint (c) Contraction joint
The locations of these joints are iTiOwn in Fig. 10.6.
10.17.1. Requirements of good joints
Following requirements must be fulfilled by good joints
1. Joints must be free to move.
2. Joints must be water tight, i.e., they should not allow rain water to infiltrate and ingress of stone
grits.
3. Joints should not protrude out the general level of the pavement slab.
(b) Expansion joint (d) Warping joint
rCONTRACTION JOINT
EXPANSION JOINT)
DOWEL BARS J" rLONGlTUDINAL 'i
JOINT
ill t 1 |
1 1
_ „.! t ' ' 1 ...... '......
......
*" t----r -i------t—.......i i _T
'-i - -- •
XTIE BARS ~ i
...........-......
T
i SLAB
SLAB LENGTH-
Fig. 10.6. Location of joints. These joints are described in detail in the following paragraphs:
10.18. TRANSVERSE JOINTS
(a) Construction joint. These joints are provided where the day's work is finished. They are provided
to develop proper bond between the new and old concrete. A construction joint is provided with a key
and reinforcing bar as shown in Fig. 10.11 (c).
(b) Expansion joint. These joints are provided to allow the expansion of concrete slab due to
temperature rise. In India expansion joints in concrete pavements are provided at an interval of 18 m
to 21 metres. The approximate gap width for this type of joints is provided between 2 to 2.5 cm.
In expansion joints the load trans- fer is effected through dowel bars. As shown in Fig. 10.7 the dowel
bars are embedded and kept fixed in

13
FILLER-^ f SEALER ^ .METALJ^PJ^RTLY
BITUMEN ^ COATING 7
FILLED WITH
STEEL DOWEL
3AS
22cm-
-30cm

concrete at one end and the other end is kept free to expand or contract by providing a thin coating
of bitumen over it.
At the free end a metal cap is provided to offer a space of about 2.5 cm for movement during
expansion. It has been estimated that generally
about 20% load transference takes fig. 10.7. Expansion Joint with Dowel Bar.
place which induces high stresses in concrete. The total length of the dowel bar varies from 40 to 60
cm depending upon their diameter. The diameter of dowel bars varies with spacing and pavement
thickness, but generally 2 to 3 cm diameter dowels are sufficient. Their spacing generally is kept as
30 cm.
(c) Contractions joint. These joints are provided to accommodate the contraction of the slab. These
joints are spaced closer than expansion joints depending upon the type of aggregate used and type of
soil of subgrade etc. The load transfer is effected through the physical interlocking of the
aggregates projecting out of the joints. For different types of aggregates, contraction joints spacing
is recommended as follows Table 10.5.
1.14
ROAD ENGINEERING
Table 10.5.
Types of coarse aggregate Joints spacing in metres
1. Granite 7.5
2. Lime stone 7.5
, . Calcareous 3. Gravel 7.5 7.5
„...
Siliceous
4. Slag 4.5
M

Contraction joints are shown in Fig. 10.8 to 10.10.

Fig. 10.8 shows a dummy joint. Fig. 10.9 and 10.10 show contraction joint with a dowel bar.
(d) Working joint. These joints are provided to relieve stresses developed due to working. Actually
these joints are seldom needed if properly' designed expansion and contraction joints are provided in
the pavement. These are also called hinged joints.
10.19. LONGITUDINAL JOINTS
Longitudinal joints are provided in cement concrete roads if their width is more than 4.5 metres. This
type of joint acts as a hinge and helps to keep the two portions of the pavement at the same level.

14
In longitudinal joints also tie bars are used transversely to hold the adjacent parts of the pavement
together. Various types of longitudinal joints are shown in Fig. 10.11. IRC has recommended the use
specification of the tie bar may be as follows:
SEAL WITH PLASTIC MATERl
sealer

CAULKrNG JH/J 72K/3 MATERIAL'

Fig. 10.8. Dummy joint WITH
PLAlNe wcrial-ut

}
Fig. 10.9. Contraction joint with dowel bar of plain butt or butt with tie bar type joint. The
Ft uSh- With
SURFACE
•""i-
—-—•.......,a
i& -^
1 wt,

Fig. 10.10. Contraction joint with dowel bar

1. Diameter of tie bar —> 12 to 25 mm depending upon intensity of traffic.
2. Spacing -> 60 cms
3. Length —> 105 cm. both end embedded in concrete
10.20. JOINT FILLER AND SEALER
Joints form the weakest plane in the concrete pavement and can allow infiltration of rain water and
ingress of stone grits. The infiltration of water may damage the subgrade and the ingress of stone
grit reduces the effective width of the joint causing faults like spalling of the joint.
10.20 J.
Hill ^ 1. Soft
2.
3. Cork a
4. Coir S The strips
359t by »etj* Fig. 10.1 during change just as the sur pavement exp the expansion soon as wintc
contracts leavi gap between d The gaps are inside the joint
10.21. JOINT
A good joi properties:
1. Adhesio
2. Extensit
3. Resistan
4. Durabili
10.21.1. Mater
Following

15
1. Bitumen
2. Rubber t
HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
1.16
10.20.1. Properties of filler materials
The joint filler materials should possess the following properties:
(a) Compressibility. The filler material should be compressible and elastic. As per IRC
recommendations the joint filler materials should be of such compressibility that it could be
compressed to 50% of its original thickness by the application of pressure ranging from 7 kg/cm to 53
kg/cm2. During this process it should not loose its weight more than 3% of its original weight.
(b) Elasticity. The filler material should be quite elastic. As per IRC the material should at least
recover 70% of its original thickness after the release of applied load after one hour at the end of
third application of load.
(c) Durability. It should be quite durable.
10.20.2. Materials
Following materials may be used as joint filler.
SEalER

(a)
-SCALE*
-T>E EAR
=3
(b)
r
SEALEP

ic)
Fig. 10.11. Longitudinal joint, (a) Shows plain butt joint, (b) Shows joint with tie bar, (c) Shows tongue
and grove warping joint
1. Soft wood
2. Impregnated fibre board
3. Cork or cork bound with bitumen
4. Coir fibre.
The strips of above materials should be coated with bitumen. The bitumen content should not be less
than 35% by weight.
Fig. 10.12 explains the functioning of filler material during changes in season. Fig. 10.12 (a) shows the
situation just as the summer season starts. During summer season the pavement expands and the
filler contracts to accommodate the expansion of the slab as shown in Fig. 10.12 (b). As soon as winter
starts the cycle reverses and the pavement contracts leaving the filler in its compressed state
leaving a gap between the slab and filler as shown in Fig. 10.12 (c). The gaps are detrimental. They act
as if there is no filler inside the joint.
16
1
10.21. JOINT SEALER
A good joint sealer material should posses the following properties:
1. Adhesion to cement concrete edges.
2. Extensibility without fracture.
3. Resistance to infiltration of rain water, ingress of grit.
4. Durability.
10.21.1. Materials
Following materials may be used as joint sealer:
1. Bitumen
2. Rubber bitumen

Fig. 10.12. Functioning of joint filler

1.17
ROAD ENGINEERING
10.21.2. Functioning
The functioning of joint sealer materials is shown through Fig. 10.13 (a) shows the proper position of
a sealer material. As the winter season starts the contraction in the slab takes place causing cracks in
the material as shown in Fig. 10.13 (b). In summer season the sealer material will flow and spread
round the joint as shown in Fig. 10.13 (c).
The amount of flow depends upon the flow characteristics of the sealer material. The flow of sealer
material not only spoils the appearance of the cement concrete pavement but also decreases the
smoothness of riding quality of the surface.
SOME IMPORTANT FORMULEA FOR PLAIN
CONCRETE
(/) Spacing of Expansion joint 8'

SEALER
h' 100a (Tj - T2) (ii) Spacing of contraction joints or slab length
•d)

17
2SC
x
w.f
10*
-.(2)
where, 8' = 1/2 the expansion gap
a = Coefficient of thermal expansion (Ti - T2) = Change in temp.
/= Coefficient of friction (max. value 1.5)
w = unit weight of concrete (2400 kg/m3)
Sc = Allowable stress in tension in cement concrete (kg/cm2)
Area of steel A =
when;, A = Area of steel per m width or length of slab in cm2 L = Distance between free transverse
joints 5 = Allowable working stress in steel usually taken 1400 kg/cm2 w = Weight of unit area of
pavement slab kg/m3 /= Coefficient of friction as above.
Fig. 1(9.13. Functioning of joint sealer, (a) At the time of construction, (b) During winter, (c) During
summer.
QUESTIONS
1. What are different methods of road construction. Describe their merits and demerits.
2. Describe the methods of earth excavation for road construction. Explain in brief the machinery
used for this purpose.
3. What problems are encountered in the construction of high embankments over weak foundations?
How these problems are dealt with.
4. How subgrade is prepared?
5. Explain in brief the construction of the following roads (i) Earth road, (ii) Gravel road, (.Hi) W.M.B.
6. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Seal coat (b) Surface dressing (c) Penetration macadam (d) Bituminous concrete
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of cement concrete roads?
8. What are the objects of the following types of joints?
(a) Expansion joint (b) Longitudinal joint (c) Construction joint
(d) Transverse joint (e) Warping joint.
9. What are the requirements of good joint filler and sealer materials? Explain with the help of neat
sketches.

18