15CS21T

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT
15CS21T - DIGITAL AND COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

refer “Reference Books” prescribed as per syllabus
UNIT- 1: DIGITAL PRINCIPLES
Number System
Numbers are extremely important in our personal life. The Abacus is one of the earliest
known calculators. It is used presently also. In 1962 Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz
developed a machine which performed all basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division). New invention was digital system. There are various systems of
arithmetic which are widely used in digital electronics.
1. Binary Number System :- The binary number system is base 2 system using 0 and 1.
2. Octal Number System :- The octal number system is base 8 system using 0 to 7.
3. Decimal Number System :- The decimal number system is base 10 system using 0 - 9
4. Hexadecimal number system:- The hexadecimal number system is base 16 system
using 0 to 9 and A, B, C, D, E & F.
Binary Number System

The binary number system is base 2 system where only digits 0 & 1 are used. In this
numbering system all numbers are represented by 0‘s and 1‘s.
Ex:- 01, 11, 10,110 etc.
Binary to Decimal conversion.

The decimal equivalent of a number is written in binary is found by adding the products of
the absolute & positional values.
Ex (i) Decimal equivalent of binary number is 1011(2)
Binary no. 1 0 1 1
3 2 1
Binary weight 2 2 2 20
Decimal value 8 4 2 1
1011(2) = 1×2 + 0×2 + 1×2 + 1 × 20
3 2 1
= 8+0+2+1
1011(2) = 11(10)
Ex (ii) Decimal equivalent of binary number is 11001.011(2)

Binary No. 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
Binary weight 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3
Decimal value 16 8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8
11001.011(2) = 1×16 + 1×8 + 0×4 + 0×2 + 1×1 + 0×1/2 + 1×1/4 + 1×1/8

= 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 1/4 + 1/8
= 25 + 3/8
11001.011(2) = 25.375(10)

Octal Number System

The Octal number system is formed by grouping 3 bits. This system has base 8 &
using absolute numbers from 0 to 7.Hence there are eight digits.
Ex :- 567, 603,741 .....
Octal to Decimal conversion.
Octal to Decimal conversion is done by multiplying the value in each position by its octal
weight & add each value.
Ex (i) 576(8) = (?)(10)

Octal Number 5 7 6
Octal Weight 82 81 80
Decimal Value 64 8 1
576(8) = 5×64 + 7×8 + 6×1

576(8) = 320 + 56 + 6
576(8) = 382(10)
Ex (ii) 34.125(8) = ( ? )(10)

Octal Number 3 4 1 2 5
1
Octal Weight 8 80 8-1 8-2
8-3
Decimal Value 8 1 1/8 1/64 1/512
34.125(8) = 3×8 + 4×1 + 1×1/8 + 2×1/64 + 5×1/512

34.125(8) = 24 + 4 + 1/8 + 2/64 + 5/512 = 28
34.125(8) = 28.166(10)
Decimal to Octal conversion.

The decimal equivalent of an octal number is obtained by successive division with base 8
and the remainder values. The division is continued until the quotient is zero. The decimal
equivalent of a octal number is a reverse order of the remainders.
Ex (i) 754 (10) = (?) (8)
8 754 -
8 94 - 2
8 11 - 6
1 - 3
754 (10) = 1362 (8)
Ex (ii) Convert 0.12 in decimal to octal

0.12 x 8 = 0.96 -- 0
0.96 x 8 = 7.68 -- 7
0.68 x 8 = 5.44 -- 5
0.44 x 8 = 3.52 -- 3
0.52 x 8 = 4.16 -- 4
0.12 (10) = 0.07534 (8)
Octal to Binary conversion

To convert any octal number to any corresponding binary number use 2 steps.
i) Convert the number to its 3 bit binary equivalent.
ii) Next combine the 3 bit sections by removing the spaces.
Ex: i)Convert octal 2314(8) to binary

Octal number 2 3 1 4
Binary Number 010 011 001 100
2314(8) = 010011001100(2)
Ex: ii) Convert octal 246.72(8) = ?

Octal number 2 4 6 7 2
Binary Number 010 100 110 111 010
246.72 (8)=010100110.111010(2)
Binary to Octal conversion

To convert any octal number to its corresponding binary number use 2 steps.
i) Convert the number to its 3 bit binary equivalent
ii) Combine all the three bit sections by removing spaces.
Ex (i) Convert into octal

1100011010001(2) = (?) (8)
Binary Number 001 100 011 010 001
Octal number 1 4 3 2 1
1100011010001(2) = (14321) (8)
Ex (ii) Convert into octal

11001.101011(2) = (?) (8)
Binary Number 011 001 101 011
Octal number 3 1 5 3
11001.101011(2) = 31.53 (8)
Decimal Number System

In decimal number system numbers are expressed in units, tens, hundreds,
thousands and so on. Decimal numbers are expressed as powers of 10
Ex. 67854.78 is expressed as
60000 + 7000 + 800 + 50 + 4 + 0.70 + 0.08
Hexadecimal Number System.

Hexadecimal numbers are extensively used in association with microprocessors. This
system use base 16 and absolute values from 0 to 9 and the letters A, B, C, D, E & F. Finally
16 combinations of 4-bit binary numbers are possible.
Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

Integer Part Conversion:- The decimal equivalent of hexadecimal number is obtained by
successive division with base 16 and writing down the remainder values. The division is
continued until quotient is zero. The decimal equivalent of a given hexadecimal number is
reverse order of the remainders.
Ex (i) 964 (10) = (?) (16)
16 964 -
16 60 - 4
16 3 - 12
964 (10) = (3C4) (16)
Fraction Part Conversion :- The decimal fraction part number is multiplied by 16 and carry is
noted down. This process is cumulative till the desired accuracy is obtained. The carry
reading represents down direction.
Ex (i) 0.0664 (10) = (?) (16)
0.0664 x 16 = 1.0624 – 1
0.0624 x 16 = 0.9984 – 0
0.9984 x 16 = 15.9744 – 15 (F)
0.9744 x 16 = 15.5904 – 15 (F)
0.0664 (10) = 0.10FF (16)
Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

Hexadecimal Numbers are represented using group of 4 digits.
Decimal Octal No. Binary No. Hexadecimal
No. No.
0 0 0000 0
1 1 0001 1
2 2 0010 2
3 3 0011 3
4 4 0100 4
5 5 0101 5
6 6 0110 6
7 7 0111 7
8 10 1000 8
9 11 1001 9
10 12 1010 A
11 13 1011 B
12 14 1100 C
13 15 1101 D
14 16 1110 E
15 17 1111 F

To convert integer hexadecimal number to its corresponding binary number use 2 steps.
i) Convert the given number to its 4 bit binary equivalent.
ii) Combine the 4 bit section by removing the spaces.
Ex i) perform FCFD(16)=( ? )(2)

Hexadecimal No F C F D
Binary No 1111 1100 1111 1101
FCFD(16)=1111110011111101(2)
Ex ii)Perform 155.D1(16)=( ? )(2)

Hexadecimal No 1 5 5 D 1
Binary No 0001 0101 0101 1101 0001
155.D1(16)=(1010101010.11010001)(2)
Binary to hexadecimal conversion

Convert from binary numbers to hexadecimal number and follow the 2 steps
I) Break the binary number into 4 bit sections from LSB to MSB
II) Convert the 4 bit binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent.
Ex(i) : perform 11001011010001(2) = (? )(16)

Binary No 0011 0010 1101 0001
Hexadecimal No 5 2 D 1
11001011010001(2) =52D1(16)
Ex (ii) : Perform 1011110101.0111(2) = ( ?) (16)

Binary No 0010 1111 0101 0111
Hexadecimal No 2 F 5 7
1011110101.0111(2) = 2F5.7 (16)
Hexadecimal to octal conversion

Convert from Hexadecimal numbers to Octal number and follow the steps.
i) Convert Hexadecimal to binary.
ii) Convert resultant of convert binary number in to octal by grouping 3 digits from right
to left.
Ex (i): Perform 2AB9 (16) = ( ? ) (8)
Step 1: Convert given Hexadecimal number to binary.
Hexadecimal No 2 A B 9
Binary No 0010 1010 1011 1001
Step 2: Convert resultant of converted binary equivalent in to octal by grouping 3-bits from
right to left.
Binary No 010 101 010 111 001
Octal No. 2 5 2 7 1

2AB9 (16) =(25271) (8)
Octal to Hexadecimal conversion

To convert Octal to hexadecimal number follow the 2 steps.
i) Convert Octal to binary.
ii) Convert resultant of converted binary equivalent number into hexadecimal number
by grouping 4-digits from right to left.
Ex (i) 615(8) = (?) (16)

Step 1: Convert given octal number to binary.
Octal number 6 1 5
Binary Number 110 001 101
Step 2: Convert resultant of converted binary equivalent in to hexadecimal by grouping 4-

digits from right to left.
Binary Number 0001 1000 1101
Hexadecimal No 1 8 D
615(8) = (18D) (16)
1’s and 2’s complement

1‘s complement of any binary number is obtained by replacing each ‗0‘ by ‗1‘ and ‗1‘ by ‗0‘ as
shown below.
Binary number 1‘s complement
1010 0101
111001 000110
110010 001101
Addition using 1’s complement
Subtraction using 1’s complement

1‘s complement is useful in performing subtractions using addition operations. The standard
format of subtraction is
Minuend – subtrahend = Difference
Following steps should be followed to subtract smaller number from larger number.
1) Get the 1‘s complement of subtrahend.
2) Add 1‘s complement of subtrahend to the minuend.
3) Perform addition if carry is generated, add this carry to the result to get the final
answer, i.e positive.

Ex (i) Evaluate 110010 – 101101 using 1‘s complement.

110010 - Minuend 101101 - subtrahend
Step 1) 1‘s complement of subtrahend is 010010
Step 2) Add 1‘s complement of subtrahend to the minuend
110010
010010
------------
1000100
1
-------------
000101
-------------
Step 3) If carry is generated at this carry to the result to get final answer.
Cross Check :- 50 (10) – 45 (10) = 05 (10)
Following steps should be followed to subtract larger number from smaller number.
3) If no carry is generated, take 1‘s complement of the result and place –ve sign to the
result i.e negative.
Ex (ii) Evaluate 1101011 – 1110101 using 1‘s complement
1101011 – Minuend 1110101 – Subtrahend

Step 1) Get the 1‘s complement of subtrahend is 0001010
Step 2) Add 1‘s complement of subtrahend to the minuend
1101011 + 0001010
1101011
0001010
-----------
1110101
-----------
Step 3) No carry is generated.1‘s complement of the result 1110101 is 0001010.By placing –

ve sign to the answer.The final answer is -0001010.
2’s complement
2‘s complement of a binary number is obtained by adding 1 to the 1‘s complement. 2‘s
complement of a number = 1‘s complement + 1 .
Binary No. 1‘s Complement 2‘s Complement
1101 0010 0011
11011 00100 00101
110001 001110 001111

Subtraction using 2’s Complement

2‘s complement is useful in performing subtraction using addition operations.2‘s complement
subtraction carry is neglected.
The standard format of subtraction is Minuend – Subtrahend = Difference
Following steps should be followed to subtract smaller number from larger number.
3) Perform addition if carry is generated, neglect this carry and the result is positive.
Ex (i) Evaluate 53(10) – 49 (10) using 2‘s complement
Minuend is 110101 (2) & Subtrahend is 110001(2)
Step 1:- 1,s complement of 110001 is 001110

2,s complement of 110001 is 001111
Step 2:- Add 001111 to the minuend 110101
110101
001111
-----------
1000100
------------
Step 3:- Carry is generated, neglect it & the answer is 000100
Checkpoint :- 53(10) – 49 (10) = 4(10)
Following steps should be followed to subtract larger number from smaller number.
3) Perform addition if no carry is generated, take 2‘s complement of the result and
place negative sign to the result.
Ex (ii) Evaluate 11001(2) – 110101(2) using 2‘s complements
Step 1:- 2,s complement of 110101 = 1‘s complement of 110101 + 1 = 001010+1

=001011
Step 2:- Add 001011 to the minuend
110001
001011
-----------
111100
------------
Step 3:-No Carry is generated, 2‘s complement of 111100 is 000011 + 1 =
000100
Place negative sign to resultant to get final answer is -000100

Checkpoint :- 49(10) – 53 (10) = - 4(10)
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

In digital electronic system is an encoding for decimal numbers in which each digit is
represented by its own binary numbers. In BCD digits are represented by 4 bits. A group of
4 binary bits are called nibble & a group of 8 bits are called byte.
BCD uses binary number system to specify 0 to 9 decimal numbers.
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal BCD

0 0000 0 0 0000
1 0001 1 1 0001
2 0010 2 2 0010
3 0011 3 3 0011
4 0100 4 4 0100
5 0101 5 5 0101
6 0110 6 6 0110
7 0111 7 7 0111
8 1000 10 8 1000
9 1001 11 9 1001
10 1010 12 A 0001 0000
11 1011 13 B 0001 0001
12 1100 14 C 0001 0010
13 1101 15 D 0001 0011
14 1110 16 E 0001 0100
15 1111 17 F 0001 0101
BCD Addition
BCD addition is used to add to 2 BCD numbers.
1) Add two binary numbers using ordinary binary addition.
2) If four bit sum is equal to 0 or less than 9 ,no correction is needed.
3) If four bit sum is greater than 9 or if carry is generated from 4 bit sum, the sum is
invalid.
4) Correct the invalid sum by adding 6 (0110) to the four bit sum.
Ex (i) Perform BCD addition 00110010 + 00011000
00110010
00011000
--------------
010001010 1010 (10>9) is invalid BCD sum
-------------- Add 6 (0110) to the four bit sum
01001010
0110
------------
0101000
-----------
Cross Check 00110010 (BCD) + 00011000 (BCD) = 01010000 (BCD)
32 (10) + 18(10) = 50 (10)

Decimal to BCD Conversion

The BCD of a decimal number is obtained by replacing each decimal digit by
the appropriate 4-bit code.
Ex (i) Convert into BCD 95.85
Decimal no. 9 5 8 5
BCD no. 1001 0101 1000 0101
95.85(Decimal ) = 1001010110000101 ( BCD)
BCD to Decimal Conversion
The decimal equivalent of BCD number is obtained by grouping 4-bits &

representing decimal digit to each 4-bit group.
Ex (i) Convert BCD to decimal 0011001100101
BCD no. 0011 0110 0101

Decimal no. 3 6 5
0011001100101 (BCD ) = 365(Decimal)
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Information Code (EBCDIC)

EBCDIC is a 8-bit alpha numeric code. The EBCDIC was developed by IBM. Each
code word of EBCDIC code consist of 8-bits i.e 28 = 256 possible combinations are
available to represent characters, symbols & numbers.
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII )

The standard binary code for alphanumeric characters is ASCII.It use 7-bits to code 128
characters. The advantages of ASCII code are,
Each code word of ASCII code consist of 8 bits, 28 = 256 possible combinations
are available to represent different characters, symbols & numbers.Each code word of ASCII
has total 8-bits & it can be divided into two 4 bit groups.

Gray Code
The gray code is a variable weighted & unweight code. There are no specific
weights assign to the bit position. It is arranged and every transition from one value to the
next value involves only 1 bit change. Gray code is also referred as reflected binary, because
the first eight values compare with those of last eight values but it is in reverse order.
The gray code along with corresponding decimal & binary numbers as shown below.

Excess-3 Code (XS-3)

This code is also called Stibitiz code .It is an unweighted code where each coded
combination is obtained from the corresponding binary values plus 3.It uses only 10
combinations out of 16 possible combinations that can be arranged with 4-bits.6 are unused
combinations & have no meaning.
Decimal digit Excess-3
0 0001
1 0100
2 0101
3 0110
4 0111
5 1000
6 1001
7 1010
8 1011
9 1100
10 0000 unused
11 0001 unused
12 0010 unused
13 1101 unused
14 1110 unused
15 1111 unused

Decimal to Excess-3 code conversion

The following steps are used to convert a decimal number to XS-3 code.
1) Add 3 to the each digit in the given decimal number.
2) Convert each sum to its equivalent binary code.
Ex (i) Convert decimal 129 to excess-3 code.

1 2 9
+3 +3 +3
-----------
4 5 12
------------
Resultant 4 5 12
XS-3 code 0100 0101 1100
Excess-3 code for 129 (10) is 010001011100

UNIT:2 LOGIC GATES AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Logic Gates
AND Gate:
AND gate performs logical multiplication known as AND function. AND gate has two or more
inputs and a single output. The AND operation produces a HIGH output only if all the inputs
arc HIGH, When one input is HIGH and the other input is HIGH, the output is HIGH. When
any or all inputs are LOW. the output is LOW. The AND operation is implemented by a logic
circuit known as an AND gate.
Truth table for AND Gate with two inputs is as shown below
A B C
(OUTPOUT)
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
SYMBOL FOR AND GATE Truth table for AND Gate with two inputs
Boolean Expression C = A . B OR C = AB
OR Gate:
OR gate performs logical addition known as OR function.OR gate has two or more inputs
and a single output. The OR operation produces a HIGH output when any of the inputs is
HIGH, When one input is HIGH or the other input is HIGH or both inputs are HIGH, the
output is HIGH. When both inputs are LOW. the output is LOW. The OR operation is
implemented by a logic circuit known as an OR gate.
A B C
(OUTPOUT)
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
SYMBOL FOR AND GATE Truth table for OR Gate with two inputs
Boolean Expression C = A + B

NAND Gate:
It is a combination of NOT and AND and implies an AND Function with a
complimented output. It is a universal gateused to construct AND gate OR gate,Inverter or
any combination of these. A low output occurs only when all the inputs are high.When any
of the input is low the output will be high.
A B C (OUTPOUT)
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
SYMBOL FOR NAND GATE Truth table for NAND Gate with two inputs
Boolean Expression C = OR C =
NOR Gate :
It is a combination of NOT and OR and implies an OR Function with a
complimented output. It is a universal gate used to construct AND gate, OR gate, Inverter
or any combination of these. A low output occurs only when any of its inputs are high.
When any of the input is low the output will be high.
A B C (OUTPOUT)
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0
SYMBOL FOR NOR GATE Truth table for NOR Gate with two inputs
Boolean Expression C =
The Exclusive OR Gate :
The abbreviation for Exclusive OR gate is Ex-OR .It has two or more inputs and one
input . A low output occurs only when both inputs are high low. A high output occurs only
when both the input is high or low . Similarly regardless of the number of inputs the
output is high evn when number of inputs are high or when all the inputs are zeroes.
A B C (OUTPUT)
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

SYMBOL FOR EX-OR GATE Truth table for EX-OR Gate with two inputs
Boolean Expression C = A B
The Exclusive NOR GATE :

The abbreviation for Exclusive NOR gate is Ex-NOR .It has two or more inputs and one
input . It is logically equivalent to EX-OR gate followed by Inverter.For even number of ones
at input,or the inputs all having zeroes, the output is HIGH.
A B C
(OUTPOUT)
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0
SYMBOL FOR EX-NOR GATE Truth table for EX-NOR Gate with two inputs
_____
Boolean Expression C = A B
SUMMARY
 Gates are used to control the flow of data from input to output.
 In digital system, two voltage levels represents the two binary digits,1 and 0.If the
higher of two voltages represents 1 and the lower voltage represents 0.
 The Logic gates are the basic elements that make up a digital system.
 The logic gate is a digital circuit with one or more inputs but only one output.
 The inverter output is the complement of the Input.
 The AND gate output is HIGH only if all the inputs are HIGH.
 The OR gate output is HIGH if any of the Inputs is HIGH
 The NAND gate output is LOW only if all the inputs arc HIGH
 The NOR gate output is LOW if any of the inputs is HIGH
 The NOR can be viewed as a negative-AND whose output is HIGH only If all the
inputs are LOW.
 The exclusive-OR gate output is HIGH when the inputs are not the same.
 The exclusive-NOR gate output is LOW when the inputs are not the same.

Boolean Algebra
It is mathematics of digital system. It is used to simplify Boolean equation to make
simple logic circuit.
Laws of Boolean Algebra

The basic laws of Boolean algebra—the commutative, the associative laws, and the
distributive law.
Commutative law:
Law 1: A + B = B + A : This states that the order in which the variables are ORed makes
no differenc in the output. The truth tables are identical. Therefore A OR B is same as B
OR A
A B A+B A B A+B
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
LAW2 : AB =BA : This states that the order in which the variables are ANDed makes no
differenc in the output. The truth tables are identical. Therefore A AND B is same as B
AND A
A B AB A B BA
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1

It is important to note that commutative law can be extended to any number of

variables.
For example A+B+C = C+B+A and similarly ABC =CBA=ACB and so on.
Associative Law:
Law 1: A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C : This law states that in ORing of several variables ,the result
is the same regardless of the grouping of the variables .For three variables A OR B ORed
with C is same as A ORed with B OR C.
Associative law states A +(B+C) = (A+B)+C
A B C A+B (A+B)+C A B C B+C A+(B+C)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Associative law applied to OR Gate Truth Tables
Law 1: A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C : This law states that in ANDing of several variables ,the result
is the same regardless of the grouping of the variables .For three variables A AND B ANDed
with C is same as A ANDed with B AND C.
Associative law states A .(B.C) = (A.B).C
B C AB (AB)C A B C BC A(BC)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Associative law applied to AND
Gate Truth Tables

Distributive Law:
Law 1:Distribution of AND over OR : A(B+C) = AB+AC : This law states that ORing of
several variables and ANDig the result with a single variable is equivalent to ANDing the
lone variable with each of the variables and then ORing products.
Distributive law applied to AND Gate
A B C B+C A(B+C) A B C AB AC AB+AC

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Truth Tables
Law 2:Distribution of OR over AND : A+(B.C) = AB.AC

This law states that ANDing of several variables and ORig the result with a single variable
is equivalent to ORing the lone variable with each of the variables and then ANDing
products.
Rules of Boolean Algebra:
Rule 1: Annulment Law – A term ANDéd with a ―0‖ equals 0 or ORéd with a ―1‖
will equal 1.
o A . 0 = 0 A variable AND‘ed with 0 is always equal to 0.
o A + 1 = 1 A variable OR‘ed with 1 is always equal to 1.
Rule 2: Identity Law – A term ORéd with a ―0‖ or ANDéd with a ―1‖ will always
equal that term.
o A + 0 = A A variable OR‘ed with 0 is always equal to the variable.

o A . 1 = A A variable AND‘ed with 1 is always equal to the variable.

Rule 3: Idempotent Law – An input that is ANDéd or ORéd with itself is equal to
that input.
o A + A = A A variable OR‘ed with itself is always equal to the variable.
o A . A = A A variable AND‘ed with itself is always equal to the variable.
Rule 4: Complement Law – A term ANDéd with its complement equals ―0‖ and a
term ORéd with its complement equals ―1‖.
o A . A = 0 A variable AND‘ed with its complement is always equal to 0.
o A + A = 1 A variable OR‘ed with its complement is always equal to 1.
Rule 5: Commutative Law – The order of application of two separate terms is not
important.
o A . B = B . A The order in which two variables are AND‘ed makes no
difference.
o A + B = B + A The order in which two variables are OR‘ed makes no
difference.
Rule 6: Double Negation Law – A term that is inverted twice is equal to the original
term.
o A=A A double complement of a variable is always equal to the variable.
Rule 7: de Morgan´s Theorem – There are two ―de Morgan´s‖ rules or theorems,
(1) Two separate terms NORéd together is the same as the two terms inverted
(Complement) and ANDéd for example, A+B = A. B.
(2) Two separate terms NANDéd together is the same as the two terms inverted
(Complement) and ORéd for example, A.B = A +B.
Demorgan’s theorem
DeMorgan's first theorem is stated as follows:
The complement of a product of variables is equal to the sum of the complements of the
variables.
Stated another way,
The complement of two or more variables ANDed is equivalent to the OR of the com-
plements of the Individual variables.
The formula for expressing this theorem for two variables
AB = A + B

DeMorgan's second theorem is stated as follows:

The complement of a sum of variables is equal to the product of the complements of the
variables.
Stated another way.
The complement of two or more variables ORed Ls equivalent to the AND or the com-
plements of the individual variables.
Tlie formula for expressing this theorem for two variables is
A+B= A.B
Universal Gates:
The NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates.
NAND Gate as a universal Building Block :

1) INVERTER(NOT) :( Realization of NOT using NAND):
A NOT gate can be made out of a NAND gate by connecting all its inputs together as
shown below.
NOT function using NAND gate
If A is 0, the output of the NAND gate is

( . ) = ( ) = =1 =
And if A is 1 the output is
( . ) = ( ) = =0 =

2) AND gate :(realization of AND using NAND gate):

We can use NAND gates to make an AND gate.
The output of the NAND gates is (A.B). The second NAND gate then
complements previous A.B .
Double compliment of a quantity is the quantity itself. That is ̿̿̿̿̿̿̿̿̿ = A B.Thus
NAND gates can be comnnected to perform the AND function.
3) OR Gate : ( realization of OR using NAND gate) :
The first two NAND gates invert A and B produce and .The two –input NAND
gate then produces n output of = ̿ + ̿ = A +B
4) NOR gate:
The NOR function using NAND gate is realized as shown below.
_____
= ̿ + ̿ =A+B

5) XOR gate : (realization of XOR function using NAND gates)
The XOR function using NAND gates is realized as shown above.

+ AB) . ( +AB ) = B+A
NOR GATE AS A UNIVERSAL BUILDING BLOCK :
Just like the NAND gate ,th NOR gate is also a universal building block.The NOT
function as realized as shown in the figure.
______
Y= = . =
A
A y=
1) AND gate (realization of And function using NOR gate):
Y=A.B
_______
=( + )
=̿.̿ = A.B

2) OR gate : ( realization of OR gate using NOR gate):

The OR function is realized using NOR gates as shown in the figure below.
Here y = A + B
_____
= +
= A+B
A+B
B
3) NAND Gate : realization of NAND gate using NOR gate
_______
( + ) = ̿ .̿ = A.B
When A .B applied to NOR the output would be .

Boolean Expressions Simplification

Simplify the following Boolean expressions.
1. Q  A.B  B
Q  A.B  B
Q  B.( A  1)
Q  B.1
QB
2. Q  C.( A  C)
Q  C.( A  C )
Q  A.C  C.C
Q  A.C  0
Q  A.C
3. Q  A.B.C  A.C  A.C.D  A.C.D

Q  A.B.C  A.C  A.C.D  A.C.D
Q  A.C.( B  1)  A.C.( D  D)
Q  A.C.1  A.C.1
Q  A.C  A.C
Q  C.( A  A)
Q  C.1
QC
4. Q  A.B.(B  C)  B.C  B
Q  A.B.( B  C )  B.C  B
Q  A.B.B  A.B.C  B.C  B
Q  A.0  A.B.C  B.(C  1)
Q  A.B.C  B.1
Q  A.B.C  B
Q  B.( A.C  1)
Q  B.1
QB
5. Q  B.( A  C)  A  A.( A  B)

Q  B.( A  C )  A  A.( A  B)
Q  A.B  B.C  A  A. A  A.B
Q  A.B  B.C  A
Q  A.( B  1)  B.C
Q  A  B.C
6. Q  A.B.C  B.C  A.B.C  A.B.B

Q  A.B.C  B.C  A.B.C  A.B.B
Q  B.C.( A  A)  B.C  A.0
Q  B.C.1  B.C
Q  B.C  B.C
Q  B.(C  C )
Q  B.1
QB
7. Q  A.B.C  B.C.D  B.C.D  B.C.D  A.B.C  A.B.C

Q  A.B.C  B.C.D  B.C.D  B.C.D  A.B.C  A.B.C
Q  A.B.C  B.C.( D  D)  B.C.D  B.C.( A  A)
Q  A.B.C  B.C.1  B.C.D  B.C.1
Q  A.B.C  B.C  B.C.D  B.C
Q  B.C.( A  1)  B.C.( D  1)
Q  B.C.1  B.C.1
Q  B.C  B.C
Q  B.(C  C )
Q  B.1
QB
8. Q  A.B.C.D  A.B.D  A.B.D  A.B.C.D  A.C.D  A.C.D

Q  A.B.C.D  A.B.D  A.B.D  A.B.C.D  A.C.D  A.C.D

Q  A.B.D.(C  1)  A.B.D  A.C.D.( B  1)  A.C.D
Q  A.B.D.1  A.B.D  A.C.D.1  A.C.D
Q  A.B.D  A.B.D  A.C.D  A.C.D
Q  A.D.( B  B)  C.D.( A  A)
Q  A.D.1  C.D.1
Q  A.D  C.D
Q  D.( A  C )
1. Simplify the following expression by applying Rules of Boolean Algebra
Q  A.B.C  A.B.C  A.B
Simplification can begin by combining the first two terms only as follows:
Q  A.B.(C  C)  A.B
Using our sixth identity the term C  C  1 so the expression now becomes:
Q  A.B.1  A.B
Using the first identity A.B.1 = A.B so the expression becomes
Q  A.B  A.B
Now we can remove the common term again to leave:
Q  A.(B  B)
Using our sixth identity the term B  B  1 so the expression now becomes:
Q  A.1
Using the first identity A.1 = A so the expression finally becomes
QA
2. Simplify the following expression:
Q  A.B  A.B.C  A.B  C
Start by looking for possible common factors which will leave behind one of our two
key identities inside the bracket, in this case A.B in terms 2 and 3. This gives the following
simplification.
Q  A.B  A.B.(C  1)  C
Using our fourth identity the term C  1  1 so the expression now becomes:
Q  A.B  A.B.1  C
Using the first identity A.B.1 = A.B so the expression becomes
Q  A.B  A.B  C
Again we look for common terms, this time between the first two terms to give the
following:
Q  B.( A  A)  C
Using our sixth identity the term A  A  1 so the expression now becomes:
Q  B.1  C
Using the first identity B.1 = B so the expression becomes
Q BC
3. Simplify the following expression.
Q  A.B  A.B.C  A.B.C  A.B.C

Solution:
Q  A.B  A.B.C  A.B.C  A.B.C
Q  A.B  A.B.C  B.C.( A  A)
Q  A.B  A.B.C  B.C.1
Q  A.B.(1  C )  B.C
Q  A.B.1  B.C
Q  A.B  B.C
4. Simplify the following expression.
Q  B.C.(C  D)  C.D  C  A
Q  B.C.(C  D)  C.D  C  A
Q  B.C.C  B.C.D  C.D  C  A
Q  B.0  B.C.D  C.( D  1)  A
Q  B.C.D  C  A
Q  C.( B.D  1)  A
Q  C.1  A
QCA
Simplify the expression : Q  A.B.C  A.C  C.( D  C )  A
Solution.
Q  A.B.C  A.C  C.( D  C )  A
Q  A.( B.C  C )  C.D  C.C  A
Q  A.( B  C )  C.D  0  A
Q  A.B  A.C  C.D  A
Q  A.( B  1)  A.C  C.D
Q  A  A.C  C.D
Q  A.(1  C )  C.D
Q  A  C.D
Simplify the expression : Q  A.B.C  A.C  A.C.D  A.C.D

Q  A.B.C  A.C  A.C.D  A.C.D
Q  A.C.( B  1)  A.C.( D  D)
Q  A.C.1  A.C.1
Q  A.C  A.C
Q  C.( A  A)
Q  C.1
QC
Simplify the expression: Q  A.B.( B  C )  B.C  B

Q  A.B.( B  C )  B.C  B
Q  A.B.B  A.B.C  B.C  B
Q  A.0  A.B.C  B.(C  1)
Q  A.B.C  B.1
Q  A.B.C  B
Q  B.( A.C  1)
Q  B.1
QB
Simplify the expression: Q  B.( A  C )  A  A.( A  B)
Q  B.( A  C )  A  A.( A  B)
Q  A.B  B.C  A  A. A  A.B
Q  A.B  B.C  A
Q  A.( B  1)  B.C
Q  A  B.C
Simplify the expression: Q  A.B.C  B.C  A.B.C  A.B.B

Q  A.B.C  B.C  A.B.C  A.B.B
Q  B.C.( A  A)  B.C  A.0
Q  B.C.1  B.C
Q  B.C  B.C
Q  B.(C  C )
Q  B.1
QB
Simplify the expression: Q  A.B.C  B.C.D  B.C.D  B.C.D  A.B.C  A.B.C
Q  A.B.C  B.C.D  B.C.D  B.C.D  A.B.C  A.B.C
Q  A.B.C  B.C.( D  D)  B.C.D  B.C.( A  A)
Q  A.B.C  B.C.1  B.C.D  B.C.1
Q  A.B.C  B.C  B.C.D  B.C
Q  B.C.( A  1)  B.C.( D  1)
Q  B.C.1  B.C.1
Q  B.C  B.C
Q  B.(C  C )
Q  B.1
QB
Simplify the expression: Q  A.B.C.D  A.B.D  A.B.D  A.B.C.D  A.C.D  A.C.D

Q  A.B.C.D  A.B.D  A.B.D  A.B.C.D  A.C.D  A.C.D

Q  A.B.D.(C  1)  A.B.D  A.C.D.( B  1)  A.C.D
Q  A.B.D.1  A.B.D  A.C.D.1  A.C.D
Q  A.B.D  A.B.D  A.C.D  A.C.D
Q  A.D.( B  B)  C.D.( A  A)
Q  A.D.1  C.D.1
Q  A.D  C.D
Q  D.( A  C )
Simplify the expression using De Morgans Theorem Q  ( A  B).( A.B)  A.B
Q  ( A  B).( A.B)  A.B
Q  ( A  B)  ( A.B)  A.B
Q  ( A  B)  ( A.B)  A.B
Q  A  B  A.B  A.B
Q  A.(1  B)  ( B  A.B)
Q  A.1  ( B  A)
Q  A B A
Q  B  ( A  A)
Q  B 1
Q 1
Simplify the expression using De Morgans Theorem: Q  A.C.B.D  C.D
Q  A.C.B.D  C.D
Q  A.C.B  D  C  D
Q  A.C.B  D  C
Q  ( A  C ).B  D  C
Q  A.B  B.C  D  C
Q  A.B  C.( B  1)  D
Q  A.B  C.1  D
Q  A.B  C  D
Standard form of Boolean expressions

In the previous section we saw how Boolean expressions can be simplified using Boolean
algebra and Boolean theorems. In this section we use basic laws and theorems of Boolean
algebra for simplifying Boolean expressions by two basic forms:
1. Sum of Products form(SOP)
2. Product of Sums form(POS)
Sum of Products form(SOP)
It is a group of product term ORed together. That is two or more product terms are sumed
by Boolean addition and resulting expression is SOP. An SOP expression has a single
variable term also
Ex: A+ BC+B D
Some examples of SOP:
Ex:A+ABC+ D, C+CDE+BCD, +ABC+AC
Implementation of SOP:
Implemetating an SOP expression requires ORing the outputs of two or more AND gates. A
product term is produced by AND Operation and sum of two or more product items is
produced by OR operation. Thus an SOP expression is implemented by AND-OR logic.
Convert each of the following Boolean Expression to SOP Form:

1. AB+B(CD+EF)
2. (A+B)(B+C+D)
(A+B)(B+C+D)=AB+AC+AD+BB+BC+BD

Standard SOP Expression: In which all the variables in the domain appear in each
product indicates a Standard SOP Expression. An SOP Expression is equal to 1 only if one or
more of the product terms in the expression is equal to 1.
The Product-of-Sums(POS) Form

When two or more sum terms are multiplied the resulting expression is POS.
Some Examples:
In a Pos expression a single overbar cannot extend ovcr more than one variable..However
morethan one variable can have an overbar
Ex:POS expression can have the term
A+B+C but not A+B+C
Implementation an POS expression requires ANDing the outputs of two or more OR gates.A
sum term is produced by OR Operation and product of two or more sum items is produced
by AND operation.Thus an POS expression is implemented by OR gates connect to the
inputs of an AND gate
Standard POS Expression: In which all the variables in the domain appear in each sum
indicates a Standard POS Expression.An SOP Expression is equal to 0 only if one or more of
the sum terms in the expression is equal to 0.
Karnaugh MAP:
Karnaugh Map is similar to a truth table because it presents all possible values of input
variables and the resulting output for each value. K Map is an array of cells in which each
cell represents a binary value of the input variables.K Maps can be used with two,three,four
and five variables

UNIT-3 : COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS
Digital circuits can be broadly classified into two categories.They are

1) Combinational circuits
2) Sequential circuits
Combinational circuits are the circuits in which the output(s) at any instant of time
depend upon the inputs present at that instant of time only and does not depent upon
past conditions. Combinational circuits have no storage area /memory elements. Some
examples are Adders, Subtractors, comparators,encoders, decoders, multiplexers
,demultiplexers etc.
The combinational circuits consists of input variables ,logic gates and output variables.
The logic gates accept signals from input variables and generate output signals.
An example for a simple combinational circuit is given below
Sequential circuits: are the circuits in which the output at any instant of time depends
upon the present values as well as the output values. That is the sequential circuits
have memory elements. Some examples of sequential circuits are fliup-flop, shift
registers counters etc.
Design procedure for Combinational circuit:

Any combinational circuit can be designed by following the design procedure given
below.
1) From the problem description, identify the inputs, outputs and draw a block
diagram.
2) Draw the Truth Table such that it describes the operation of the circuit for different
combination of inputs.
3) Note down the switching expressions for the outputs.
4) Simplify the switching expression.
5) Implement the simplified expression using logic gates.

Adders:
Digital computers perform a variety of information processing tasks. The basic functions
are various arithmetic operations. The most basic arithmetic operation is addition of two
binary digits
Simple addition consists of four possible elementary operations namely
0 + 0 = 0  sum
0 + 1 = 1  sum
1 + 0 = 1  sum
1 + 1 = 10  sum
↓
Carry
Arithmetic Circiuts:
Half – Adder : A combinational circuit that performs the arithmetic addition of two
binary bits is called a half-Adder. The half adder needs two binary inputs Augend and
addend and produces two binary outputs Sum and Carry.
The Block diagram and truth Table for half adder is as shown below.
The simplified Boolean functions for two outputs can be obtained directly from the
above truth table.
The simplified sum-of-product(SOP) expressions are:
S= AB + AB
C = AB
The half-adder circuit can be implemented using

i) Basic gates AND ,OR,and NOT
ii) NAND gate
iii) Ex-OR and AND
The Half –adder circuit using Basic gates AND ,OR,and NOT is as shown below:

The Half –adder circuit using NAND gate is as shown below:
The Half –adder circuit using Ex-OR and AND :
Full Adder :
A Half-adder has only two inputs and there is no provision to add a carry coming from the
lower order bits when multibit addition is performed. To overcome this a full adder is
designed.
A full- adder is a combinational circuit that performs the arithmetic sum of three input
bits and produce two outputs( SUM and Carry). Two inputs are denoted by A and B ,which
represents two significant bits to be added. The third input Cin represents the carry from
the previous lower order bits.

The logic Diagram and truth Table for full-adder is as shown below.
The eight rows iunder the input variables designate all possible combinations of 1‘s and
0‘s.when all input bits are 0‘s,the output is zero.Ths sum S ,output is equal to 1 when only
one input is equal to 1 or when all inputs are equal to 1.The carry C output has a carry of 1
if two or three inputs are equal to 1.
From th truth table the logic equation for S can be writtern by summing up the inputs
combination for which the sum output is 1.
S = ABCin + AB in + A B Cin + ABCin
Cout = ABCin + ABCin + ABCin + ABCin
= Cin(AB+AB)+AB (Cin + Cin)
Cout = (A B) Cin + AB
Implementation of full adder circuit using EX-OR gates ,AND gates and OR gate is shown
below.
Block diagram representation of full adder using two half adder blocks is shown below

Difference Between Half Adder and a Full Adder:

1. The main difference between a half-adder and a full-adder is that the full-adder has
three inputs and two outputs,where as half adder has only two inputs and two
outputs.
2. For complex addition, there may be cases when you have to add two 8-bit bytes
together. This can be done only with the help of full-adder logic.
3. When a full adder logic is designed we will be able to string eight of them together
to create a byte-wide adder and cascade the carry bit from one adder to the next.
4. Full adder is difficult to implement than half adder. Full adder make use of half
adders cascaded together.
Decoder:
A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from n input lines to a
maximum of 2n unique output lines.
The simplest is 1 to 2 line decoder , 2 to 4 line decoder , 3 to 8 line decoder etc.
Decoder circuits can be connected together to form a larger decoder circuit. A 4 x 16
decoder can be implemented using two 3 x 8 decoders.Thus there exist decoders for
converting from BCD to Decimal , Binary decoder, BCD to 7 segment decoder.
A 2 to 4 decoder has two inputs A and B and four outputs (D0 to C3).Based on 2 inputs
one of the four output is selected ,i.e., 2 inputs are decoded into 4 outputs.
From the truth table the logic expressions for the outputs can be written as follows:
D0 = D1 = B
D2 = A D3 = AB
Here 2 inputs are decoded into four outputs, each output representing one of the minterms
of the 2 input variables.

Using the above expressions, the logic circuit for 2 to 4 decoder can be implemented as
shown in the figure below.
3 to 8 decoder:
A 3 to 8 decoder has three inputs A,B,C and eight outputs D0 to d7.Based on 3 inputs one
of the eight output is selected. That is, the 3 inputs are decoded into 8 outputs, where each
output representing one of the minterms of the 3 input variables.
The truth table for 3 to 8 decoder is as shown in the figure below.
From the truth table the logic expressions for the outputs can be written as follows
D0= D1= C D2= B D3= BC
D4=A D5=A C D6 = AB D7= ABC
Using the above expressions ,the logic circuit for a 3 to 8 decoder can be implemented
using 3 NOT gates and eight 3 –input AND gates as shown in the figure. This application
implements Binary to Octal conversion.The input variables represents a binary number,and
the output will represents the eight digits in the actual numbers system.This decoder is
called as 1-of-8 decoder, since only one of eight output lines is HIGH for a particular input
combination

A 3 to 8 line decoder is as shown below.
Applications of Decoders:
1. Decoders are used in counter systems.
2. Decoders are used in Analog-to-Digital Converters
3. Decoders outputs can be used to drive a display system.
Encoders:
An encoder is a combinational logic circuit which performs reverse of decoder function. An

encoder has
2n ( or less)input lines and n output lines. The output lines generate binary code for the 2n
input variables.
That is, an encoder accepts decimal or octal digit and converts it to a coded output such as
BCD or binary.
An encoder can encode various symbols and alphanumeric characters.
We can define Encoder as Ä process of converting from familiar symbols or numbers to a
coded format .
Decimal to BCD encoder is as shown in figure.

Fig. Logic circuit for Decimal to BCD encoder Fig. Logic Symbol for Decimal to BCD
A decimal to BCD encoder converts each of the decimal digits (0 through 9 ) to a binary
code .This encoder has ten inputs(i0 to i9) one for each decimal digit and four outputs
corresponding to the BCD code.
The truth table for Decimal to BCD encoder is as shown below.

Decimal Inputs BCD Outputs
I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 A B C D
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
From the Truth Table the output A is HIGH whenever the input 8 or 9 is HIGH.
Therefore A = I8 + I9
B = I4 + I5 + I 6 + I 7
C = I2 + I3 + I 6 + I 7
D = I1 + I 3 + I5 + I7 + I 9
Using above expressions,the Decimal inputs BCD encoder can be implemented as shown in
figure

Seven Segment display :

A seven segment Display is normally used for displaying any one of the decimal digits,0
through 9 Figure shows a 7 segment display composed of 7 elements or segments.
Fig: Seven Segment Display

Each segment LED emits light when current flows through it.
Design of BCD-to-Seven Segment Decoder:

A BCD to 7 Segment decoder can be designed using logic gates.A block diagram of BCD to
Seven Segment Decoder with 4 BCD inputs( A , B , C and D) and 7 outputs( a,b,c d,e,f and
g) corresponding to 7 segment of a display.
General block diagram for BCD to 7 Segment decoder is as shown below.
Digits 0 through 9 with the the possible LE D display elements are as below.

Fig. The truth table for a seven segment display

The outputs from truth table can be solved using Karnaugh Map .Hence generated Logic
diagram is as shown below.

Multiplexers:
Multiplex Means ‗‘many into one ‗‘. A digital multiplexer is a combinational circuit that selects
binary information from one of many input lines and directs it to a single output line. The
selection of a particular input line is controlled by a set of selection lines. There are 2 n input
lines and ‗n ‗selection lines determine input selected. A multiplexer is also called a DATA
SELECTOR since it selects one of many inputs and steers the information to the output.
Multiplexer are used in basic electronic components. They are used in mechanical switches.
When high speed of operation is needed multiplexers are used.
Multiplexer can handle two types of data that is analog and digital. The multiplexer used for
digital transmission are called digital multiplexer.
Multiplexer come in multiple variations.
 2:1 multiplexer
 4:1 multiplexer
 16:1 multiplexer
 32:1 multiplexer
General block diagram for multiplexer is a shown below
Four –to-One multiplexer :
The logic symbol of a 4 to 1 multiplexer is as shown below.It has four data input lines
(D0,D1,D2,D3), a single output line (y) and two select lines(S0 an S1) to select one of the
four input lines.

The logic symbol of 4 to 1 multiplexer is shown below
The truth table for a 4 to 1 multiplexer is shown below.
Data Select inputs Output

S1 S0 y
0 0 D0
0 1 D1
1 0 D2
1 1 D3
A logical expression for the output in terms of the data input and the selsect inputs can be
derived as follows:
The data output y = data input D0 if and only if S1 = 0 and S0 = 0

Therefore y = D0 = D0. . = D0.1.1 = D0
The data output y = data input D1 if and only if S1 = 0 and S0 = 1

Therefore y = D0 1S0 = D1. .1 = D1
Similarly y = D2S1 0 = D2 when S1 = 1 S0 = 0

And y = D3S1S0 = D3 when S1 = S0 = 1
The final expression for the data output is given by

Y = D0 1 0 +D1 1 S0 + D 2 S1 0 + D3S1S0

Applications of multiplexer :
A Multiplexer is used in numerous applications like, where multiple data can be transmitted
using a single line.
Communication System – A Multiplexer is used in communication systems, which has a
transmission system and also a communication network. A Multiplexer is used to increase
the efficiency of the communication system by allowing the transmission of data such as
audio & video data from different channels via cables and single lines.
Computer Memory – A Multiplexer is used in computer memory to keep a vast amount of
memory in the system, and also to decrease the number of copper lines necessary to
connect the memory to other parts of the computer.
Telephone Network – A multiplexer is used in telephone networks to integrate the multiple
audio signals on a single line of transmission.
Transmission from the Computer System of a Satellite:
A Multiplexer is used to transmit the data signals from the computer system of a satellite to
the ground system by using a GSM communication
An everyday example of an analog multiplexer is the source selection control on a home
stereo unit.
Multiplexers are used in building digital semiconductors such as CPUs and graphics
controllers.
Applications of Demultiplexers :
Demultiplxer is used to connect a single source to multiple destinations. The main

application area of de –multiplexer is communication system where multiplexers are used.
They are used in Communication system to break into many forms of signals from common
source of input signal
They are used in data and address lines transmission in ALU(arithmetic and logic Unit) of a
computer system.
They are used in Converters. That is Serial-to-Parallel converter and Parallel-to-serial
converters.

Demultiplexer
Demultiplexer(DEMUX) means one into many. Demultiplexer is a combinational circuit

taking information from single input line and transmits this information on one of 2n
possible output lines. It takes digital information from one input line and distributes across
many output lines. Hence it is also called as a DISTRIBUTOR.
The DEMUX types are
1: 2 Demultiplexer (1 Select Line)
1:4 Demultiplexer (2 Select Line)
1:8 Demultiplexer (3 Select Line)
1:16 Demultiplexer ( 4 Select Line)
The general block diagram for 1:2 DEMUX is as shown below.
One to Four Demultiplexer:
One to Four demultiplexer ha s single input (D),four outputs(y0 to y3) and two select
inputs(S0 and S1). The logic symbol and truth table is given as below.

From the truth table the data input is connected to output y0 when S1=0 and S1=0
Similarly y0 = D when S1 = 0 and S0 = 0
y1 = D when S1 = 0 and S0 = 1
y2 = D when S1 = 1 and S0 = 0
y3 = D when S1 = 1 and S0 = 1
The expression for the outputs can be written as
Y0 = D y1= S0D
Y2 = S1 0D y3 = S1S0D
Using the above expression a 1 to 4 demux can be implemented as shown above .

UNIT-4 :SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
Sequential circuits:
The logic circuits whose outputs at any instant of time depend not only on the present
inputs but also on the past outputs are called sequential circuits.
It consists of memory elements capable of storing binary information. The sequential circuit
receives binary information from external inputs.
The block diagram of a sequential circuit is as shown below
The sequential circuits are broadly classified into 2 types.

1. Synchronous sequential circuit
2. A Synchronous sequential circuit
Synchronous sequential circuit is a system whose behavior can be defined from the
knowledge of its signals at discrete instant of time. The synchronization is achieved by a
master clock generator which generates periodic clock pulses.
Asynchronous sequential circuit depends upon the order in which input signals change
and can be affected at any instant of time . In asynchronous sequential circuits, events can
occur after one event is completed and there is no need to wait for a clock pulse.
In general , Asynchronous sequential circuits are considerably faster than Synchronous
sequential circuits. but in Asynchronous sequential circuit as events are allowed to occur
without any synchronization the system may become unstable.
Sl.No COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS

In a combinational circuits, the output In a sequential circuits, the output at any
at any time depends only on time depends on
1
present input values as well as the past
input values at that moment.
output values.
Memory units are required to store the
2 Memory units are not required
past output values.
Output signals are not fed back to Output signals are fed back to input of
3
input of the circuit. the circuit.
4 Faster in circuits operation. Slower in circuits operation.
5 Easy to design Harder to design
Ex: Parallel Adder, Multiplexer, Ex: Serial adder, Flip-Flops, Counters,
6
Decoders etc Registers etc

Flip flops:
It is a simplest type of sequential circuit. It is the basic memory element or memory
cell which can store 1bit ( A binary either 0 OR 1).It can store binary state(0 OR 1) as long
as power is available to the circuit.It is also known as a latch.
Logic Symbol of flip flop:
Clock:
In synchronous sequential circuits, the term synchronous means the changes in the
output occur at a specified point is called the clock .The clock is a square wave or
rectangular pulse train.
Types of Triggering:
Based on the specific interval or point in the clock during or at which triggering
of flip flops takes place, it can be classified into two different types.
1) Level triggering ----> 1) Positive (High ) level triggering

2) Negative(low) level triggering
2) Edge triggering ----> 1)Positive (Rising ) edge triggering
2) Negative(Falling ) edge triggering
Level triggering
The Flip –Flop that responds to a clock signal during the time at which clock is in the
logic HIGH state, are called High level triggering flip flops.
It is indicated by a straight lead at the clock output as shown below.

The flip flops that responds to a clock signal during the time at which clock is in logic
low state are called low level triggered flip flops. This type is identified by a straight lead
with a low state indicator bubble at the clock output .
The draw back of level triggering is that as long as the clock is positive or negative,
the Flip Flop changes its state more than once or many times for the change in inputs. If
the inputs are made stable for the entire clock duration, then the output changes only once.
On the other hand , if the frequency of input change is higher than the input clock
frequency, the output of the flip flop undergoes multiple changes when the clock is positive
or negative.
Edge triggering in flip flops:

A clock pulse goes through two signal transitions from 0 to 1 and returns 1 to 0. A +ve
transition (0 to 1) is defined as the +ve edge or rising edge or leading edge and –ve
transition (1 to 0) is defined as the –ve edge or falling edge or trailing edge. The term
edge-triggered means that flip flop changes its state either at the +ve edge or at the –ve
edge of the clock pulse .
The Flip Flops that responds to a clock signal during the low-to-high (+ve edge)
transition are called +ve edge triggering Flip Flops.
This type is identified by a clock input lead with a triangle as shown below .
The flip flops that respond to a clock signal during the high-to-low (-ve edge) transition are
called –ve edge triggering Flip Flops. This type is identified by a clock input with a bubble as
shown below

Flip Flops and its types

Flip flops:
It is a simplest type of sequential circuit. It is the basic memory element or memory
cell which can store 1bit ( A binary either 0 OR 1).It can store binary state(0 OR 1) as long
as power is available to the circuit. It is also known as a latch.
Types of Flip Flops:

There are different types depends upon their inputs and clock pulse causing transitions
between two states. Basic 4 types of flip flops are
1.RS(OR SR)- Flip Flop

2.D Flip Flop
3.T Flip Flop
4.JK Flip Flop
SR Latch(Non Clocked SR FF):

It has two inputs SET(S) AND RESET(R) and 2 outputs Q and Q. The 2 outputs are
complement to each other.
The block diagram of SR Latch is shown below:
The SR FF can be implemented using NOR OR NAND gates.

(a)NOR-Gate based SR Latch:

The cross-coupled connections from the output of one gate to input of other gate constitute
feedback path.
The truth table is as shown below:
(a) (b) NAND-Gate based SR Latch:The NAND-Gate based SR Latch is constructed using
cross coupled NAND gates and its truth table is as shown below.
Clocked RS Flip Flop (Synchronous Sequential circuits):

The basic RS Flip Flop is a asynchronous sequential circuit. This FF can also be converted to
synchronous sequential circuit by providing an additional control input(clock) that
determines when the state of the flip flop to be changed . This FF is called as Clocked RS
FF.
The logic symbol is as shown below:
The block diagram of clocked SR Flip Flop is as shown below:

The clocked SR Flip-Flop circuit diagram using NAND based latch is as shown below.
The Truth table of clocked SR Flip Flop is as shown below:
Operation
S.N. Condition Operation
1 S = R = 0 : No change If S = R = 0 then output of NAND gates 3 and 4 are

forced to become 1.
Hence R' and S' both will be equal to 1. Since S' and
R' are the input of the basic S-R latch using NAND
gates, there will be no change in the state of
outputs.
2 S = 0, R = 1, E = 1 Since S = 0, output of NAND-3 i.e. R' = 1 and E = 1

the output of NAND-4 i.e. S' = 0.Hence Qn+1 = 0 and
Qn+1 bar = 1. This is reset condition.
3 S = 1, R = 0, E = 1 Output of NAND-3 i.e. R' = 0 and output of NAND-4

i.e. S' = 1.Hence output of S-R NAND latch is Qn+1 =
1 and Qn+1 bar = 0. This is the reset condition.
4 S = 1, R = 1, E = 1 As S = 1, R = 1 and E = 1, the output of NAND

gates 3 and 4 both are 0 i.e. S' = R' =0.Hence
the Race condition will occur in the basic NAND
latch.

Jk flip flops:
The basic gated SR NAND flip flop suffers from two basic problems: number one,
the S = 0 and R = 0 condition (S = R = 0) must always be avoided, and number two, if S or
R change state while the enable input is high the correct latching action may not occur.
Then to overcome these two fundamental design problems with the SR flip-flop design, the
JK flip Flop was developed.
The JK flip-flop is the most versatile flip-flop, and the most commonly used flip flop.
The functioning of the JK Flip-Flop is similar to that of the RS flip-flop. Like the RS flip-flop, it
has two data inputs, J and K, and a clock input. It has no undefined states or race condition.
The logic symbol and block diagram of JK Flip-Flop is as shown below.
The truth table of JK FF is shown below.



S.N. Condition Operation
1 J = K = 0 (No change)
When clock = 0, the slave becomes active and master is
inactive. But since the S and R inputs have not changed, the
slave outputs will also remain unchanged. Therefore outputs
will not change if J = K =0.
2 J = 0 and K = 1 (Reset)
Clock = 1 − Master active, slave inactive. Therefore outputs of
the master become Q1 = 0 and Q1 bar = 1. That means S = 0
and R =1.Clock = 0 − Slave active, master inactive. Therefore
outputs of the slave become Q = 0 and Q bar = 1.
3 J = 1 and K = 0 (Set)
Clock = 1 − Master active, slave inactive. Therefore outputs of
the master become Q1 = 1 and Q1 bar = 0. That means S = 1
and R =0.Clock = 0 − Slave active, master inactive. Therefore
outputs of the slave become Q = 1 and Q bar = 0.
Again clock = 1 − then it can be shown that the outputs of the
slave are stabilized to Q = 1 and Q bar = 0.
4 J = K = 1 (Toggle)
Clock = 1 − Master active, slave inactive. Outputs of master
will toggle. So S and R also will be inverted.Clock = 0 − Slave
active, master inactive. Outputs of slave will toggle.
These changed output are returned back to the master inputs.
But since clock = 0, the master is still inactive. So it does not
respond to these changed outputs. This avoids the multiple
toggling which leads to the race around condition. The master
slave flip flop will avoid the race around condition.

Race around condition:

Before the development of edge-triggered flip-flops, the timing problem in level-
triggered Flip-flops was handled by Master-slave Flip-flops. The codition S= 1 And R= 1 is
not allowed in SR flip-flop. This is eliminated in the JK flip-flop by using feedback
connection. Because of the feedback connection Q at the input to k ,the input will change
during the clock pulse(clock = 1) . Hence the output will oscillate back and forth between 0
and 1 in the duration of the clock pulse width..Thus at the end of the clock pulse, the value
of Q is ambiguous. This situation is known as a RACE AROUND CONDITION and it is
avoided in Master-Slave Flip-Flops
D-Flip-flop (Delay Flip Flop)
D-Flip Flop has one input called Delay(D) input and 2 Outputs Q and qbarr . It can be
constructed from SR FF by inserting an inverter between S and R and assigning symbol D to
the S input.
Block diagram of D Flip Flop is shown below:
Truth Table of Delay Flip Flop is shown below

Clock Input D Output Q n+1
0 X Qn (No Change)
1 0 0
1 1 1
Operation:
When clock input is low , D input has no effect, since S and R inputs of NAND gates 1 and 2
are kept HIGH.

When Clock=1 and D=1 NAND gate1 output goes 0 which is the S input and NAND gate 2
output goes HIGH which is the R input i.e., S=0 and R=1. The NAND based Flip Flop output
will be 1 i.e., it follows D input.
When Clock=1 and D=0 ,,the Flip Flop output will be 0.
When clock=1 the Q output will take the value of D input. As the transfer of data from the
input D to the output Q is delayed, it is known as Delay(D) Flip Flop. The Delay depends on
the clock
Applications of flip flop

Flip flops are widely used in
1.Counters
2.Frequency dividers
3.Shift registers
4.Storage registers
5.Transfer of data
6.Parallel data stirage
7.Serial-to-parallel and Parallel-to-serial data conversion etc.
Shift Registers:
A register is a group of flip flops suitable for storing binary information. Each Flip flop is a
binary cell capable of storing 1-bit of information. An n-bit register has a group of n flip
flops and is capable of storing n-bits of information.
The register is mainly used for storing and shifting the binary data entered into it from an
external source.
Types of shift registers:
They are classified into 4 types based on how binary information is entered or shifted out:
1.Serial -in-Serial-Out (SISO)
2.Serial -in-Parallel-Out (SIPO)
3.Parallel -in-Serial-Out (PISO)
4.Parallel-in-Parallel-Out (PIPO)
Shift Right Operation

Data is shifted in the right
And direction one bit at time with each transition of the clock signal. The data enters the s
hift register serially from the left hand side and after four clock transitions the 4-
Bit register has 4-bits of data. The data is shifted out serially one bit at
a time from the right hand side of the register if clock signals are continuously
applied. Thus after 8 clock signals the 4-
Bit data is completely shifted out of the shift register.

Shift Left Operation

Data is shifted in the left-hand direction one bit at a time with each transition of the
clock signal. The data enters the shift register serially from the right hand side and
after four clock transitions the 4-bit register has 4-
bits of data. The data is shifted out serially
one bit at time from the left hand side of the register if clock signals are continuously applie
d.Thus after 8 clock signals the 4-bit data is completely shifted out of the shift register
Serial in serial out (siso) shift registers:

Serial-in-serial-out (SISO) shift register accepts data serially,i,e.,one bit at a time on
a single input line.It produces the stored information on its sinlge output line in serial form.
Data may be shifted left using shift-left register or shifted right by using shift- right register
Shift Right Operation

Data is shifted in the right-hand direction one bit at a time with each transition of the
clock signal. The data enters the shift register serially from the left hand side and after four
clock transitions the 4-bit register has 4-bits of data. The data is shifted out serially one bit
at a time from the right hand side of the register if clock signals are continuously
applied. Thus after 8 clock signals the 4-bit data is completely shifted out of the shift
register.
Shift Left Operation

Data is shifted in the left-hand direction one bit at a time with each transition of the
clock signal. The data enters the shift register serially from the right hand side and
after four clock transitions the 4-bit register has 4-bits of data. The data is shifted out
serially one bit at a time from the left hand side of the register if clock signals are
continuously applied. Thus after 8 clock signals the 4-bit data is completely shifted out of
the shift register.

Operation
Before application of clock signal, let Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 = 0000 and apply LSB bit of the number
to be entered to Din. So Din = D3 = 1. Apply the clock. On the first falling edge of clock, the
FF-3 is set, and stored word in the register is Q3 Q2 Q1Q0 = 1000.
Serial in parallel out (sipo):

A 4-bit serial-in-parallel-out consists of one serial port input and outputs are taken
from all the flip flops in parallel. The data is shifted in serially but shifted out in parallel.As
soon as the data loading gets completed, all the flip-flops contain their required data, the
outputs are enabled so that all the loaded data is made available over all the output lines at
the same time.4 clock cycles are required to load a four bit word. Hence the speed of
operation of SIPO mode is same as that of SISO mode.
The block diagram of 4 bit SIPO shift register is shown below

Parallel in parallel out(pipo) shift register

In PIPO shift register the data is entered into the register in parallel form and also
the data is taken out of the register in parallel form.
In this mode, the 4 bit binary input B0, B1, B2, B3 is applied to the data inputs D0, D1,
D2, D3 respectively of the four flip-flops.Data is applied to the input terminals when the clock
pulse is applied.Accordingly input data( D0, D1, D2, D3) are shifted into the
outputs(Q3,Q2,Q1,Q0 )of the Flip Flops.
Parallel data input Parallel data output

Clock Pulse
A B C D QA QB QC QD
0 1 0 1 1 X X X X
1 X X X X 1 0 1 1
Parallel in serial out(piso) shift register

A 4 bit parallel in-serial-out shift register is as shown below. Let A,B,C nd D be the 4
parallel data input lines and shift/Load is control input that allows:
(a) The data to enter into the register in parallel form(shift/Load=0)
(b) (b) To shift the data in serial(shift/Load=1)
When shift/Load is low, AND gates 2,4 and 6 are enabled. Allowing the data at
parallel inputs,i.e, B1,B2,B3 to the inputs respective of Flip Flops. The input B0 is directly
connected to the first FF input.
When shift/Load is high, AND gates 2,4 and 6 are disabled and the remaining AND gates 1,3
and 5 are enabled allowing the data bits to shift right from one stage to the next.
The OR gates allow either normal shifting operation or the parallel data entry operation
depending on which AND gates are enabled.

Applications of shift registers:
Counters
A counter is a sequential circuit consisting of set of Flip Flops,used to count the sequence of
input pulses presented to it in digital form
They can be classified under 3 categories:
1.Asynchronous and synchronous counters.
2.Single(up or down) and multi(both up and down) mode counters.
3.Modulus counters.
An Asynchronous or ripple counter can be constructed using minimum hardware. Each

flip flop is triggered by the output from the previous flip flop,which limits the speed of
operation.The settling time in Asynchronous counters is the cumulative sum of the individual
settling times of the flip flop. It is also called as the serial counter.
In synchronous counter the speed limitation of ripple counters is overcome by applying

clock pulse to all the flip flops which leads to the settling time of the counter being equal to
the propagation delay of the single flip flop.It is also called as the Parallel counter.
Single mode counter operates in sinlge mode i.e., it counts either in UP or DOWN mode,
where as Multi mode counter operates in both UP and DOWN modes.
Modulus counters are defined based on the number of states they are capable of counting
.Ex. mod 5 counter has 5 states .

Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous Counters

SYNCHRONOUS
Sl.NO ASYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS
COUNTERS
The term asynchronous refers to the events The term synchronous refers
1 that do not occur at the same time i.e., the events to the events
will occur at different time. that occur at the same time.
All the Flip Flops do not change their states All the Flip Flops change their
2
simultaneously. states simultaneously
The clock is connected to only first Flip Flop and
The clock is connected directly
3 other Flip Flops are triggered by the output of
to all Flip Flops.
previous Flip Flops.
4 It requires minimum hardware. It requires more hardware
Easy to design(It is simplest in term of logical Difficult to design.(complex in
5
operation) terms of logical operations)
They will not suffer from
6 They suffer from Spikes
Spikes
7 Slower operation speed Faster operation speed
8 Also known as serial or Ripple counter Also known as parallel counter
The sequence can be either upward(UP-counter) or
It is possible to design for any
9. downward(down-counter).And it can‘t have any
specified random sequence.
specified random sequence.
ASYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS:
The term Asynchronous refers to events that do not have a fixed time relationship
with each other . It is the one in which the flip flops within the counter do not change the
states at exactly the same time because they dont have common clock pulse.
Ripple or serial counters can be constructed as 2 bit binary counters,3 bit binary counters,4
bit binary counters upto modulus N (< 2n ) .
Mod-Number or MODULUS:
The Mod-number of a counter is the total number of states it sequences through in
each complete cycle.In other words, the number of states through which the counter
passes before returning to the starting state.
Mod-number = 2n where n= Number of flip flops
The maximum binary number counted by the counter is 2n - 1.
Ex. n= 4, 4-flip flop counter
Mod number = 2 4 = 16
Maximum binary number counted by the counter is 24 - 1 = 16 - 1 = 15 .

4 BIT ASYNCHRONOUS ( RIPPLE OR SERIAL) COUNTERS:

The term Asynchronous refers to events that do not have a fixed time relationship with each
other . It is the one in which the flip flops within the counter do not change the states
at exactly the same time because they don't have common clock pulse.
The below figure shows a 4-bit binary ripple counter constructed using JK flip flops.The
output of FF1 drives FF2, the output of
FF2 drives FF3 and the output of FF3 drives FF4. All the J&K inputs are connected to
Vdd,where each ff toggles on the negative edge of its clock input.
Consider initially all Flip flops to be in logical 0 state(Q1=Q2=Q3=Q4=0) . A negative

transition in clock input drives FF1 and causes Q1 to change from 0 to 1. FF2 does not
change its state since it also requires negative transition at its clock input.with the arrival of
the second clock pulse to FF1 Q1 goes from 1 to 0. This change of state creates the
negative going edge needed to trigger FF2, and thus Q2 goes from 0 to 1. Thus before the
arrival of the 16th clock pulse all the ff are in the logical 1 state. Clock pulse 16 causes Q1
Q2 Q3 Q4 to go logic 0 state.

Truth table of 4 bit binary Ripple counter
State Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
10 1 0 1 0
11 1 0 1 1
12 1 1 0 0
13 1 1 0 1
14 1 1 1 0
15 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
SYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS
The speed of operation of asynchronous counter is low because the propagation delay time
of all Flip Flops is cumulative and the total settling time is the product of the total number of
Flip Flops and the propagation delay of a single flip flop.
In synchronous counters the clock pulse is applied to all the flip flops simultaneously. The
speed of operation in synchronous counters is limited by the propagation delay of control
gating and flip flop.
4 BIT SYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS:
A 4-bit (MOD 16) synchronous counter with parallel carry is shown below:

It can be seen that the external clock pulses (pulses to be counted) are fed directly to each
J-K flip-flop in the counter chain and that both the J and K inputs are all tied together, but
only in the first flip-flop, flip-flop A (LSB) are they connected HIGH, logic "1" allowing the
flip-flop to toggle on every clock pulse.
The J and K inputs of flip-flop B are connected to the output "Q" of flip-flop A, but
the J and K inputs of flip-flops C and D are driven from AND gates which are also supplied
with signals from the input and output of the previous stage. If we enable each J-K flip-flop
to toggle based on whether or not all preceding flip-flop outputs (Q) are "HIGH" we can
obtain the same counting sequence as with the asynchronous circuit but without the ripple
effect, since each flip-flop in this circuit will be clocked at exactly the same time. As there is
no propagation delay in synchronous counters because all the counter stages are triggered
in parallel the maximum operating frequency of this type of counter is much higher than
that of a similar asynchronous counter.
Truth table of 4-bit Binary Synchronous Counter is shown below
State Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
10 1 0 1 0
11 1 0 1 1
12 1 1 0 0
13 1 1 0 1
14 1 1 1 0
15 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
Timing diagram of 4-bit Binary Synchronous Counter is shown below

4 BIT SYNCHRONOUS UP/DOWN COUNTERS

Examining the four-bit binary count sequence, another predictive pattern can be
seen. Notice that just before a bit toggles, all preceding bits are "high:"
This pattern is also something we can exploit in designing a counter circuit. If we

enable each J-K flip-flop to toggle based on whether or not all preceding flip-flop
outputs (Q) are "high," we can obtain the same counting sequence as the
asynchronous circuit without the ripple effect, since each flip-flop in this circuit will
be clocked at exactly the same time:
The result is a four-bit synchronous "up" counter. Each of the higher-order flip-flops are
made ready to toggle (both J and K inputs "high") if the Q outputs of all previous flip-flops
are "high." Otherwise, the J and K inputs for that flip-flop will both be "low," placing it into
the "latch" mode where it will maintain its present output state at the next clock pulse. Since

the first (LSB) flip-flop needs to toggle at every clock pulse, its J and K inputs are connected
to Vcc or Vdd, where they will be "high" all the time. The next flip-flop need only "recognize"
that the first flip-flop's Q output is high to be made ready to toggle, so no AND gate is
needed. However, the remaining flip-flops should be made ready to toggle only when all
lower-order output bits are "high," thus the need for AND gates.
To make a synchronous "down" counter, we need to build the circuit to recognize the
appropriate bit patterns predicting each toggle state while counting down. Not surprisingly,
when we examine the four-bit binary count sequence, we see that all preceding bits are
"low" prior to a toggle (following the sequence from bottom to top):
Since each J-K flip-flop comes equipped with a Q' output as well as a Q output, we can use
the Q' outputs to enable the toggle mode on each succeeding flip-flop, being that each Q'
will be "high" every time that the respective Q is "low:"
Taking this idea one step further, we can build a counter circuit with selectable between
"up" and "down" count modes by having dual lines of AND gates detecting the appropriate

bit conditions for an "up" and a "down" counting sequence, respectively, then use OR gates
to combine the AND gate outputs to the J and K inputs of each succeeding flip-flop
Applications of counters
1.The counters in general can be used to measure frequency. For eg, we can use it to count
line frequency.
2. As object counters.
3. In various Analog to Digital converters
4. Used in Timers.
5. can be used as a frequency counter.
6. Counters can also be used as a digital clock- a time clock which displays the time of the
day in hours,minutes and seconds.

UNIT-5 :INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS.
Introduction
The term computer is derived from the word compute or calculate. Computer is an
electronic device which is capable of doing computations or calculations with high speed &
accuracy. Charles Babbage was the father of computer. The applications of computers
depends totally on the human creativity & imagination using the artificial intelligence.
Applications of computers include education, government, industries, social science, law,
entertainment, different scientific & research fields.
Characteristics of Computers
The major characteristics of computer are :-
1. Speed
2. Accuracy
3. Reliability
4. Storage Capability
5. Versatility
6. Diligence
Speed :- The processing speed is extremely fast i.e. it can execute million
instructions per seconds. The speed of computer is calculated in megahertz. i.e
One million instructions per second. Presently powerful computers can perform
billions of instructions operation in 1 second.
Accuracy :- . Accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree of
accuracy of a particular computer depends on the instructions and the type of
processor. Computer is capable of doing only what is instructed to do, faulty
instructions for processing the data automatically lead to faulty results.
Reliabilty :- Reliability is an attribute of any computer that consistently
performs according to its specifications. It is the measurement of the
performance of the computer.
Storage Capability :- Computers can store large amount of data & it will
provide the information immediately. Storage capacity refers to how much disk
space one or more storage devices provides. It measures how much data a
computer system may contain. For an example, a computer with a 500GB hard
drive has a storage capacity of 500 gigabytes. A network server with four 1TB
drives, has a storage capacity of 4 terabytes.
Versatility:- It performs multiple tasks simultaneously. The group of jobs are
called tasks. More than one process work simultaneously are called
multiprocessing.
Diligence:-A computer does not suffer from limitations associated with living
beings like tiredness and lack of concentration and hence can work for hours at a
stretch without error arising. This characteristic is especially useful for those jobs
where same tasks are done again and again. It can perform long and complex
calculations with same speed and accuracy from the start till the end.

Evolution of Computers
Pebbles‘ are used to represent numbers, they are known to be the earliest
device for computation. Afterwards sand tables were modified extensively & these
modifications device are called as Abacaus. This device allows users to do computations
using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack. Manipulating beads on the wires carry
out arithmetic operations.
In 1614 John Napier made a more sophisticated computing machine called Napier
bones. It is a small instrument made of ten rods, on which multiplication table was
engraved. Napier also played a key role in the development of logarithms.
In 1620 the inventions of logarithms & development of another invention slide rule.
The two scales enabled the slide rule to perform multiplication & division by a method of
addition & subtraction.
In 1642 Blaise Pascal invented the first functional automatic calculator. It had a
complex arrangement of wheels, gears & windows for the display of numbers.This device
was limited to the addition & subtraction.
In 1694 Von Leibriz extended the Pascal‘s design to perform multiplication,division &
to find square root. This machine was called stepped reckoner.
In 1801 Jacquard invented a powerloom with an automatic card reader are called
Punch Card machine.
In 1822 Charles Babbage devised a calculating machine are called difference engine.
The difference engine can be viewed as a complex Abacus. It was intended to solve
differential equations.
Analytical engine is considered to be the first general purpose programmable
computer. Babbage also designed this device to advance or reverse the flow of punched
cards to permit branching to any desired instruction within a program. This was the
fundamental difference between analytical engine & difference engine. Lady Ada Lovelace
helped him in the development of analytical engine. Babbage never completed the
analytical engine, but his proposal for this device reviewed the basic elements of modern
computers.
In 1896 Hollerith founded the tabulating machine company which was named IBM.
In 1904 Sir John Ambrose Fleming worked to developed the first thermionic valve
are called vacuum tubes. Two element vacuum tubes are called diodes. This is the first
generation of computers.
In 1906 Lee de Forest introduced vacuum tube.
In 1931 Vannevar Bush introduced the differential analyser to solve the differential
equations.
In 1938 Claude Shannon designed the connection between electronic circuits &
Boolean algebra.
Early Computers.
MARK-I Computer from the year 1937 to 1944.It was essentially a serial collection
of electromechanical calculators & had many similarities to Babbage Analytical Machine. It
was capable of performing additions, subtraction, division, multiplication & table reference.
It was extremely slow, noisy & bulky. The length was 50 feet long, 8 feet high & weighted
5 tons.

ABC Computer In 1939 John Vincent Atansoft & Cliffored Berry formulated the
idea of using the binary number system to simplify the construction of an electronic
calculator. They built a first electronic computer named as ABC (Atansoft Berry Cliffored ).It
is considered the first computing machine which introduced the idea of binary arithmetic,
regenerative memory & logic circuits.
COLOSSUS In 1944 British mathematician Alan mathison created a computer called
COLOSSUS which comprised 1800 vacuum tubes. This was the one of the world‘s earliest
working programmable electronic digital computer.
ENIAC In 1946 John Eckert & John Mauchly developed Electronic Numerical
Integrator & Calculator (ENIAC). It embodied all the components & concepts of high
speed,electronic digital computers. This machine discriminate the sign of numbers, compare
quantities & add, sub, multiply, divide & extract square root. ENIAC consist of 108000
vacuum tubes, required around 160 KW of electricity & weighted 30 tons.It had a limited
amount of space to store & manipulate information.
EDVAC John Eckert & John Mauchly proposed the development of Electronic
Discrete variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC). It came into existence in 1949.It was the
first electronic computer to use the stored program concept introduced by John Von
Neuman. It could stop any time & resume again. It contained 4000 vacuum tubes & 1000
crystal diodes.
EDSAC Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) was BASED ON John Von
Neuman‘s stored program concept. The first successful program was run in 1949 .It used
mercury delay lines for memory & vacuum tubes for logic. It had 3000 vacuum valves
arranged on 12 racks & used tubes filled with mercury for memory. It executed 650
instructions per second & occupied a room measured 5 metres by 4 metres.
UNIVAC Universal Automatic Computer was the first commercially available electronic
computer. It was the first general purpose computer which was designed to handle
numerical & textual information. UNIVAC computed at the speed of around 120-3600
microseconds. Magnetic tapes were used as input & output mediums. At a speed of 13000
caharacters per seconds. The machine was 25 feet by 50 feet in length,contained 5600
tubes,18000 crystals & 300 relays.
Generations of Computers
The word generation is described as a stage of technological development or
innovation. A major technological development resulted in smaller, cheaper, powerful,
efficient & reliable devices. According to the type of processor installed in a machine there
are five generations of computers.
First Generation (1940 -56) – Vacuum Tubes
Second Generation (1956-63)- Transistors
Third Generation (1964- Early 1970) – Integrated Circuits
Fourth Generation ( Early 1970s –Till Date) – Microprocessor
Fifth Generation (Present & Beyond) – Artificial Intelligence

First Generation (1940 -56) – Vacuum Tubes

These computers were based on vacuum tube technology. It is a fastest
computing device & the computation time was in milliseconds. These computers in large &
required a lot of space for installation. These computers relied on binary coded languages to
perform operations & solved only one problem at a time.
These were non-portable & very slow in execution. They lacked in versatility & speed. It is
very expensive & used large amount of electricity. It is unreliable & prone to frequent
hardware failures. Constant maintenance was required. It used machine languages &
difficult for programming.
Ex :- ENIAC, ADVAC, UNIVAC
Second Generation (1956-63) - Transistors

These computers were based on transistor technology. They were smaller as
compared to first generation computers. The computational time was reduced to
microseconds. It is more reliable & less prone to hardware failures & required less frequent
maintenance. These computers are better portability & generated less amount of heat. It
supports assembly language was used to program computers. Transistor is made up of
semiconductor materials & it performed electrical functions such as voltage, current with
power requirement. This component reduced the size of the computers & faster, cheaper &
more reliable. These computers supports primary memory & number of secondary storage
devices. It is possible to execute high level programming languages like FORTARN, COBOL.
Ex:- PDP-8, IBM-1401, IBM-7090
Third Generation (1964- Early 1970) – Integrated Circuits

These computers were based on integrated circuits technology (IC). IC consists of
single chip with many components of transistors, resistors fabricated on it. This made
smaller in size, reliable & efficient .These computers reduced the computational time from
microseconds to nanoseconds. These computers are easily portable & more reliable than
second generation computers. It uses less power & generates less heat. The size of
computers was smaller & maintenance cost was very low. It is possible to execute high level
programming languages like FORTARN, COBOL, C.
Fourth Generation (Early 1970s –Till Date) – Microprocessor

These computers are microprocessor based systems. It is very small in size, cheapest
among all the generations. It is portable, more reliable & require minimum maintenance. A
microprocessor is built on to a single piece of silicon called chip. Large Scale Integration (
LSI ) technology allow thousands of transistors to be constructed on one small slice of
silicon material. Very large Scale Integration (VLSI) squeezed thousands of components on
to a single chip. Ultra Large Scale Integration ( ULSI ) increased that number into the
millions. These computers could be linked to networks. This generation supports
development of internet & Graphical User Interface (GUI). It is possible to execute all high
level programming languages like FORTARN, COBOL, C,C++, Java.
Ex :- Apple-II, Altaire-8800, CRAY-I, PARAM

Fifth Generation (Present & Beyond) – Artificial Intelligence

These computers are in the development stage. It is used in Super large Scale
Integrated (SLSI) chips. It consist of millions of electronic components on a single chip.
These computers used intelligent programming like artificial intelligence (LISP, Prolog ) &
knowledge based problem solving techniques. This generation is based on parallel
processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in
computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like
human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this
generation.
AI includes:
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
 Natural language understanding and generation.
The main features of fifth generation are:

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are:
 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook

 UltraBook
 ChromeBook

Classification
Computers can be classified into three categories
Analog Computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such
as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.
Digital Computer
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as
digits, usually in the binary number system.
Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)
A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital
and analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of
performing complex simulations.
Digital Computers
Super Computer
The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive and
are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical
calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of
supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, and petroleum exploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer
channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a
mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.
Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of
users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches,
for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just
below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers
because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a
single program faster than a mainframe.
Mini Computer
A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie
between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large
minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between
small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing
system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.
Micro Computer or Personal Computer
• Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.
• Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and
keyboard. It is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than
a notebook computer.
• Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer.
Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.
Workstations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic
term for a user's machine (client machine) in contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."
Computer System
Computer is an electronic device which is

capable of doing computations or
calculations with high speed & accuracy.
A system of
interconnected computers that share a
central storage system and
various peripheral devices such as
a printers, scanners, or routers. Each
computer connected to the system
can operate independently, but has
the ability to communicate with other
external devices and computers.
Input unit
The role of an input in a computer system is to provide data for further processing. An input
consists of data or commands that are entered into the computer system usually via an
input device such as a keyboard, mouse, OMR, barcode reader, scanner etc. The input data
is converted into digital data that can be dealt with by the computer.The input is already in

digtial format, for example when it has been transmitted from another computer but most of
the time it needs to be converted into a digital format before processing can take place.
Examples : Keyboard, Mouse, Touch screen, scanner, joystick etc
Output unit
Output is the stage where the information obtained via processing is presented to the user
in a suitable format. Outputs involve converting digital data into some physical effect that
the person senses with eyes or ears. This means that we might be able to see the output, a
print out or displayed on the computer screen or we can hear the output via music, voice
instructions or a computer generated alarm.
Examples : Monitor, Printer, Speaker.
Central processing unit (cpu)

Processing is the stage where the input data is manipulated in order to produce
meaningful information.Processing can include a number of stages such as sorting,
searching, calculations, graphing.The results obtained from processing the data can then be
used in the next stage, called "output".
Central processing unit is the heart & brain of the system.CPU mainly consists of
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) & Memory Unit (MU).
Arithmetic Logic Unit performs arithmetic & logical operations. All calculations are
carried out in this unit.
Control Unit controls all the activities of the computer. It coordinates all the different
units.
Memory unit
Memory is a storage unit. It is a unit where all the information & data are
stored. The memory that directly communicates to CPU is called primary memory. There are
two types of memory.
I Primary Memory
Ex :- Random Access Memory ( RAM) ,Read Only Memory (ROM)
II Secondary Memory
Backing storage memory are called secondary memory.
Ex : Magnetic hard Disk, Magnetic Tape, Compact Disk/ Digital versatile Disk, Pen Drive etc
Applications
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
made it an integrated part in all business organisations.
Computer is used in business organisations for:
 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting

 Managing employees database

 Maintenance of stocks etc.
Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.
Banks provide following facilities:
 Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits,
overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer
Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer
students.
 There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer to
educate the students.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are following:
 Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics,
write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more
products.
 At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of
computerised catalogues that provide access to product information and permit
direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The computers
are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in
scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc., are
also done by computerised machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
 Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of
illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by
computer.
 Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
 Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates,
harmful drug‘s side effects etc.
 Surgery : Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design). That provides creation and
modification of images. Some fields are:

 Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of Ships,
Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.
 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials and equipments.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.
Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Military also
employs computerised control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been
used are:
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received
and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant for. Some main
areas in this category are:
 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing
Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category are:
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Male/Female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of driving licensing system
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting
Computer Software –
Software :- It is a collection of programs that enable the user to interact with
a computer and its hardware to perform tasks.
Software categories:-
Software is divided into two main categories:
(1) System software: controls the basic functions of a computer and comes
preinstalled with the machine.
Ex : Operating System, Compiler, Loader, Linker, Translator

(2) Application software: It handles multitudes of common and

specialized tasks a user wants to perform like accounting, communicating, data
processing, word processing.
Ex : Ms-Office, CAD, CAM, ORACLE etc
Machine language,
Programming language that can be directly understood and obeyed by
a machine (computer) without conversion (translation). Different for each
type of CPU, it is the native binary language (comprised of only
two characters: 0 and 1) of the computer and is difficult to be read and
understood by humans.
Programmers commonly use more English-like languages (called high

level languages) such as Basic, C, Java, etc., to write programs which are
then translated into machine language (called a low level language) by
an assembler, compiler, or interpreter
Assembly Language: - Intermediate-level programming language which is

higher than machine language and lower than a high-level language such as
Basic, FORTRAN, or Java. Programs written in assembly language are converted
into machine language by specialized
programs called assemblers or compilers for their execution.
High level language :- It is a user readable form, machine-independent,

sophisticated programming language that uses familiar English like syntax. In a
HLL,each statement can represent several instructions that
perform complex computing operations.
Software terminologies :-
Liveware :- Human beings who write programs, operate & maintain the
computers are known as liveware, humanware or peopleware.
Ex: System Analyst, Programmers, Hardware Engineers
Public Domain Software :- It refers to any program that is not copy
righted .This software is free & can be used without restrictions.
Freeware :- It is commonly used for copy righted software given away for
free by its author. The freeware software permits redistribution but not
modification.
Ex: Linux
Shareware :- It is the software which comes with permission for people to
redistribute copies for limited period. To use this software we need to pay a
license fee.
Ex: Winzip Software

Commercial Software :- It is developed by a business organization & it is a

proprietary software.
Ex: MS Windows
Proprietary Software :- It is not a free software & used for a specific purpose.
Ex: Oracle
Semi-free Software :- It is not absolutely free & comes with permission for
individuals to use, copy, distribute & modify for non-profit purposes.
Ex : Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)

UNIT – 6 : PERIPHERALS
Input devices:
The devices which are responsible for getting in all kinds of original information into the
computer are called input devices. All input devices are designed to get different types of
data like video, audio, text, Graphics and images into the computer system.
Input devices process and referred by 3 stages of process:

1.Data input at keyboard and mouse
2.Data processing at Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3.Data Output at Cathode Ray Tube(CRT) or Liquid Crystal Display(LCD)
Various types of input devices are

Keyboard, Mouse, Touch Screen, Light pen, Joystick, Scanner, Web Camera etc.

Key Board and its working principle
The most common input deviceis a keyboard used for manual data entry process. The keys
are arranged on a standard keyboard can be identified in terms of 5 key groups.
1.Alpha Numeric key
2.Modifier key
3.Functional key
4.cursor movement key
5.Special purpose key
Keyboard consists of electronic circuit to decide which key has been pressed.The keyboard
control electronic circuits it performs major 3 functions
1.Sensing a key pressed.
2.Encode the sensed key.
3.Send the encoded data to computer.
Working of a Keyboard: Inside the keyboard, there are metallic plate, circuit board and
processor, which are responsible for transferring information from the keyboard to the
computer. Depending upon the working principle, there are two main types of keys, namely,
capacitive and hard-contact.
When a key is pressed, the corresponding key switch is activated. The keyboard electronic
circuit make use of matrix scanning technique in order to determine which key has been
pressed. Then a standard 8 bit binary code called as scan code is generated to correspond
to the depressed key value activate key switch .Now this 8 bit scan code is sent into the
computer as an input data.

The keyboard control electronics circuitry not only just senses the pressed key but it also
keep track that when the operator or user releases that key. Each separate key action is
recorded by the keyboard control electronic circuit and sent to the computer as a distinct
scan code. The scan codes are communicated to the processing unit via interrupt
mechanism.
Advantages of using Keyboard:

1. Keyboards have special key that perform specific functions.
2. Instead of using the mouse to move the cursor you can use the arrow key situated on the
keyboard to move the cursor on the monitor.
3. Keyboard is less expensive because it comes with every computer.
Disadvantages of keyboard are:

1. The person using the keyboard have to learn how to type.
2. The frequent movement from keyboard to move and back could cause carpal tunnel
syndrome.
Mouse:
The modern digital system consists of a display screen(VDU),a keyboard for entering
numbers and text matter and a hand held pointing device called as a Mouse. Mouse is a tiny
box resting on a small tracker ball with 2 or 3 buttons on top and a thin flexible cable
connects it to the CPU of computer. Mouse is a graphical input device.
The common mouse involves 5 different actions such as

Pointing – Slide the mouse pointer anywhere on the screen
Clicking- Single click to select , i.e. press once the mouse left button.

Double clicking – Press twice the mouse left button to launch

Dragging – Drag and drop selected object, text etc from one location to another
Right clicking – Clicking the right button of the Mouse once.
Working Principle of Mouse:
Switch detects clicks of left mouse button.

Switch for middle button.
Switch for right button.
Old-style connection to PS/2 socket on computer.
Chip turns back-and-forth mouse movements into numeric signals computer can
understand.
X-axis wheel turns when you move mouse left and right.
Y-axis wheel turns when you move mouse up and down.
Heavy rubber wheel.
Spring presses rubber ball firmly against X- and Y-axis wheels so they register movements
properly.
Electrolytic capacitor
Resistors
The mouse works by measuring how much it moves in a given direction. A mechanical
mouse has a rubber ball in the bottom. Inside the bottom of the mouse are three rollers. It
is there to hold the ball against the other two rollers. The other two rollers are usually
larger, and of different color. These rollers are mounted at a 90° angle to the one other, one
roller measures how fast the ball is turning horizontally and the other measures how fast it
is turning vertically. When the ball rolls, it turns these two rollers. The rollers are connected

to axles, and the axles are connected to a small sensor that measures how fast the axle is
turning. Both sets of information are passed to the electronics inside the mouse.
Optical mouse:
It uses an infrared light or a light emitting diode(LED) to illuminate the flat surface on which
it is placed and a light sensitive device senses the light reflected from the surface. The
reflected light changes as the mouse rotates.A light sensor senses and allow for generating
pulse outputs. It is a non mechanical device.Clicking,double clicking and dragging graphical
objects are carried out with the left mouse button. Right Clicking can be carrid out with the
right mouse button that opens a short cut menu of properties.
Advantages of using Mouse:

No need to operate cursor movement keys on a keyboard.
It helps to position the cursor anywhere on the screen quickly.
Rather typing, issue commands by click-start.
Touch screen:
Touch Screen computer system consists of sensors on the screen outer surface to Locate or
point touch of a finger movement on the screen.The touch screen is touch Panel is a glass
coated with conductor. Electronic sensor circuit are used to detect touch position on the
conductive coating. The touch screen systems like bank AUTOMATIC TELLER MACHINE
accept user choice of account types, transaction type and money withdrawal details etc
It consists of 3 main parts, they are touch sensors, controller and driver software.

Advantages of touch screen

1. Touchscreen devices usually have more simple user interfaces Ex. Ipod Apps
2. Having less or not buttons means that you can put more effort into having a big screen
3. For the people worried about hygiene, most devices are easy to clean, some are even
dirt, dust and grease resistant
4.For people new or uncomfortable with normal desktops, touch screens, ATM screens are
easy to use helping more people get used to using computers.
Light Pen :-
It is a hand held electro-optical pointing graphical input device that make use of photo
electric detector to select objects or images & drawings on the screen. It is also called
mouse pen.
The light sensitive photodiodes or sensors will capture the light reflection of the screen
objects at the point at which light pen is pointed on the screen.
The movement of the light pen is directed towards the screen will draw the lines or images
at the selected places on the display screen.
They are used where drag-n-drop, point and menu driven selections.
Joystick
It is a thick stick mounted on spherical ball that rotates in a socket to provide right left &
forward & backward movements. It allows to move freely in two directions. The movement
is sensed & conveyed to the system & finally on to the game being played.

It is a gaming device that provides three types of game controls –digital, glide & direct.
The digital control restrict the motion of joystick handle in of two directions. The x-axis
movement
is forward-backward or up-down and y-axis movement is left-right or sliding.
Applications of Joystick
It is used for playing games.
It is used in Flight Simulators.
It is use in Electrical Rail Engines ,Earth Movers & Excavators
Used in Industrial Robot Control.
Used in CAD/CAM Systems.
Scanner
A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters, magazine
pages, and similar sources for computer editing and display. Scanners come in hand-held,
feed-in, and flatbed types and for scanning black-and-white only, or color. Very high
resolution scanners are used for scanning for high-resolution printing, but lower resolution
scanners are adequate for capturing images for computer display. Scanners usually come
with software, such as Adobe's Photoshop product, resize and modify a captured image.
There are four different types of optical scanners.
Optical Character Reader (OCR) :- It is a recognition process of scanning printed text

document or pages as optical images on a flat bed scanner & then employing OCR software
to identify the individual character of the text page as Ascci text characters.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR) :- It detects optically the presence of intended darkened marls
as required responses. It senses a little less light at the darkend. It scans the OMR sheet
quickly and detects the specific darker area.

Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)

Bank cheques number are designed and written with magnetic ink. Special magnetic ink is
used to carve manufacture these cheque to maintain originality of the corresponding bank
authorisation as a valid cheque .Forging or duplicating of cheques can be avoided.
Bar Code Reader (BCR) :- It is a special type of image scanner. It will convert the printed
images, typed documents, numbers etc into digitized formats that can be recorded. It scans
the bar code image on any of the items. It emits a high intensity beam of red laser beam on
to a printed bar code image.
Flat bed bar code reader & hand held bar code reader are used in food worlds, shops etc.
Hand held Bar code reader
Flat bed bar code reader

Web Camera:- A web camera is a video camera that feeds its image in real time to or
through a computer to computer network. When "captured" by the computer, the video may
be saved, viewed or sent on to other networks via systems such as the internet, and email
as an attachment. When sent to a remote location, the video stream may be saved, viewed
or on sent there. Unlike an IP camera a webcam is generally connected by a USB cable, or
similar cable, or built into computer hardware, such as laptops.
The term 'webcam' (a clipped compound) may also be used in its original sense of a video
camera connected to the Web continuously for an indefinite time, rather than for a
particular session, generally supplying a view for anyone who visits its web page over the
Internet. Some of them, for example, those used as online traffic cameras, are expensive,
rugged professional video cameras
Output Devices
An output device is any device used to send data from a computer to another device.
Computer data output that is meant for humans is in the form of audio or video. Most
output devices used by humans are monitors, projectors, speakers, headphones and
printers.
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the tape/ribbon which is then
pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:
Very low consumable costs
Very noisy
Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types

 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Daisy Wheel
Dot matrix printer
In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are
popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in
form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9)
which come out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
Inexpensive
Widely Used
Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
Slow Speed
Poor Quality
Daisy wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used
for word-processing in offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there with
very nice quality.

Advantages
More reliable than DMP
Better quality
The fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
Slower than DMP
Noisy
More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is
divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width
of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The
different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters
set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300
to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages
Very high speed
Disadvantages
Very expensive
Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain printer
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
Character fonts can easily be changed.
Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
Faster than impact printers.
They are not noisy.
High quality.
Support many fonts and different character size.
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to
form the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
Very high speed
Very high quality output
Give good graphics quality
Support many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
Expensive.
Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high
quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can
produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
High quality printing
More reliable
Disadvantages
Expensive as cost per page is high
Slow as compared to laser printer

The differences between impact printer and non-impact printer

Si.No. Characteristics Impact Non Impact
1 Descriptions Produces text and images when tiny Pr produces text and graphics on
wire pins on print head strike the ink paper without actually striking the
ribbon by physically contacting the paper
paper
2 Types Dot-matrix printer Inkjet printer, laser printer and
thermal printer
3 Speed Low printing speed Reasonably fast
4 Quality Print quality lower in some types High quality of output, capable of
printing fine and smooth details
5 Letter quality Pr produce near letter quality L letter-quality printouts
(NLQ) print only, which is just
suitable for printing mailing labels,
envelopes, or invoices
6 Consumption Not commonly used today Most commonly used printer today
7 Tools Uses ink ribbon Uses ink spray or toner powder
8 Cost Less expensive More expensive
9 Durability Reliable, durable (long time) - P print head is less durable,
inclined towards to clogging and
damage
10 Sound effects N Noisy because of the striking G generally much quieter than
activity impact printers because there is no
striking mechanism
11 Image clarity Poor graphics Can handle graphics and often a
wider variety of fonts than impact
printers
12 Multipart forms I Ideal for printing multipart Cannot print multipart forms
forms because they can easily print
through many layers of paper
13 Color output Limited color printing C capable of printing in strong
clear color, good for printing
pictures
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
Flat- Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

CRT is an evacuated conical glass tube with phosphorus coated on the inner surface
called screen .A source of electrons called electron gun at one end of the tube emits
electron beam. An oxide coated metal called a cathode is heated by a heating filament.
When the cathode gets heated then it emits electrons continuously. The electrons
emitted by cathode are accelerated by applying a positive voltage to control grid. The
control grid voltage determines the number electrons finally succeed to strike on the
phosphor coated screen. If a negative grid voltage is applied to the control grid then no
electrons are allowed to pass the grid.
The electrons come out of the control grid are further accelerated by an accelerating
anode
To which a positive voltage is applied. Hence accelerated electrons are focussed to
produce a sharp & highly concentrated beam by a focusing structure.
The electron beam intended for striking on a screen finally come out of the hole of
cylindrical metal enclosure of focusing structure.
The total arrangement of electron beam source the cathode, accelerating anode and
focusing assembly is called electron gun.
Finally electron beam passes through a set of horizontal deflection plates & then
vertical deflection plates. The electron beam movement can be controlled along x-axis & y-
axis over the screen surface. The electron beam when it comes out of deflection plates,
further accelerated along the path towards the screen, by applying a high positive voltage to
a inner metallic coating of the conical surface of the CRT screen.

CRT Advantages
1. Resolution and Aspect Ratio. They operate at any resolution, geometry and aspect
ratio without the need for rescaling the image.
2. Highest Resolutions CRTs run at the highest pixel resolutions generally available.
3. Black-Level and Contrast Produce a very dark black and the highest contrast levels
normally available. Suitable for use even in dimly lit or dark environments.
4. Color and Gray-Scale Accuracy CRTs produce the very best color and gray-scale
and are the reference standard for all professional calibrations. They have a perfectly
smooth gray-scale with an infinite number of intensity levels. Other display
technologies are expected to reproduce the natural power-law Gamma curve of a
CRT, but can only do so approximately.
5. Motion Artifacts CRTs have fast response times and no motion artifacts. Best for
rapidly moving or changing images.
6. Cost CRTs are less expensive than comparable displays using other display
technologies.
CRT Disadvantages
1. Sharpness The CRT's Gaussian beam profile produces images with softer edges
that are not as sharp as an LCD at its native resolution. Imperfect focus and color
registration also reduce sharpness. Generally sharper than LCDs at other than native
resolutions.
2. Interference All color CRTs produce annoying Moiré patterns. Many monitors
include Moiré reduction, which normally doesn't eliminate the Moiré interference
patterns entirely.
3. Geometric Distortion Subject to geometric distortion and screen regulation
problems. Also affected by magnetic fields from other equipment including other
CRTs.
4. Brightness Relatively bright but not as bright as LCDs. Not suitable for very
brightly lit environments.
5. Screen Shape Some CRTs have a rounded spherical or cylindrical shape screen.
Newer CRTs are flat.
6. Emissions CRTs give off electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields. There is
considerable controversy as to whether any of these pose a health hazard,
particularly magnetic fields. The most authoritative scientific studies conclude that
they are not harmful but some people remain unconvinced.
7. Physical They are large, heavy, and bulky. They consume a lot of electricity and
produce a lot of heat.

MEMORY
Introduction
Memory refers to the devices used to store information for use in a computer. The required
storage facilities are provided with separate & dedicated unit are called memory unit. There
are two types of memory i.e primary memory & secondary memory.
Units of measuring computer memory:

Memory representation refers to units of measure for computer memory & storage units. It
operates between two states ON (1) and OFF(0).
Primary Memory :- The primary memory is also called main memory which is required for
execution of the programs. It is a semiconductor memory. It is volatile in nature. Volatile
means contents are lost when the computer is switched off. This memory communicates
directly to the CPU. It is in the form of Integrated Circuits(IC).
Ex. Random Access Memory (RAM)
There are two types of primary memory

Read Only Memory (ROM)
Random Access Memory (RAM)

Read Only Memory (ROM) :- ROM permits read operation only. CPU access the contents
of ROM chips for system routines like BIOS, monitor programs, driver routines, POST
diagnostic routines etc. It is Non-Volatile in nature. It retains stored information even if
there is power failure or switched off or shut down. The stored information can be read
only. The stored contents are not altered.
Types of ROM
There are different types of ROM‘s.
Masked ROM
Programmable ROM (PROM)
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)
Flash ROM (Flash BIOS)
Masked ROM :-
ROM memory can be permanent memory i.e. stored contents cannot be altered like Masked
ROM. The contents of ROM are sealed by masking & metallization process used during ROM
chip fabrication, so the contents cannot be erased. It holds pre-programmed set of
instructions. It is the first hard-wired memory device.
Programmable ROM (PROM) :-

PROM consists of nichrome or poly silicon wires arranged in a matrix. PROM chips can be
created from scratch is time consuming & expensive process. Developers created a type
ROM which is called PROM. It can be programmed once & information stored in permanent.
PROM is a ―Write Once, Read Many Times‖.

Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM):-

It consists of MOSFET(Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) gates array. Bit
patterns are stored in EPROMS by using an programmer that applies a high voltage to
charge the floating gates of FET‘s. This charge is stored permanently for a longer period as
it has no leakage path. Stored bit patterns or charges can only be erased by exposing the
chip to ultra violet light. The blank EPROM IC can be reprogrammed for new data bit
pattern storage & can be reused again. Selective erasing is not possible.
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EE-PROM):-

It is functionally similar to EPROM but erased by an electrical charge & then written by using
higher than normal voltage. In this contents can be selectively erased .EE-PROM IC‘s are
used in microprocessor based systems & computers wherever hardware configuration
alteration is required.

Flash ROM :-
The sections of the memory cell called memory blocks can be erased instantaneously
therefore the name flash .It is constantly powered non-volatile memory that can be erased
& reprogrammed in blocks. It is used in digital camera, cell phones& digital setup boxes.
Random Access Memory (RAM):-

It is a read write memory .Any data, information, command, programs & instructions are
first stored in RAM. It is considered as a scratch pad inside the computer system. RAM cells
are made out of small capacitors i.e holds electronic charge & small transistors ( on/off
switch) are all fabricated on a chip of a silicon in millions.
They are termed as SIMM‘s (Single Inline Memory Module) and DIMM‘s (Dual Inline Memory
Module).
RAM Memory Module Strips (SIMM‘s & DIMM‘s) of the storage sizes are 256MB, 512MB IGB ,
2GB ,4GB....Higher is the capacity of RAM, Higher is the speed of system. RAM is original
place to remember John Von Neumann‘s stored program concept. Modern computers uses
stored program computers. It holds the operating system, compiler, assembler like system
programs.RAM provides faster access to read/write data compared to all the secondary
memory.
Types of RAM :-
RAM can be classified two types.
1) Static RAM (SRAM)
2) Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

1) Static RAM (SRAM) :-

SRAM uses multiple transistors like 4-to-6, each memory cell represent a bit of 0/1.
Data bit is stored as voltage. It holds data as long as power is on otherwise data is lost.
It does not require memory refreshing. It is a volatile memory.
There are different types of SRAM. They are Asynchronous SRAM (ASRAM), Burst SRAM
(BSRAM) and Pipeline Burst SRAM (PB SRAM).
Advantages
SRAM is faster access.
It is faster than DRAM.
No memory refreshing required.
Disadvantage
Expensive to use for larger system.
Packing density is low.
High power consumption.
Applications of SRAM
It is used primarily as Cache Memory and in dot matrix printer as printer buffer.
2) Dynamic RAM (DRAM) :- It consist of memory cells with a paired transistor & a
capacitor, requiring constant memory refreshing. It is an array of capacitors that stores
data bit as charge. The presence of charge on the capacitor represents ‗1 ‘ and the absence
of a charge represents ‗0‘.
Advantages :
Low power consumption.
They are cheaper than SRAM.
Higher packing density.

Disadvantages :
DRAM is slower than SRAM.
It requires memory refreshing.
There are several types of DRAM. They are

Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (S DRAM)
Fast Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory (FPM DRAM)
Extended Data Out Dynamic Random Access Memory (EDO DRAM)
Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory (R DRAM)
Video Dynamic Random Access Memory (V DRAM)
Windows RAM (VRAM)
Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (DDR SDRAM)
Flash RAM
Comparison of RAM & ROM

RAM ROM
Random Access Memory or Read-only memory or ROM is also

RAM is a form of data a form of data storage that cannot
storage that can be be easily altered or
accessed randomly at any reprogrammed. Stores
Definition time, in any order and from instructions that are not
any physical location necessary for re-booting up to
allowing quick access and make the computer operate when
manipulation. it is switched off. They are
hardwired.
Stands Random Access Memory Read-only memory
for
Use RAM allows the computer to ROM stores the program required

RAM ROM
read data quickly to run to initially boot the computer. It

applications. It allows only allows reading.
reading and writing.
RAM is volatile i.e. its It is non-volatile i.e. its contents
Volatility contents are lost when the are retained even when the
device is powered off. device is powered off.
The two main types of RAM The types of ROM include PROM,
Types are static RAM and dynamic EPROM and EEPROM.
RAM.
Secondary Memory:-
Few cheaper storage devices used to serve as a backup for storing the information that is
not currently used by the CPU but is required for future are called secondary memory or
auxiliary memory. This memory can store large amount of data. It is non-volatile in nature.
Manufacturing of these memory storage devices involve very precise & micron-level
tolerances.
Ex. Floppy Disk, Zip Disk, Magnetic Hard Disk, Magnetic Tape ,Optical Disk, Compact Disk
Rom, DVD.
Benefits / Advantages of Secondary Storage:-
1) Non-Volatility nature of secondary storage.
2) Low Cost
3) Portability
4) Ease of use
5) Large storage capacity
6) Reusable
7) Reliability
8) Provides Backup
9) Various Shape & Size
10) Different Types of Access Method
Differences between Primary Memory & Secondary Memory
Sl.No. Primary memory Secondary memory

1 The memory devices used for primary memory The secondary memory devices are magnetic
are semiconductor memories and optical memories.
2 The primary memory is categorized as volatile
and non volatile memories, RAM is the volatile
memory and ROM is the non volatile memory The secondary memory is always non volatile
3 The primary memory is composed of programs
and data that are presently being used by The secondary memory is capable to store
the micro processor huge amount of information
4 The primary memories are more effective and The secondary memories are somewhat slow in

fast to interact with the micro processor interacting with the micro processor, when
compared with the primary memory.
5 Secondary memory is known as additional
memory or backup memory or auxiliary
Primary memory is known as main memory memory
6 These memories are also called as internal These memories are also called as external
memory memory
7 Primary memory is temporary The secondary memory is permanent
8 Commonly used primary memory (main
memory) available in the range of 512 MB to 8 Generally secondary memories range between
GB RAMs. 80 GB to 4 TB Hard Disc Drives.
9 The primary memory devices are connected to The secondary memory devices are connected
the computer through ―slots‖ to the computer through Cables
10 Memory unit that provides additional backup
storage
Memory unit that communicates directly with Ex. Hard Disk, DVD, Pen Drive, Thumb Drive
the processor.Ex RAM & ROM etc
Classification of secondary storage devices
There are two types of access method in secondary storage.

Sequential Access – It is step by step access method for data in sequential order.
Direct Access –It is also called Random access. In this access method for locating data we
use direct or random access method on to secondary storage devices.
Hard Disk and its working Principle :

A magnetic disk is an
electromechanical assembly of rigid aluminium platters, containing flat, thin circular metal
plates or disks coated with magnetic material on both sides. Many disks are mounted on one
spindle with read write heads available for both surfaces of all the disk. The disk assembly is
mounted on a disk drive. The disk drive consist of a motor to rotate the disk assembly at
high speed of 3600 revolutions per minute (rpm), 7200 rpm,10000 rpm & 15000 rpm.
The read/write heads mounted on arm can move in & out radially on the disk surfaces for
reading & writing operations. Data is stored or read on the magnetic recording surfaces of
the disk when the disk rotates at high speed about its axis.
Data bits 0‘s & 1‘s are stored in the magnetized recording surface of the disks along
concentric circles called tracks. A track is further divided into sectors. Each disk platter has
equal number of circular tracks & track location that cuts all platters is called as cylinder. A
sector can store 128 to 1024 bytes of data depending upon its storage organization. Tracks
sectors can be grouped into a segment are called cluster.

Read/Writing head pairs are used for each disk. Read/write head assembly move radially in
& out uniformly over the disk surface. Its positioning mechanism make the read/write head
arms assembly to move horizontal towards center and away from the disk pack.
The data transfer operations of storage & retrieval or read & write on magnetic disk
involve 3 different ways of accessing data on the magnetic disk.
Disk Seek
Rotate the Disk
Perform disk data transfer
The various memory sizes of hard disk are 160GB, 500GB, 1TB etc.
Optical Disk :
Information is written to or read from an optical disk using laser beam. Optical disks are not
suitable memory storage units because their access time is more than that of hard disks.
Their advantage is that they have very high storage capacity.
Types of optical memory are: CD –ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW.
Information on a CD-ROM is written at the time of manufacture. CD-R/W of 700 MB are
available.
A DVD-ROM is similar to CD-ROM. It uses shorter wave length of laser beam and hence,
stores more data than CD-ROM.
With every new application and software there is greater demand for memory capacity. It is
the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the development of optical disk
storage medium. Optical disks can be divided into the following categories:
1. Compact Disk/ Read Only Memory (CD-ROM): CD-ROM disks are made of reflective
metals. CD-ROM is written during the process of manufacturing by high power laser
beam. Here the storage density is very high, storage cost is very low and access time is
relatively fast. Each disk is approximately 4 1/2 inches in diameter and can hold over 600
MB of data. As the CD-ROM can be read only we cannot write or make changes into the
data contained in it.
2. Write Once Read Many (WORM): The inconvenience that we cannot write anything in
to a CD-ROM is avoided in WORM. A WORM allows the user to write data permanently on to
the disk. Once the data is written it can never be erased without physically damaging the
disk. Here data can be recorded from keyboard, video scanner, OCR equipment and other
devices. The advantage of WORM is that it can store vast amount of data amounting to
gigabytes (109 bytes). Any document in a WORM can be accessed very fast, say less than
30 seconds.
3. Erasable Optical Disk: These are optical disks where data can be written, erased and
re-written. This also applies a laser beam to write and re-write the data. These disks may be
used as alternatives to traditional disks. Erasable optical disks are based on a technology
known as magnetic optical (MO). To write a data bit on to the erasable optical disk the MO
drive's laser beam heats a tiny, precisely defined point on the disk's surface and magnetizes
it.

4. Digital Versatile Disk : The term versatile in DVD comes from the fact that it can store
large amount of data & high quality of sound & videos. Double sided double density dual
layer DVD can store upto 17GB of data. A DVD can hold 4.7GB of data which is 7 times of a
normal CD.
Blu-ray or Blu-ray Disc (BD, BRD) is a digital optical data storage format. It was
designed to supersede the DVD format, in that it is capable of storing high-definition video
resolution. The plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick. Blu-ray Discs contain
25 GB per layer, with dual layer discs (50 GB) being the industry standard for feature-length
video discs. Triple layer discs (100 GB) and quadruple layers (128 GB) are available re-writer
drives. The name "Blu-ray" refers to the blue laser (a violet laser) used to read the disc,
which allows information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-
wavelength red laser used for DVDs. The main application of Blu-ray is as a medium for
video material such as feature films and physical distribution of video games.
Advantages of Optical Disk

Easily portable
Smaller in size & light weight
Not susceptible to magnetic field damages
Used as video, audio & multimedia CD‘s.
Storing multiple forms of data.
Higher storage capacity with less cost
Reliable data storage ( upto 10 + years)
High data recording density

Disadvantages of Optical Disk

Prone to physical damages as scratches on the recording media.
Data access speed is lesser than magnetic disk.
Additional software is required for copying/writing optical disk.
Optical Disk read/write drive mechanism uses laser beam exploration which sometimes may
lead to health hazards.
Memory Hierarchy
Type of memory Features/functions size

Processor register Very fast, very expensive Small capacity
Cache memory Very fast, very expensive Small capacity
Random Access Memory Fast & affordable Medium capacity
Flash Rom Slower & cheap Small capacity
Hard Disk Slow & very cheap Large size & very large
capacity
Magnetic tape Very slow & affordable Large size & very large
capacity


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DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT

15CS21T - DIGITAL AND COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

UNIT- 1: DIGITAL PRINCIPLES

Binary Number System

Binary to Decimal conversion.

Ex (ii) Decimal equivalent of binary number is 11001.011(2)

11001.011(2) = 1×16 + 1×8 + 0×4 + 0×2 + 1×1 + 0×1/2 + 1×1/4 + 1×1/8

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Octal Number System

Ex (i) 576(8) = (?)(10)

576(8) = 5×64 + 7×8 + 6×1

Ex (ii) 34.125(8) = ( ? )(10)

34.125(8) = 3×8 + 4×1 + 1×1/8 + 2×1/64 + 5×1/512

Decimal to Octal conversion.

Ex (i) 754 (10) = (?) (8)

Ex (ii) Convert 0.12 in decimal to octal

Octal to Binary conversion

Ex: i)Convert octal 2314(8) to binary

Ex: ii) Convert octal 246.72(8) = ?

Binary to Octal conversion

Ex (i) Convert into octal

1100011010001(2) = (14321) (8)

Ex (ii) Convert into octal

11001.101011(2) = 31.53 (8)

Decimal Number System

Hexadecimal Number System.

Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

Ex (i) 964 (10) = (?) (16)

964 (10) = (3C4) (16)

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Ex i) perform FCFD(16)=( ? )(2)

Ex ii)Perform 155.D1(16)=( ? )(2)

Binary to hexadecimal conversion

Ex(i) : perform 11001011010001(2) = (? )(16)

Ex (ii) : Perform 1011110101.0111(2) = ( ?) (16)

1011110101.0111(2) = 2F5.7 (16)

Hexadecimal to octal conversion

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

2AB9 (16) =(25271) (8)

Octal to Hexadecimal conversion

Ex (i) 615(8) = (?) (16)

Step 2: Convert resultant of converted binary equivalent in to hexadecimal by grouping 4-

615(8) = (18D) (16)

1’s and 2’s complement

Addition using 1’s complement

Subtraction using 1’s complement

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Ex (i) Evaluate 110010 – 101101 using 1‘s complement.

Cross Check :- 50 (10) – 45 (10) = 05 (10)

Ex (ii) Evaluate 1101011 – 1110101 using 1‘s complement

1101011 – Minuend 1110101 – Subtrahend

Step 3) No carry is generated.1‘s complement of the result 1110101 is 0001010.By placing –

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Subtraction using 2’s Complement

Ex (i) Evaluate 53(10) – 49 (10) using 2‘s complement

Minuend is 110101 (2) & Subtrahend is 110001(2)

Step 1:- 1,s complement of 110001 is 001110

Checkpoint :- 53(10) – 49 (10) = 4(10)