Archaeological Visualization
Archaeological Visualization
Archaeological Visualization
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Marcos Llobera
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Marcos Llobera
Abstract This paper reviews and evaluates the potential use of modern visualization
techniques in archaeology. It suggests the need to apply and develop such techniques
as a central part of any modern archaeological investigation. The use of these
methods is associated with wider questions about data representations, in particular,
their integration with archaeological theory and their role in facilitating analysis and
shaping interpretation. Concern for these questions and with the overall potential that
information systems provide to capture, represent, analyze, and model archaeolog-
ical information suggests the need for a new interdisciplinary focus, Archaeological
Information Science. For such a focus to prosper, archaeologists need to develop
additional skills that go beyond mere technical ones. They need to become more
active in the design and creation of future information archaeological systems. To
this end, archaeologists are urged to view this task as a way to extend archaeology in
new directions and to recognize that the digital representation and treatment of
archaeological information can generate new forms of doing archaeology.
The following paper has two aims. The first and prime goal is to discuss the potential
role that different types of visualization can play in archaeological discovery and
discourse. The second goal is to suggest the need for a new archaeological specialty
concerned with the use of archaeological information within the context of
information systems. Both of these goals are predicated on the ever growing use
of information systems in archaeology and the potential new venue these provide to
exploit, among other topics, the theory-ladenness of archaeological data.
M. Llobera (*)
Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Denny 32, Box 353100, Seattle,
WA 98195-3100, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Llobera
and complement some of the topics that are currently addressed by Moser and
colleagues.
In addition, I will purposely omit any reference to the application of Virtual
Reality (VR) in archaeology (Barceló et al. 2000; Benko et al. 2004) given its
limited role as an active tool in the process of archaeological discovery, analysis, or
interpretation. Most examples of VR in archaeology capitalize on their ability to
render “realistic” scenes and, in turn, to generate holistic experiences of the past.
Many are aimed at the heritage industry or at generating some form of display for
public consumption (Forte 1997; Niccolucci 2002). At some point, its application
to archaeology was hailed as an improvement over tools such as GIS based on its
ability to handle more complex spatial representations (Gillings and Goodrick
1996; Goodrick and Gillings 2000; Gillings 2004). However, as powerful as VR is
when rendering complex scenes, it was never intended as an analytical tool. This
does not mean that VR cannot be useful to archaeologists. The ability to render
alternative versions of a model (i.e., a structure or a scene) can be instrumental in
providing archaeologists new insights and raising new questions (e.g., Earl and
Wheatley 2002). VR can successfully be used to display the results of complex
simulation models and analytical tools (e.g., Winterbottom and Long 2006). But
VR is ultimately a protocol for rendering 3D graphics. In a sense, the role of VR
as an analytical tool is similar to the one that was associated with computer-aided
design (CAD) systems when GIS first appeared. CAD may be used in
combination with another tool to conduct analyses but, contrary to GIS, it was
never intended to be an analytical tool or to aid archaeologists to discover and
make intelligible data that otherwise would be impossible to grasp. The same can
be said about VR.
Why Visualization?
ologists are already, and are likely to be more in the future, confronted with large and
complex volumes of data. Access to data-rich sources and the use of devices that can
deliver vast amounts of data, such as satellite imagery, geophysics, laser scans,
LiDAR, GPS, portable XRF, to mention a few, are steadily increasing. The future
adoption of XML, or a similar mark-up language, to tag archaeological data (Gray
and Walford 1999; Crescioli et al. 2002; Isaksen et al. forthcoming), the
development of widely accepted ontologies to describe archaeological information
(Richards 2006), and the creation of digital archiving initiatives such as Archaeology
Data Service in the UK and Digital Antiquity in the US (Kintigh 2006; Snow et al.
2006; McManamon and Kintigh 2010), aimed at enabling access to large databanks
of archaeological information, will undoubtedly contribute to further increase the
amount and variety of data accessible to archaeologists.
Review of Visualization
Data Visualization
Fig. 1 Based on one of Randall Munroe’s movie narrative charts found at XKCD (http://xkcd.com). The
chart plots the interactions between key characters on a timeline, grouping the character lines together
when they are interacting in the movies
Fig. 2 A combination of a plan view of two burial sites, showing the axial line representing their entrance,
and a profile of the topography surrounding the sites, after Cummings et al. (2002) with permission
Llobera
Table 1 Co-visibility patterns between a cluster of round barrows (cluster1) and other cluster of barrows
in the landscape
F x 0.00 0.17 0.42 0.99 1.00 0.05 0.00 0.89 0.31 0.00 0.49 1.00 0.00 0.02 1.00
f 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
m 1.00 0.83 0.58 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
b 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.95 1.00 0.11 0.69 1.00 0.51 0.00 1.00 0.98 0.00
M x 0.79 0.70 0.53 0.72 0.40 0.39 0.46 0.65 0.62 0.47 0.55 0.57 0.60 0.38 0.66
f 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.05 0.00
m 0.20 0.29 0.47 0.26 0.59 0.51 0.54 0.35 0.38 0.53 0.45 0.43 0.30 0.58 0.34
b 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
B x 0.52 0.77 0.80 0.92 0.99 0.92 0.93 0.98 0.95 0.88 0.95 0.90 0.92 0.91 0.99
f 0.09 0.17 0.09 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.05 0.00
m 0.01 0.05 0.11 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.01
b 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00
middle ground. Finally, within 37% of the area, we would see both clusters 1 and
2 in the background.
Given the complexity of the data generated by the simulation, a graphical format
was devised as a way to summarize and compare information among clusters (see
Fig. 3). Each ring represents a different visibility range (foreground, middle ground,
and background) for the same cluster. In this example, the innermost ring represents
the area where cluster 1 appears in the foreground. The next ring represents where it
appears in the middle ground and so on. Within each ring, the total area is further
subdivided into similar categories representing the visibility ranges of the other
clusters. This subdivision (represented by different gray scales) represents the
proportion or probability of seeing other clusters at different visibility ranges. So for
the case of cluster 1, we can read from the graph that within roughly 85% of the area
where cluster 1 appears in the background, no other cluster is visible. Within the
remaining 0.15 (15%) chance, there is a 0.05 chance that some cluster will appear in
the background, 0.05 that it will occupy the middle ground, and 0.05 that it will
show up in the foreground. When we move to the next ring (middle ground), we see
that the overall visibility of other clusters has jumped to 45% and so on.
As with Cummings et al. (2002), this type of data visualization aims at aiding the
reader in constructing an interpretation from the data. Given perhaps its less iconic
nature, at least when compared with Cummings, the form of data representation calls
for a process of “discovery”, a process born from the possibility of multiple
readings, a common trait among other data-rich representations (Tufte [1983] (1998),
pp. 167–68). In this case, data can be inspected in various ways. One way would be
by simply comparing the percentage of white versus gray in a ring and/or across
rings. Another possible reading would come from comparing the percentage of each
visual range within a single ring. Finally, one may focus on how the different visual
ranges change across rings and whether a visual range appears or disappears and
increases or decreases and by how much. We may add another level of interpretation
by exploring the same questions using different number of clusters present at any
one time (see Llobera 2007). In this sense, this visualization straddles between two
types of visualization, data visualization and scientific visualization.
Scientific Visualization
& The highly regular and exhaustive level of sampling needed for scientific forms
of visualization, especially volumetric, is rarely achieved in archaeology (Barceló
and Vicente 2004). It is only in a limited number of cases, notably through
geophysical surveys (e.g., Gaffney 2008; Losier et al. 2007; Leucci and Negri
2006) and some excavations (e.g., McPherron and Dibble 2000) that this type of
sampling is ever achieved. While it is possible to use some scientific
visualization techniques with excavations that have been recorded using
“continuous” 3D coordinates (i.e., not artificial stratigraphy), they often suffer
from a lack of mathematical continuity. That is, observations do not extend
across space in a smooth fashion but instead present many abrupt breaks and
gaps. This produces artifacts that are not easily resolved graphically.
& For the most part, archaeologists concern themselves with collecting simple
information that can be adequately displayed using basic symbols and color.
Even after complex simulations (e.g., Kohler and van der Leeuw 2007; Kohler
and Gumerman 2000), visualizations have remained very basic. Current
scientific simulations, however, go beyond simple quantities and display
information (e.g., rates of change) that require more complex data structures
such as vectors and tensors. It is hard to ascertain whether the lack of higher-
order data structures, and their representations, in archaeology is a consequence
of the simple nature of the data being recorded or simply the lack of innovation
when it comes to recording, and displaying data, in new ways. It is probably
both. It is however possible that the use of “higher-order” data structures,
particularly in association with simulations, could provide the means to sustain
novel data interpretations.
An example of the possible use of higher data structures is shown in Fig. 5. This
example makes use of tensors, complex mathematical entities that have various
interpretations depending on how they are derived. Diffusion tensors, the type shown
here, are regularly employed to visualize information obtained through magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) (see Fig. 6). The rate at which a fluid diffuses across a
tissue depends on the internal structure of the tissue. The fluid will diffuse more
rapidly in the direction aligned with the internal structure and much more slowly
when moving perpendicular to it. In order to describe these changes around a
location, it is necessary to make reference to more than two dimensions. A second-
order tensor, represented here by an ellipsoid, is used to display the rate of diffusion
in multiple directions.
In the archaeological example shown above (Fig. 5), tensors are used to
describe how visibility associated with a certain distribution of monuments
changes around each location in the landscape. Locations closer to a single
monument will show up as an elongated ellipsoid. This is due to the visual
predominance of the monument at closer range. A similar result is obtained when
several monuments appear to be lined up when viewed from a single position. On
the other hand, locations where visible monuments are evenly distributed present
well-rounded ellipsoids, indicating the absence of any preferred viewing direction
(n. b. for the sake of simplicity, all monuments were assigned the same size). The
use of tensors (in this occasion represented as ellipsoids) allows us to describe the
visual structuring of the landscape due to the presence of monuments in a way that
is closer to that experienced by an individual in the landscape.
Fig. 6 MRI Diffusion tensors represented by 3D glyphs representing diffusion of fluid in a human brain.
Brain dataset courtesy of Gordon Kindlmann at the Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute,
University of Utah, and Andrew Alexander, W. M. Keck Laboratory for Functional Brain Imaging and
Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Archaeological Visualization - Towards an AISc
As mentioned above, the use of scientific visualization techniques has been absent
in archaeology. For example, the majority of 3D renderings of archaeological
excavations make little use of well-established volumetric techniques in this realm.
Instead, they are primarily constructed as static post facto illustrations rather than as
active aids to interpretation. This is likely to do with the nature of archaeological
observations and practices. Given these caveats, the application of these tools and
strategies is likely to be more successful in conjunction with simulations than as a
way to view and explore empirical data.
Information Visualization
and giving meaning to material culture (Hodder 1987, pp. 1–2; Moore 1986, pp. 2–
3; Meskell 2004, pp. 249; Jones 2007, pp. 79–80). These two ways of conceiving
and referring to the notion of context are related to each other. Indeed,
archaeologists frequently concern themselves with the former in order to throw
some light on the latter. A thorough discussion detailing the different strategies
archaeologists use to bridge both realizations would certainly be helpful, but it is
beyond the scope of this paper. Suffice it to say that the way in which we construct
both realizations is essentially the same, primarily by selecting, identifying, and
defining different types of relationships with other observations. Depending on our
scale of analysis and interpretation, the result, at the end, is a more or less complex
web of relationships.
For instance, for many archaeologists, the meaning of an object at any point in
time cannot be defined exclusively as a function of its immanent properties but must
also include reference to the sets of past and present relationships in which it
participated (e.g., Jones 2007). If we take a minute to imagine what these sets would
look like if represented as a network, it is clear that the network would be massive.
Most likely, it would contain many different types of relationships, or if we prefer,
be made out of multiple concurrent networks each of a different nature. Our task, as
archaeologists, is to identify and recover the relationships between the object and
other elements along with its life history (e.g., Kopytoff 1986; Gosden and Marshall
1999) and to determine, of all possible networks, which ones may have been
relevant for a particular purpose or setting. The nature of these relationships and the
criteria by which they are established will vary widely, ranging from the immediately
observable, e.g., spatial, topological, chronological, and meronymic, to those
requiring more interpretation, e.g., figurative (metaphorical, metonymic), temporal.
Currently, many of these relationships are unaccounted for and remain buried in
project databases.
With the increasing use of information systems, traditional forms of recording
archaeological contexts have given place to databases and other forms of digital
media. While their application is not contested by anyone, their use among
archaeologists remains less than optimal. The most sophisticated and widely used
method of recording context in archaeology is the relational database. However,
there has been remarkably little discussion of how easy or efficient it is to store,
access, and query data stored in such types of database. Commonly, databases are
designed for data entry, moreover, for a particular form of data entry. Emphasis is
on recording data and less on how easy it is to retrieve the data or to generate
data output in a certain form. The truth is that, even when archaeologists use
complex relational entity databases, their queries remain very simple and limited
in scope. Our ability to find new links among attributes of archaeological entities
stored inside a database is curtailed by its limited interface (traditionally in the
form of a table).
To illustrate, consider the example of a shard for which we have recorded the
traditional kind of information: stylistic elements, dimensions, physical properties of
the clay, temper and slip, etc. The range of meanings associated with the shard in the
past will most likely be a function of its relationship with other entities in our
database. The nature of this relationship may be simple and direct, e.g., sharing the
same space, or it may be complex and indirect, e.g., related to an activity that took
Archaeological Visualization - Towards an AISc
place in a location where some of these other entities were also present (e.g.,
Moore’s example of the use of ash, 1986, pp. 127). It is clear that our capacity to
investigate this second type of relationship hinges on the possibility of retrieving
information that is “deeper” in our database. It might require the intersection of
several queries. Furthermore, with each degree of separation, the size of what now
constitutes “relevant context” will increase exponentially, requiring a way to
prioritize relevant information.
The inability to explore this information adequately, i.e., to recover context, is
further exacerbated when archaeologists try to gain access to information beyond
a single project (i.e., other databases, site reports, publications). This is largely
due to the absence of commonly recognized conventions in data recording (see
Snow et al. 2006 and Kintigh 2006). It is precisely the ability to elicit information
from sources of a diverse nature that makes the development of information
visualization techniques in archaeology a key topic for the archaeology of the
twenty-first century.
To illustrate how techniques borrowed from information visualization may be
useful when exploring a real archaeological example, let us consider a typical
archaeological dataset containing information about the lithics from a site. These
data come from Close’s (2006) analysis of the assemblage of stone tools made from
crystalline volcanic rock at the English Camp site on the San Juan Island, Washington,
USA. Lithic typology, stages of production, and measurements were recorded in a flat
database (originally an SPSS table; see Table 2). The visualization technique presented
here is called Treemap (Johnson and Shneiderman 1991). This technique allows the
user to interactively organize data within a table into different tree-like hierarchies. The
presentation of hierarchical information using a traditional tree becomes quickly
cumbersome and ineffective once a dataset reaches a certain size. Treemap, however, is
able to render very complex nested structures in a compact space, allowing the user to
take in a large volume of information in a single viewing. It does this by representing
the relationship between one branch and each leaf within as a set of nested rectangles.
Each rectangle (its size and color) is proportional to the numerical variable/s set by the
user.
There are many implementations of the treemap algorithm. Most of them are able
to read flat database files with minimal alteration. Like other information
visualization techniques, treemap is used to help the researcher uncover patterns
and better understand data. The outcome is a very data-rich visualization that may be
read in many different ways.
Figures 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 show different treemap renderings of the data
contained in Table 2 that can be instantly generated by the user. It is this ability to
rearrange information quickly and render data in compact form that facilitates the
discovery of relationships latent within the data. Many of the patterns shown here
can be obtained through traditional means through a much longer period of
exploration, as opposed to seconds, and only after countless additional calculations
(Close, personal communication).
Treemap is one of the most popular visualization techniques used to render raw
table information into graphical form. There are potentially many other ways to elicit
structure from a database based on different metrics and/or other digital media as
well as to render this structure visually. Many of these are now becoming standards
Table 2 A typical spreadsheet table or flat-database commonly used by most archaeologists. Source of lithic data provided by A. E. Close used in her publication (2006)
Id Debtype Length Width Thickn Plfm Cortex Lip Natbk Unit Stratum Screen Tooltype Length_width
4819 chunk −99 −99 −99 n_a n_a n_a unbacked 105–365 1U one_fourth_inch unid/frag core −99
4870 chunk 40 25 18 n_a n_a n_a Unbacked 121–347 1A one_inch unid/frag core 1.6
4916 pebble −99 −99 −99 n_a n_a n_a unbacked 130–352 1B trench unid/frag core −99
4955 99 −99 −99 −99 n_a n_a n_a unbacked TRAB 1A half_inch unid/frag core −99
4987 pebble −99 −99 −99 n_a n_a n_a unbacked TRCD 1A one_inch unid/frag core −99
4988 pebble −99 −99 −99 n_a n_a n_a unbacked TRCD 1A half_inch unid/frag core −99
4990 pebble −99 −99 −99 n_a n_a n_a unbacked TRCD surface noprov unid/frag core −99
4991 pebble −99 −99 −99 n_a n_a n_a unbacked TRCD 1A trench unid/frag core −99
5032 pebble −99 20 9 n_a n_a n_a unbacked TREF 1C half_inch unid/frag core −99
5038 pebble −99 −99 −99 n_a n_a n_a unbacked TREF 1C trench unid/frag core −99
5116 pebble −99 −99 −99 n_a n_a n_a unbacked TREF 1A half_inch unid/frag core −99
5126 pebble −99 −99 −99 n_a n_a n_a unbacked TRGH surface half_inch unid/frag core −99
4799 fl_from_single_plfm_core 34 21 5 n_a primary n_a unbacked Unit_1 1C half_inch triangle 1.619047619
4800 unid_fl_not_bipolar −99 −99 6 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked Unit_1 1D half_inch triangle −99
4803 unid_fl_not_bipolar 38 22 7 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked Unit_1 1V trench triangle 1.727272727
4804 99 31 25 7 n_a tertiary n_a unbacked Unit_1 1E trench triangle 1.24
4805 unid_fl_not_bipolar 31 25 5 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked Unit_1 1S half_inch triangle 1.24
4806 99 45 24 5 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked Unit_1 surface noprov triangle 1.875
4807 unid_fl_not_bipolar 49 23 5 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked Unit_1 1W half_inch triangle 2.130434783
4808 99 −99 24 7 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked Unit_1 1C half_inch triangle −99
4809 99 −99 26 6 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked Unit_1 1T half_inch triangle −99
4810 unid_fl_not_bipolar −99 23 6 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked Unit_1 1D half_inch triangle −99
4813 unid_fl_not_bipolar −99 36 11 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked 107–341 1C half_inch triangle −99
Llobera
Table 2 (continued)
Id Debtype Length Width Thickn Plfm Cortex Lip Natbk Unit Stratum Screen Tooltype Length_width
4826 99 −99 −99 −99 n_a n_a n_a unbacked 105–365 1O one_fourth_inch triangle −99
4837 unid_fl_not_bipolar −99 25 6 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked 105–365 surface half_inch triangle −99
4838 unid_fl_not_bipolar 38 21 6 n_a secondary n_a unbacked 105–365 1W half_inch triangle 1.80952381
4839 unid_fl_not_bipolar 28 23 5 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked 105–365 1H trench triangle 1.217391304
4840 unid_fl_not_bipolar 36 22 6 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked 105–365 1U half_inch triangle 2.117647059
4842 unid_fl_not_bipolar 36 17 5 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked 105–365 surface trench triangle 2.117647059
4843 unid_fl_not_bipolar −99 24 6 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked 105–365 1T trench triangle −99
4844 unid_fl_not_bipolar 45 21 7 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked 105–365 surface trench triangle 2.142857143
4845 unid_fl_not_bipolar −99 23 5 n_a nocortex n_a unbacked 105–365 1L half_inch triangle −99
Archaeological Visualization - Towards an AISc
Llobera
Fig. 7 Application of treemap visualization to display flat-database information. The size of each square
is proportional to the length:width ratio. Color brightness is also proportional to this value
within the information visualization world and can be found as part of software
research libraries and frameworks (e.g., Indiana University School of Library and
Information Science’s InfoVis Cyberinfrastructure or Sandia National Laboratory’s
Paraview).
Fig. 8 The length:width ratio is shown by debitage type. The size of the box representing each debitage
type is proportional to the sum of the length:width ratio in that debitage type. This snapshot shows how
three types of debitage clearly dominate over the others. It also points out how the less common debitage
types tend to be more homogeneous and present larger length:width ratios. Overall it appears to reflect the
choice of type list used in this study
Archaeological Visualization - Towards an AISc
Fig. 9 The length:width ratio is shown by debitage type. The size of the box representing each debitage
type is proportional to the average of the length: width ratio within every debitage type. Except for some
categories (bipolar 1st flake and batonnet) the more prevalent debitage types appear to have, on average, a
similar length:width ratio
Visual Analytics
To conclude this overview of the world of visualization, I shall briefly refer to the most
recent development within visualization: visual analytics. As with other visualization
Fig. 10 The length:width ratio is shown by debitage type and further subdivided by platform type. The
box is proportional to the sum of the length: width ratio within each category or subcategory. In this image
we can readily compare what platforms are more present depending on debitage or whether all debitage
types share the same types of platform
Llobera
Fig. 11 The length: width ratio is shown for a particular branch of the tree created after we subdivide
assemblage first by debitage type and then by platform type (see Fig. 10). In this particular case the branch
corresponds to flakes from a single platform core further subdivided by core type. This shows that it is
possible to zoom in and out any branch within the hierarchy in order to further explore data
fields, it is hard to tell where this field begins and where it ends; however, the primary
focus of visual analytics is the use of visualization as the active element of the analytical
process. According to Wong and Thomas (2004, pp. 20–21):
Visual analytics is the formation of abstract visual metaphors in combination
with a human information discourse (interaction) that enables detection of the
expected and discovery of the unexpected within massive, dynamically
changing information spaces. […]
Visual analytics is an outgrowth of the fields of scientific and information
visualization but includes technologies from many other fields, including
knowledge management, statistical analysis, cognitive science, decision
science, and many more.
Visual analytics focuses on the process of analysis facilitated by the use of highly
interactive visual displays. Emphasis is on the role that representations play within
analytic discourse and reasoning. Both exploration and development are essential
traits of this area. It fosters the design of new visual interfaces aimed at maximizing
human capacity to perceive, understand, and reason about complex and dynamic
data. Not surprisingly, these goals have been extended to incorporate spatial and
geographic information giving way to the field of Geovisualization (Dykes et al.
2005; Andrienko et al. 2007). The suitability of some of the techniques developed
within this field to archaeology has already been explored in a recent article by
Huisman et al. (2009). The authors of this paper used a modern version of
Hägerstrand’s space–time cube to visualize basic archaeological information. It is
still early to determine whether the use of this specific way of visualizing space–time
information may be an appropriate one for archaeological purposes. The geographic
Archaeological Visualization - Towards an AISc
deeper and more far-reaching the moment information systems are adopted. It is all
too easy for the user to forget that he/she is subscribing to a particular form of data
representation.
Nowadays, most archaeologists agree that the empirical basis of any archaeolog-
ical investigation, i.e., recording and quantification, contains a certain level of
interpretation, and it is related to specific goals. However, discussions on this matter
have been mostly reduced to an issue regarding the choice of data (Chippindale
2000; Hodder 1999, pp. 62, 67) not its form. Archaeologists decide what data to
collect based on the questions they are asking and on their theoretical orientation.
Attention to the embedded nature of theory in data seems to be suspended after a
choice has been made or it is simply dismissed. With some exceptions (e.g., Lucas
2001), the connection between theory and data has not ignited any further
developments or translated into different forms of data collection, representation, and
processing. This absence is significant and important in light of the flurry of theories that
is currently used in archaeology. Theoretical referents, and ideas, are readily
incorporated into narratives but seldom trickle down to change the way we gather,
organize, and represent our data (for an example within a “phenomenological”
approach, see Hamilton et al. 2006).
Concern with the integration of data, its representation, and theory is not new in
archaeology. Early studies, many of which have given way to well-recognized
standards, in archeozoology (e.g., Grayson 1984) and pottery analyses (e.g., Orton
1982, 1993), focused on how empirical data and subsequent transformations
supported certain interpretations. While many of these aimed at resolving questions
about data reliability (e.g., what can we say from our density of shards or bone
fragments?), the bulk has been directed towards supporting interpretations that were
mostly economic and/or about subsistence. This type of focus is noticeably absent
with later theoretical orientations. It is within this context that reference to data
structures, i.e., the way observation are collected and given shape, becomes relevant
to archaeology as a whole.
Hence, the treatment of archaeological information proposed here is that outlined
by Van Fraasen in his discussion on the role representations play in science (2008).
In his synthesis, Van Fraasen makes a useful distinction between phenomena and
appearances. Phenomena are observable entities (e.g., the shards, the eroded land
surface). Appearances are “the contents of observation or measurement outcomes”
(ibid., pp. 8). They have to do with how we “capture” information (what we record
and how). Constructs such as minimum number of individuals (MNI) (Grayson
1984) and estimated vessel equivalent (EVE) (Orton 1993) are appearances that have
already been accepted in archaeology. In the context of this paper, they would
correspond to data structures. The key point is that they are subject to theoretical
orientations and to the intentions and goals of the researcher.
Archaeologists seldom go directly from observations to producing an interpreta-
tion; instead, they generate tangible pieces of information or “reasoning artifacts”
(Thomas and Cook 2005, pp. 36; Gooding 2008, para. 50) along the way that
contribute towards supporting a final interpretation. Data structures, when used to
organize archaeological observations, can be employed in the same capacity and
provide a new venue for exploring the connection between data and theory in
archaeology. Unlike archaeological observations, where reference to their theoretical
Archaeological Visualization - Towards an AISc
Fraasen 2008, pp. 8). Theoretical constructs, such as agency, are often only
incorporated at the later stages of a study when the interpretation is being narrated (e.g.,
Dobres and Robb 2000). Second, if this form of representing agency is accepted, how
should we interpret the results of this simulation? Regardless of the exact outcome, the
results are likely to be quite robust and would exhibit the kind of vertical
independence that Wylie (1999, pp. 176) has identified as a form of validation in
archaeology. This example illustrates how archaeological theory may directly inform
the choice and creation of data structures used within an information system. It also
hints at the possibilities that the incorporation of new forms of representation may
bring to archaeology (see Miller and Wentz 2003 for a similar discussion regarding
GISc).
Interest in these matters requires a deliberate focus on questions that lie at the
interface between theory and data representation that are currently absent in
archaeology. It also calls for a concerted interest in the study of information
structures and a discussion about their potentials, limitations, and appropriateness.
These goals represent a significant departure from, or at least an important overhaul
of, the prevailing way archaeologists have conceived and approached the use of
information systems in archaeology.
faster and in larger quantities. But changes seem to have been more quantitative than
qualitative. We are able to record information much more quickly in the field but to
what degree is this “new information”? How much has it changed the way we
conduct our analysis? We have the capacity to process and visualize information in
novel ways but are we actually doing this? More importantly, are we even thinking
about new possibilities? How do these new developments relate, if at all, with
theoretical orientations currently found in archaeology? Has the introduction of
information systems precipitated new ways of doing archaeology?
There is no denying that the use of information systems is allowing us to obtain
new insights, but these remain far in between, marginal in scope, and seldom
championed by archaeologists themselves. This is because the use of information
systems is still reduced to a desirable technical skill that some archaeologists manage
to “add-on” to their bag of tricks. There is little recognition that the intersection of
information systems (computers primarily) and archaeology provides new paradigms
and/or research venues. Furthermore, there is little recognition that such intersection
requires its own set of standards and most likely its own specialized curriculum.
Evidence of this handicap is clear when we reflect on how rarely the most basic trait
computers have to offer, i.e., handling vast amounts of data and cycling endlessly
through similar calculations, is harnessed within archaeology.
A 2007–2008 report on the status of archaeology as a profession in 12
European countries commissioned by the UK’s Institute for Archaeologists
concluded that while the need for IT had steadily grown in recent years and was
accepted as being a necessity, it was considered to be a “non-archaeological”
skill (Jefferey and Aitchison 2008). Furthermore, when confronted with many of
the known limitations inherent in current IT applications, archaeologists have often
failed to deal with them in a productive way. This is the result of lack of proper
training and sometimes ignorance about the proper use of applications. In some
cases, archaeologists brush off any concerns about these deficiencies by claiming
that they are just archaeologists and not computer scientists. They are simply
applying what is on offer and that is that. All that is needed then is to mention the
limitation to make it right and to proceed as usual. Actively engaging in
understanding the underpinnings of applications, let alone developing them, is
generally not considered to be archaeology even among many of those trained in
IT within the discipline.
This situation is further perpetuated in the academic world where, with the
exception of some European postgraduate courses, there is an absence of proper
curriculum. Even in the European cases, and with a few exceptions, most curricula
have aimed at forming competent technicians but not researchers. That is, the
emphasis has been on forming archaeologists as “competent” consumers of IT.
“Competency” refers in most cases to becoming familiar with the basic workings of
an application. There has been limited effort to form archaeologists on how IT may
be integrated within current archaeological discussions (both at a practical and
theoretical level), to provide them with the skills needed to actively engage in the
development of new IT tools consonant with archaeological interests, to foster a
deeper conceptual understanding of how applications work as a necessary step
towards the creation of new ones, and finally, to entertain discussions, or initiatives,
on how IT may precipitate new ways of doing archaeology beyond what is readily
Llobera
available. Yet thanks to their ubiquity, and moderate cost, computers are an
invaluable resource for archaeology, perhaps far more central than archaeologists
would like to concede. A resource that can, nevertheless, be easily, and
inadvertently, abused without proper training.
A call for new ways to integrate information and computer science with
archaeology beyond technical prowess has not happened yet. If we consider the
adoption of computing and other information systems as one leading towards further
insight and maturity, archaeologists need to move beyond the level of technicians
where they are currently at to that of full-blown researchers. This would represent
the next logical step from where we are now positioned. This is already implicit in
recent articles by Snow et al. (2006) and Kintigh (2006) when discussing the need
for an information cyberstructure for archaeology. Both of these articles focus on the
challenges behind the creation of an information infrastructure (i.e. protocols,
standards and tools) that would bring the integration of archaeological data under a
common digital “umbrella”, ultimately allowing greater data sharing amongst
archaeologists. While none of them discuss the necessity for specialized training
directly, the full benefits of such a cyberstructure would only be possible if such
preparation is in place for archaeologists to reap the benefits.
In order for the marriage between computer and information science with
archaeology to be successful, it is necessary for some archaeologists to attain what
some authors refer to as an ‘amphibious state’ (Bunge 1973; Wylie 2002), that is, a
state in which the level of competency attained in all of the disciplines is such that
will enable them to move from one discipline to another with ease and, more
importantly, to generate novel insights. To form this set of specialists there is a need
for a specialized curriculum, one that will initially borrow elements from computer
and information science but that will ultimately need to develop into its own
paradigms and methods. It is the responsibility of those of us who may have already
glimpsed at the possibilities that lay ahead to engage in such an endeavor, and to
communicate these insights effectively to the rest of our peers.
To this day the application of information systems by archaeologists has been at
the very least narrow, and at the very worse naïve. It needs to be broadened in order
to capitalize on the advantages that the manipulation of digital information can bring
to archaeology. The intersection between information and computer science and
archaeology calls for a new concerned focus in archaeology which we could label
Archaeological Information Science (AISc). While a call for an additional specialism
(curriculum, etc.) may undoubtedly contribute towards further fragmenting the
discipline of archaeology, the price of neglecting this call is simply too high. Broadly
defined, AISc would be concerned with the generation, representation and
manipulation of archaeological information within the context of information
systems. It would call for archaeologists becoming more skillful and having a more
pro-active role in the use and design of these systems. While we could think of AISc
as not being restricted to the application of computers in archaeology (i.e. we can
think of data representations without reference to computers), both become
inseparable once the latter are adopted. With this in mind, AISc does not seek the
reduction of all archaeological information into a set of formal representations but
rather mindfulness about their use in archaeology. It aims to capitalize on the
potential advantages that come from generating, representing, visualizing and
Archaeological Visualization - Towards an AISc
Concluding Remarks
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