LEC02 INTRO Taylor Series

LEC01: NUMERICAL
SOLUTIONS FOR CE
PROBLEMS
Engr. Mark Heintje A. Cuanan
OUTLINE:
1. Intro: Intro: Simple Mathematical Model – Basic Principle
2. Approximations and Round-off Errors
3. Taylor Series of Expansion
1. Intro: Simple Mathematical Model
A mathematical model can be broadly defined as a formulation or
equation that expresses the essential features of a physical system
or process in mathematical terms. In a very general sense, it can be
represented as a functional relationship of the form
The actual mathematical expression can range from a simple algebraic
relationship to large complicated sets of differential equations.
For example: Newton second law of motion, which states that the time rate of
change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on it.
This is mathematically expressed as:
Where a = the dependent variable reflecting
the system’s behavior, F = the forcing function,
and m = a parameter representing a property
of the system. Note that for this simple case
there is no independent variable because we
are not yet predicting how acceleration varies
in time or space.
The equation above has several characteristics that are typical of
mathematical models of the physical world:
• It describes a natural process or system in mathematical terms.
• It represents an idealization and simplification of reality. That is, the
model ignores negligible details of the natural process and focuses on
its essential manifestations. Thus, the second law does not include the
effects of relativity that are of minimal importance when applied to
objects and forces that interact on or about the earth’s surface at
velocities and on scales visible to humans.
• Finally, it yields reproducible results and, consequently, can be used for
predictive purposes. For example, if the force on an object and the
mass of an object are known, can be used to compute acceleration.
• Because of its simple algebraic form,
the solution for the acceleration can
be obtained easily.
• However, other mathematical models
of physical phenomena may be
much more complex, and either
cannot be solved exactly or require
more sophisticated mathematical
techniques than simple algebra for
their solution.
To illustrate a more complex model of

this kind, Newton’s second law can be
used to determine the terminal velocity
of a free-falling body near the earth’s
surface.
Analytical Method
Simplified Equation
Example 1:
A parachutist of mass 68.1 kg jumps
out of a stationary hot air balloon.
Compute velocity prior to opening the
chute. The drag coefficient is equal to
12.5 kg/s.
As mentioned previously, numerical methods are those in
which the mathematical problem is reformulated so it can
be solved by arithmetic operations.
Numerical
Solution
2. Approximations and Round-off Errors
• Numerical methods is an approximate solution.
• Such, the results obtained using numerical solution may lead
to discrepancy/errors as compared to analytical or exact
solution.
• For many applied engineering problems, we cannot obtain
analytical solutions. Therefore, we cannot compute exactly
the errors associated with our numerical methods. In these
cases, we must settle for approximations or estimates of the
errors.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy - refers to how closely a
computed or measured value agrees
with the true value.
Precision - refers to how closely
individual computed or measured
values agree with each other.
Inaccuracy (also called bias) - is
defined as systematic deviation from
the truth.
Imprecision (also called uncertainty) -
refers to the magnitude of the scatter.
DEFINITION OF ERROR
Numerical errors arise from the use of approximations to represent exact
mathematical operations and quantities. These include truncation errors,
which result when approximations are used to represent exact
mathematical procedures, and round-off errors, which result when
numbers having limited significant figures are used to represent exact
numbers. For both types, the relationship between the exact, or true, result
and the approximation can be formulated as
DEFINITION OF ERROR
A shortcoming of this definition is that it takes no account of the order of

magnitude of the value under examination. For example, an error of a
centimeter is much more significant if we are measuring a rivet rather than a
bridge. One way to account for the magnitudes of the quantities being
evaluated is to normalize the error to the true value, as in
Example 2:
Notice that E and  are subscripted with a “t” to signify that the error is
normalized to the true value. In Example 2, we were provided with this
value. However, in actual situations such information is rarely available. For
numerical methods, the true value will be known only when we deal with
functions that can be solved analytically. Such will typically be the case
when we investigate the theoretical behavior of a particular technique for
simple systems. However, in real world applications, we will obviously not
know the true answer a priori. For these situations, an alternative is to
normalize the error using the best available estimate of the true value, that
is, to the approximation itself, as in
One of the challenges of numerical methods is to determine error estimates in the
absence of knowledge regarding the true value. For example, certain numerical methods
use an iterative approach to compute answers. In such an approach, a present
approximation is made on the basis of a previous approximation. This process is
performed repeatedly, or iteratively, to successively compute (we hope) better and better
approximations. For such cases, the error is often estimated as the difference between
previous and current approximations. Thus, percent relative error is determined
according to
3. Taylor Series of Expansion
TAYLOR SERIES
- Is a representation of a function as an infinite sum of
terms.
Historical Background
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_series
Taylor Series Expression
Did you notice any pattern????

Taylor Series Expression
∞
How to use it????
Example 3:
Estimate the value of using Taylor Series.

Make me a program that
can solve a value of e^2.
See provided excel sample.

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LEC01: NUMERICAL

To illustrate a more complex model of

A shortcoming of this deﬁnition is that it takes no account of the order of

Did you notice any pattern????

Estimate the value of using Taylor Series.

See provided excel sample.

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