Q1 a) Define software engineering and explain umbrella

activities. (sepm)
Software engineering is the discipline concerned with the systematic approach to the
development, operation, and maintenance of software. It involves applying engineering
principles and practices to software development, aiming to create reliable, efficient,
and maintainable software systems.
Umbrella activities in software engineering refer to overarching processes that are
applied throughout a software project to manage and control various aspects such as
progress, quality, change, and risk. These activities ensure the smooth execution of the
project and the delivery of a high-quality product. Here are the typical umbrella
activities:
● Software Project Tracking and Control: This activity enables the software team
to monitor progress against the project plan and take necessary actions to
maintain the schedule.
● Risk Management: It involves identifying and assessing risks that may impact
the project’s outcome or the quality of the product, and implementing strategies
to mitigate those risks.
● Software Quality Assurance: This activity defines and conducts various
processes to ensure the quality of the software, including testing, code reviews,
and quality audits.
● Technical Reviews: Technical reviews are conducted to evaluate software
engineering work products and identify errors before they propagate to the next
stage of development.
● Measurement: This activity involves defining and collecting process, project, and
product measures to ensure that the software meets stakeholders’ needs and
can be used in conjunction with other framework and umbrella activities.
● Software Configuration Management: It focuses on managing changes
throughout the software development process, ensuring that all changes are
properly tracked, evaluated, and implemented.
● Reusability Management: This activity defines criteria for reusing work products,
including software components, and establishes mechanisms to achieve
reusability.
● Work Product Preparation and Production: Encompassing activities required to
create various work products such as models, documents, logs, and forms, this
ensures that all necessary artifacts are prepared and maintained throughout the
project lifecycle.

Q1 b) Difference between white box and black box testing.

Q1 c) Explain functional and non-functional requirements.

Q1 d) Explain the golden rules for interface design.

Regardless of the domain, user interface, or intended device (computer, tablet or phone)
for a particular website or application, there are certain universal “Golden Rules” of user
interface design. These golden rules have been discussed in numerous publications
over the years.
Theo Mandel describes the golden rules of user interface design in great detail in
Chapter 5 of his book, “The Elements of User Interface Design.”
Mandel’s Golden Rules
The golden rules are divided into three groups:
● Place Users in Control
● Reduce Users’ Memory Load
● Make the Interface Consistent
Each of these groups contains a number of specific rules. The rules (and a keyword for
each rule) for each group are:
Place Users in Control
● Use modes judiciously (modeless)
● Allow users to use either the keyboard or mouse (flexible)
● Allow users to change focus (interruptible)
● Display descriptive messages and text(Helpful)
● Provide immediate and reversible actions, and feedback (forgiving)
● Provide meaningful paths and exits (navigable)
● Accommodate users with different skill levels (accessible)
● Make the user interface transparent (facilitative)
● Allow users to customize the interface (preferences)
● Allow users to directly manipulate interface objects (interactive)
Reduce Users’ Memory Load
● Relieve short-term memory (remember)
● Rely on recognition, not recall (recognition)
● Provide visual cues (inform)
● Provide defaults, undo, and redo (forgiving)
● Provide interface shortcuts (frequency)
● Promote an object-action syntax (intuitive)
● Use real-world metaphors (transfer)
● User progressive disclosure (context)
● Promote visual clarity (organize)
Make the Interface Consistent
● Sustain the context of users’ tasks (continuity)
● Maintain consistency within and across products (experience)
● Keep interaction results the same (expectations)
● Provide aesthetic appeal and integrity (attitude)
● Encourage exploration (predictable)

Q2 a) Elaborate COCOMO model for Cost estimation.

Cocomo (Constructive Cost Model) is a regression model based on LOC, i.e., the number of Lines
of Code
The Cocomo Model is a procedural cost estimate model for software projects and is often used as a
process of reliably predicting the various parameters associated with making a project such as size,
effort, cost, time, and quality. It was proposed by Barry Boehm in 1981 and is based on the study of
63 projects, which makes it one of the best-documented models.
The key parameters that define the quality of any software products, which are also an outcome of
the Cocomo are primarily Effort and schedule:
● Effort: Amount of labor that will be required to complete a task. It is measured in person-
months units.
 ● Schedule: This simply means the amount of time required for the completion of the job,
which is, of course, proportional to the effort put in. It is measured in the units of time such as
weeks, and months.
Detailed Structure of COCOMO Model
Detailed COCOMO incorporates all characteristics of the intermediate version with an assessment of
the cost driver’s impact on each step of the software engineering process. The detailed model uses
different effort multipliers for each cost driver
attribute. In detailed Cocomo, the whole software is
divided into different modules and then we apply
COCOMO in different modules to estimate effort and
then sum the effort.
The Six phases of detailed COCOMO are:
● Planning and requirements
● System design
● Detailed design
● Module code and test
● Integration and test
● Cost Constructive model
Different models of Cocomo have been proposed to
predict the cost estimation at different levels, based
on the amount of accuracy and correctness required.
All of these models can be applied to a variety of
projects, whose characteristics determine the value
of the constant to be used in subsequent
calculations. These characteristics of different system types are mentioned below. Boehm’s
definition of organic, semi detached, and embedded systems:
● Cost Estimation: To help with resource planning and project budgeting, COCOMO offers a
methodical approach to software development cost estimation.
● Resource Management: By taking team experience, project size, and complexity into
account, the model helps with efficient resource allocation.
● Project Planning: COCOMO assists in developing practical project plans that include
attainable objectives, due dates, and benchmarks.
● Risk management: Early in the development process, COCOMO assists in identifying and
mitigating potential hazards by including risk elements.
● Support for Decisions: During project planning, the model provides a quantitative
foundation for choices about scope, priorities, and resource allocation.
● Benchmarking: To compare and assess various software development projects to industry
standards, COCOMO offers a benchmark.
● Resource Optimization: The model helps to maximize the use of resources, which raises
productivity and lowers costs.

Q2 b) Illustrate the SCM process.

SCM – Configuration management provides a disciplined environment for smooth
control of work products.
The SCM process defines a number of tasks:
● Identification of objects in the software configuration
● Version Control
● Change Control
● Configuration Audit
● Status Reporting
● Identification and Establishment – Identifying the configuration items from
products that compose baselines at given points in time (a baseline is a set of
mutually consistent Configuration Items, which has been formally reviewed and
agreed upon, and serves as the basis of further development). Establishing
relationships among items, creating a mechanism to manage multiple levels of
control and procedure for the change management system.
● Version control – Creating versions/specifications of the existing product to
build new products with the help of the SCM system. A description of the version
is given below:

Suppose after some changes, the version of the configuration object changes
from 1.0 to 1.1. Minor corrections and changes result in versions 1.1.1 and 1.1.2,
which is followed by a major update that is object 1.2. The development of object
1.0 continues through 1.3 and 1.4, but finally, a noteworthy change to the object
results in a new evolutionary path, version 2.0. Both versions are currently
supported.
● Change control – Controlling changes to Configuration items (CI). The change
control process is explained in Figure below:A change request (CR) is submitted
and evaluated to assess technical merit, potential side effects, the overall impact
on other configuration objects and system functions, and the projected cost of
the change. The results of the evaluation are presented as a change report, which
is used by a change control board (CCB) —a person or group who makes a final
decision on the status and priority of the change. An engineering change Request
(ECR) is generated for each approved change. Also, CCB notifies the developer in
case the change is rejected with proper reason. The ECR describes the change to
 be made, the constraints that must be respected, and the criteria for review and
audit. The object to be changed is “checked out” of the project database, the
change is made, and then the object is tested again. The object is then “checked
in” to the database and appropriate version control mechanisms are used to
create the next version of the software.
● Configuration auditing – A software configuration audit complements the formal
technical review of the process and product. It focuses on the technical
correctness of the configuration object that has been modified. The audit
confirms the completeness, correctness, and consistency of items in the SCM
system and tracks action items from the audit to closure.
● Reporting – Providing accurate status and current configuration data to
developers, testers, end users, customers, and stakeholders through admin
guides, user guides, FAQs, Release notes, Memos, Installation Guide,
Configuration guides, etc.
Importance of Software Configuration Management
● Effective Bug Tracking: Linking code modifications to issues that have been
reported, makes bug tracking more effective.
● Continuous Deployment and Integration: SCM combines with continuous
processes to automate deployment and testing, resulting in more dependable
and timely software delivery.
● Risk management: SCM lowers the chance of introducing critical flaws by
assisting in the early detection and correction of problems.
● Support for Big Projects: Source Code Control (SCM) offers an orderly method to
handle code modifications for big projects, fostering a well-organized
development process.
● Reproducibility: By recording precise versions of code, libraries, and
dependencies, source code versioning (SCM) makes builds repeatable.
● Parallel Development: SCM facilitates parallel development by enabling several
developers to collaborate on various branches at once.

Q3 a) Describe the waterfall model and evolutionary process

model. And incremental process model
The Waterfall model is one of the earliest and most traditional software development life cycle
(SDLC) models. It is a linear and sequential approach to software development, where each phase
must be completed before the next phase begins.
Key Characteristics:Linear and Sequential: Each phase depends on the deliverables of the
previous one and corresponds to a specialization of tasks.
● Documentation-Driven: Detailed documentation is produced at each phase and often
serves as the primary means of communication between phases.
● Rigid Structure: Changes are difficult to implement once a phase is completed and
approved, making it less flexible compared to iterative models.
Stages of the Waterfall Model:

● Requirement Analysis:
● Collecting comprehensive requirements from stakeholders.
● Documenting requirements in a requirement specification document.
● System Design:
● Converting requirements into system design.
● Creating system architecture and design documents.
● Implementation (or Coding):
● Dividing the system design into small units or modules and coding them.
● Integrating all the modules together after unit testing.
● Integration and Testing:
● Testing the integrated system to ensure it meets the specified requirements.
● Performing different types of testing like system testing, integration testing, and
acceptance testing.
● Deployment:
● Deploying the completed product to the production environment.
● Ensuring it is functional in the real-world setting.
● Maintenance:
● Performing ongoing maintenance tasks such as bug fixing, updates, and
enhancements.
● Managing changes and new requirements post-deployment.
Advantages of the Waterfall Model:
● Simplicity and Ease of Use: The straightforward, sequential approach is easy to
understand and manage.
● Clear Milestones: Each phase has clear objectives and deliverables, making progress easy
to track.
● Well-Documented: Comprehensive documentation helps in better understanding and
communication of requirements and designs.
 ● Structured Approach: The model is disciplined and the process is well-defined, which is
beneficial for projects with fixed requirements.
Disadvantages of the Waterfall Model:
● Lack of Flexibility: Difficult to accommodate changes once the project is in the later stages.
● Late Testing: Testing phase comes late in the development cycle, increasing the risk of
encountering significant issues late in the process.
● Customer Involvement: Limited customer involvement during the development process,
which may lead to a product that does not fully meet customer needs.
● Assumes Requirements are Fixed: It assumes that all requirements can be gathered
upfront, which is often not the case in real-world projects.

Incremental process model

The Incremental Process Model is also known as the Successive version model
First, a simple working system implementing only a few basic features is built and then that is
delivered to the customer. Then thereafter many successive iterations/ versions are implemented
and delivered to the customer until the desired system is released. Phases of incremental model
Requirements of Software are first broken down into several modules that can be incrementally
constructed and delivered.

Incremental-Model
Phases of incremental model
Requirement analysis: In Requirement Analysis At any time, the plan is made just for the next
increment and not for any kind of long-term plan. Therefore, it is easier to modify the version as per
the needs of the customer.

Design & Development: At any time, the plan is made just for the next increment and not for any kind
of long-term plan. Therefore, it is easier to modify the version as per the needs of the customer. The
Development Team first undertakes to develop core features (these do not need services from other
features) of the system. Once the core features are fully developed, then these are refined to
increase levels of capabilities by adding new functions in Successive versions. Each incremental
version is usually developed using an iterative waterfall model of development.

Deployment and Testing: After Requirements gathering and specification, requirements are then
split into several different versions starting with version 1, in each successive increment, the next
version is constructed and then deployed at the customer site. In development and Testing the
product is checked and tested for the actual process of the model.

Implementation: In implementation After the last version (version n), it is now deployed at the client
site.

Evolutionary Process Model

Evolutionary Process Model
The evolutionary model is based on the concept of making an initial product and then evolving the
software product over time with iterative and incremental approaches with proper feedback. In this
type of model, the product will go through several iterations and come up when the final product is
built through multiple iterations. The development is carried out simultaneously with the feedback
during the development. This model has a number of advantages such as customer involvement,
taking feedback from the customer during development, and building the exact product that the user
wants. Because of the multiple iterations, the chances of errors get reduced and the reliability and
efficiency will increase.
Types of Evolutionary Process Models
Iterative Model :In the iterative model first, we take the initial requirements then we enhance the
product over multiple iterations until the final product gets ready. In every iteration, some design
modifications were made and some changes in functional requirements is added. The main idea
behind this approach is to build the final product through multiple iterations that result in the final
product being almost the same as the user wants with fewer errors and the performance, and quality
would be high.

Incremental Model: In the incremental model, we first build the project with basic features and then
evolve the project in every iteration, it is mainly used for large projects. The first step is to gather the
requirements and then perform analysis, design, code, and test and this process goes the same
over and over again until our final project is ready.

Spiral Model : The spiral model is a combination of waterfall and iterative models and in this, we
focused on risk handling along with developing the project with the incremental and iterative
approach, producing the output quickly as well as it is good for big projects. The software is created
through multiple iterations using a spiral approach. Later on, after successive development the final
product will develop, and the customer interaction is there so the chances of error get reduced.

Q3 b) What is Risk management? Discuss Common sources

of risk in IT projects.
Risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, prioritizing, and mitigating
risks that could potentially impact the success of a project or an organization.Steps in
Risk Management
Risk Identification:
● This step involves identifying potential risks that could arise during the
course of the project. Risks can come from various sources such as
technical, organizational, external, or environmental factors.
● Techniques like brainstorming, checklists, interviews, and documentation
review are commonly used to identify risks.
● Risk Analysis:
● Once risks are identified, they need to be analyzed to determine their
potential impact and likelihood of occurrence. This step helps in
understanding the severity of each risk and prioritizing them for further
action.
● Risk analysis involves assessing the consequences of risks if they occur
and the probability of their occurrence.
● Risk Planning:
 ● After analyzing risks, a plan is developed to mitigate, avoid, transfer, or
accept them. Risk planning involves developing strategies and action
plans to address identified risks.
● Strategies could include risk avoidance (eliminating the risk altogether),
risk mitigation (reducing the impact or likelihood of the risk), risk transfer
(shifting the risk to a third party, like insurance), or risk acceptance
(accepting the consequences if the risk occurs).
● Risk Monitoring:
● Risk management is an ongoing process throughout the project lifecycle.
Risk monitoring involves tracking identified risks, assessing their status,
and evaluating the effectiveness of risk mitigation strategies.
● It’s important to regularly review and update the risk management plan as
new risks emerge or existing risks evolve.
Common Sources of Risk in IT Projects:
● Technological Complexity:
● Complexity in technology can lead to technical challenges, delays, and
increased costs if not managed properly.
● Unclear Requirements:
● Incomplete or ambiguous requirements can lead to scope creep, rework,
and project delays.
● Resource Constraints:
● Limited availability of skilled resources, hardware, or software can impact
project timelines and quality.
● Integration Issues:
● Integration of different systems or components may pose compatibility
issues, leading to system failures or performance issues.
● Security Threats:
● Cybersecurity threats such as data breaches, malware attacks, or
unauthorized access can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of IT systems and data.
● Vendor or Supplier Risks:
● Dependence on third-party vendors or suppliers for software, hardware, or
services can introduce risks related to vendor reliability, delivery delays, or
quality issues.
● Regulatory Compliance:
● Non-compliance with industry regulations or legal requirements can result
in penalties, legal disputes, and reputational damage.
● Change Management:
● Resistance to change within the organization or among stakeholders can
hinder project implementation and adoption.
● Budget and Schedule Constraints:
● Budget overruns or schedule delays can occur due to poor estimation,
scope changes, or unexpected events.
● External Factors:
 ● External factors such as economic conditions, geopolitical events, natural
disasters, or pandemics can impact project execution and delivery
timelines.

Q4. a) What are the different phases in the project life cycle
with suitable examples?
The project life cycle refers to the series of phases that a project goes through from
initiation to completion. Each phase represents a distinct stage in the project where
specific tasks, deliverables, and objectives are accomplished. the phases in a project
life cycle along with suitable examples:

● Initiation Phase:
● This is the first phase of the project life cycle where the project is
conceived, authorized, and defined.
● Example: Imagine a company wants to develop a new mobile application.
In the initiation phase, the project stakeholders define the project’s
purpose, scope, objectives, and initial budget.
● Planning Phase:
● In this phase, detailed planning is carried out to define project scope,
objectives, deliverables, resources, schedule, and budget.
 ● Example: Continuing with the mobile application project, in the planning
phase, the project team creates a project plan outlining tasks, milestones,
dependencies, and resource allocation. They also conduct risk analysis
and develop a communication plan.
● Execution Phase:
● This phase involves executing the project plan, coordinating resources,
and completing project deliverables as outlined in the plan.
● Example: For the mobile application project, the execution phase involves
actual development activities like coding, designing user interfaces,
implementing features, and conducting testing.
● Controlling Phase:
● During this phase, project performance is monitored, and project activities
are controlled to ensure that the project stays on track in terms of scope,
schedule, budget, and quality.
● Example: In the mobile application project, the project manager monitors
progress against the project plan, tracks budget expenditure, manages
risks, and resolves issues as they arise. They may also conduct regular
meetings to review project status.
● Closing Phase:
● This is the final phase of the project life cycle where the project is formally
completed, and project closure activities are conducted.
● Example: After the mobile application is developed, tested, and deployed
to users, the closing phase involves activities such as obtaining client
acceptance, documenting lessons learned, releasing project resources,
and handing over deliverables to the operations team.

Q4 b) What are the Agile Methodologies? Explain any of

them.
Agile Methodologies:-
1.Agile methodologies are a set of flexible and iterative approaches to software development and
project management.
2.They prioritize collaboration, adaptability, and customer satisfaction.
3. Agile methodologies break projects down into several dynamic phases, commonly known as
sprints
4. After every sprint, teams reflect and look back to see if there was anything that could be improved
so they can adjust their strategy for the next sprint
There are four agile methodologies
1. Scrum
2. XP (Extreme Programming)
3. Crystal
4. FDD (Feature Driven Development)

One of the most famous Agile methodologies is Scrum.

Scrum is the type of Agile framework. It is a framework within which people can address complex
adaptive problem while productivity and creativity of delivering product is at highest possible values.
Scrum uses Iterative process. Salient features of Scrum are:
● Scrum is light-weighted framework
● Scrum emphasizes self-organization
● Scrum is simple to understand
● Scrum frameworks help the team to work together
Sprint: A Sprint is a time box of one month or less. A new Sprint starts immediately after the
completion of the previous Sprint.
Release: When the product is completed, it goes to the Release stage.
Sprint Review: If the product still has some non-achievable features, it will be checked in this stage
and then passed to the Sprint Retrospective stage.
Sprint Retrospective: In this stage the quality or status of the product is checked.
Product Backlog: According to the prioritized features the product is organized.
Sprint Backlog: Sprint Backlog is divided into two parts: Product assigned features to sprint and
Sprint planning meeting.

Extreme Programming (XP):

Extreme Programming (XP) is another agile methodology that focuses on engineering practices to
improve software quality and responsiveness to changing customer requirements. XP emphasizes
values such as communication, simplicity, feedback, and courage to deliver high-quality software
quickly.
Pair Programming: Two programmers work together at one computer, continuously collaborating
and reviewing each other's code to improve quality and knowledge sharing.

Test-Driven Development (TDD): Developers write automated tests before writing code, following a
"red-green-refactor" cycle. This practice ensures that code meets the specified requirements and is
continuously tested for regressions.

Continuous Integration: Developers integrate their code frequently, ideally several times a day, to
detect and resolve integration issues early. Automated build and test processes are used to ensure
the system remains stable.

Q5. a) Develop the SRS of University Management system.

Q5 b) Describe the details of FTR and Walkthrough.

Walkthrough
• The walkthrough is a review meeting process but it is different from the Inspection, as
it does not involve any formal process i.e. it is a non formal process. Basically, the
walkthrough [review meeting process] is started by the Author of the code.
• In the walkthrough, the code or document is read by the author, and others who are
present in the meeting can note down the important points or can write notes on the
defects and can give suggestions about them. The walkthrough is an informal way of
testing, no formal authority has been involved in this testing.
• As there is an informal way of testing involved so there is no need for a moderator
while performing a walkthrough. We can call a walkthrough an open-ended discussion,
it does not focus on the documentation. Defect tracking is one of the challenging tasks
in the walkthrough.
FTR
• Formal Technical Review (FTR) is a software quality control activity performed by
software engineers. » It is an organized, methodical procedure for assessing and raising
the standard of any technical paper, including software objects.
• Finding flaws, making sure standards are followed, and improving the product or
document under review’s overall quality are the main objectives of a fault tolerance
review (FTR).
• Although FTRs are frequently utilized in software development, other technical fields
can also employ the concept.
Key Differences:
● Formality: FTR is more formal, structured, and involves a larger group of
reviewers. Walkthroughs are less formal and typically involve a smaller group.
● Purpose: FTR focuses on identifying defects and improving quality, while
walkthroughs are more about understanding and gathering feedback.
● Depth of Review: FTR involves a thorough examination of the artifact for defects
and issues, while walkthroughs are more focused on understanding the content
and gathering initial impressions.

Q6. a) Explain project scheduling and describe CPM and

PERT.
Project scheduling is the process of determining start and end dates for project
activities, allocating resources, and establishing dependencies among tasks to achieve
project objectives within defined constraints such as time, cost, and resources.
Effective scheduling helps in organizing and managing project activities, optimizing
resource utilization, and ensuring timely project completion.
Two widely used methods for project scheduling are Critical Path Method (CPM) and
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT).

Critical Path Method (CPM):

● Definition: CPM is a deterministic scheduling technique used to determine the
longest sequence of dependent activities (critical path) in a project, which
dictates the minimum duration required to complete the project.
● Key Features:
● Activity-Based: Breaks down the project into a network of activities and
their dependencies.
● Deterministic: Relies on known activity durations and dependencies to
calculate project duration.
● Focus on Critical Path: Identifies the sequence of activities that
collectively determine the shortest project duration.
● Float Analysis: Identifies non-critical paths and activities with slack or float
time, which can be delayed without impacting project completion.
● Steps:
● Identify project activities and their dependencies.
 ● Estimate activity durations.
● Construct a network diagram (Activity-on-Node or Activity-on-Arrow).
● Calculate earliest start and finish times, and latest start and finish times
for each activity.
● Identify the critical path (activities with zero float) and total project
duration.

Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT):

● Definition: PERT is a probabilistic scheduling technique used to analyze and
represent the uncertainty in project duration by considering three time estimates
for each activity: optimistic (O), most likely (M), and pessimistic (P).
● Key Features:
● Probabilistic Approach: Incorporates uncertainty by using three time
estimates for each activity.
● Activity Duration Calculation: Calculates activity durations using weighted
averages of the three time estimates (PERT formula).
● Focus on Variability: Identifies activities with the highest variability and
potential impact on project duration.
● Probability Analysis: Estimates the probability of completing the project
within a specified duration.
● Steps:
● Identify project activities and their dependencies.
● Determine optimistic (O), most likely (M), and pessimistic (P) time
estimates for each activity.
● Calculate activity durations using the PERT formula: (O + 4M + P) /
6.
● Construct a network diagram (similar to CPM).
● Perform forward and backward pass calculations to determine earliest
start and finish times, latest start and finish times, and float.
● Analyze the critical path and project duration uncertainty.

Q6 b) Explain software reverse engineering in detail.

Reverse Engineering is also known as backward engineering, is the process of forward engineering
in reverse. In this, the information is collected from the given or existing application. It takes less time
than forward engineering to develop an application. In reverse engineering, the application is broken
to extract knowledge or its architecture
Steps of Software Reverse Engineering:
● Collection Information: This step focuses on collecting all possible information (i.e., source
design documents, etc.) about the software.
● Examining the Information: The information collected in step-1 is studied so as to get
familiar with the system.
● Extracting the Structure: This step concerns identifying program structure in the form of a
structure chart where each node corresponds to some routine.
● Recording the Functionality: During this step processing details of each module of the
structure, charts are recorded using structured language like decision table, etc.
● Recording Data Flow: From the information extracted in step-3 and step-4, a set of data
flow diagrams is derived to show the flow of data among the processes.
● Recording Control Flow: The high-level control structure of the software is recorded.
● Review Extracted Design: The design document extracted is reviewed several times to
ensure consistency and correctness. It also ensures that the design represents the program.
● Generate Documentation: Finally, in this step, the complete documentation including SRS,
design document, history, overview, etc. is recorded for future use
Reverse Engineering Tools:
Reverse engineering tools accept source code as input and produce a variety of structural,
procedural, data, and behavioral design. Reverse engineering if done manually would consume a lot
of time and human labor and hence must be supported by automated tools. Some of the tools are
given below:
● CIAO and CIA: A graphical navigator for software and web repositories and a collection of
Reverse Engineering tools.
● Rigi: A visual software understanding tool.
● Bunch: A software clustering/modularization tool.
● GEN++: An application generator to support the development of analysis tools for the C++
language.
● PBS: Software Bookshelf tools for extracting and visualizing the architecture of programs.

DEC SOLUTION

Q1 b) Explain the 4 Ps of project Management.

The 4Ps in project management refer to four key elements that are essential for the
success of any project.
● People:
● People are the individuals involved in the project, including project
managers, team members, stakeholders, and users.
● Managing people involves leadership, team building, communication, and
resolving conflicts to foster a collaborative and productive work
environment.
● Project managers are responsible for assembling the project team,
defining roles and responsibilities, motivating team members, and
ensuring that everyone has the necessary resources and support to
perform their tasks effectively.
● Effective communication and teamwork among project stakeholders are
critical for achieving project goals and delivering value to customers.
● Product:
● Product represents the deliverables of the project, which could be a
software application, a physical product, or a service.
● Managing the product involves defining requirements, designing solutions,
implementing features, testing functionality, and ensuring customer
satisfaction.
● Product management encompasses activities such as product planning,
product development, product testing, and product maintenance.
 ● The focus is on delivering a high-quality product that meets customer
needs, fulfills business requirements, and aligns with project objectives.
● Process:
● Process refers to the set of activities, methodologies, and techniques
used to execute the project plan.
● It involves defining workflows, establishing communication channels, and
implementing quality assurance processes to ensure project success.
● Process management includes defining project phases, creating project
schedules, allocating resources, tracking progress, and managing risks.
● Adopting best practices, standards, and frameworks such as Agile, Scrum,
Lean, or Six Sigma can help streamline project processes and improve
efficiency.
● Project:
● Project management involves planning, organizing, directing, and
controlling resources to achieve specific project objectives within defined
constraints such as time, cost, scope, and quality.
● It includes activities such as project initiation, project planning, project
execution, project monitoring and controlling, and project closure.
● Project managers are responsible for defining project scope, developing
project plans, managing project budgets and schedules, identifying and
managing risks, and ensuring that project deliverables meet stakeholder
expectations.
● Effective project management ensures that projects are delivered on time,
within budget, and with the expected level of quality, while also
maximizing the use of resources and minimizing risks.

Q3 b) What is Risk management? Discuss RMMM plan for

risk management.
Risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, prioritizing, and mitigating
risks that could potentially impact the success of a project or an organization.
Steps in Risk Management:
● Risk Identification:
● This step involves identifying potential risks that could arise during the
course of the project. Risks can come from various sources such as
technical, organizational, external, or environmental factors.
● Techniques like brainstorming, checklists, interviews, and documentation
review are commonly used to identify risks.
● Risk Analysis:
● Once risks are identified, they need to be analyzed to determine their
potential impact and likelihood of occurrence. This step helps in
understanding the severity of each risk and prioritizing them for further
action.
● Risk analysis involves assessing the consequences of risks if they occur
and the probability of their occurrence.
● Risk Planning:
 ● After analyzing risks, a plan is developed to mitigate, avoid, transfer, or
accept them. Risk planning involves developing strategies and action
plans to address identified risks.
● Strategies could include risk avoidance (eliminating the risk altogether),
risk mitigation (reducing the impact or likelihood of the risk), risk transfer
(shifting the risk to a third party, like insurance), or risk acceptance
(accepting the consequences if the risk occurs).
● Risk Monitoring:
● Risk management is an ongoing process throughout the project lifecycle.
Risk monitoring involves tracking identified risks, assessing their status,
and evaluating the effectiveness of risk mitigation strategies.
● It’s important to regularly review and update the risk management plan as
new risks emerge or existing risks evolve.
RMMM stands for Risk Mitigation, Monitoring, and Management. It is a plan developed
as part of risk management in software engineering to identify, assess, and address
potential risks that may affect the success of a project. The RMMM plan outlines
strategies for mitigating risks, monitoring their status throughout the project lifecycle,
and managing them effectively. H
● Risk Identification:
● The first step in risk management is identifying potential risks that could impact
the project. Risks can include technical, schedule, budget, resource, and external
factors.
● Techniques such as brainstorming, risk checklists, historical data analysis, and
expert judgment are used to identify risks.
● Risk Analysis and Assessment:
● Once risks are identified, they are analyzed to assess their likelihood of
occurrence and potential impact on the project objectives.
● Risks are prioritized based on their severity and likelihood, using techniques such
as qualitative risk analysis (probability and impact matrix) and quantitative risk
analysis (Monte Carlo simulation).
● Risk Mitigation:
● Risk mitigation involves developing strategies to reduce the probability or impact
of identified risks.
● Strategies for risk mitigation may include avoiding, transferring, reducing, or
accepting the risk.
● Contingency plans are developed to address high-priority risks that cannot be
fully mitigated.
● Risk Monitoring:
● Risks are monitored throughout the project lifecycle to track their status, identify
new risks, and assess the effectiveness of mitigation strategies.
● Regular risk review meetings are conducted to review the status of identified
risks, update risk registers, and discuss any emerging risks.
● Risk Management:
● Risk management involves implementing the RMMM plan and ensuring that risk
mitigation strategies are executed as planned.
 ● Responsibilities for risk management are assigned to specific individuals or
teams, and communication channels are established to facilitate timely risk
reporting and resolution.
● Documentation and Reporting:
● All aspects of risk management, including risk identification, analysis, mitigation
strategies, and monitoring activities, are documented in the RMMM plan.
● Regular risk reports are generated to communicate the status of identified risks,
the effectiveness of mitigation efforts, and any changes in risk exposure to
stakeholders.

Q4 b) Explain the user interface design in detail with

examples.
User interface (UI) design is the process of creating the visual layout and interactive elements of a
digital product to ensure that it is both aesthetically pleasing and easy to use. Effective UI design
balances functionality and visual appeal, focusing on elements such as layout, typography, colors,
and interaction patterns
1. Layout
The layout is the arrangement of elements on the screen. It dictates how content is organized and
guides users' navigation through the interface.

Example:

Grid System: Websites like Pinterest use a masonry grid layout where images are arranged in a
flexible grid that optimizes space and ensures a visually appealing display of varied content sizes.
2. Typography
Typography involves the selection of fonts, sizes, spacing, and the overall readability of text.

Example:

Google Docs: Google Docs uses a clean, sans-serif font (Arial) as its default. The typography is
simple, ensuring that the text is legible and that the interface feels modern and uncluttered.
3. Color Scheme
Color schemes are crucial for creating an appealing visual experience and can also influence user
behavior and emotions.

Example:

Spotify: Spotify’s dark interface with green accents provides a modern, immersive experience that is
easy on the eyes, especially in low-light conditions. The green color highlights key interactive
elements, guiding users intuitively.
4. Buttons and Icons
Buttons and icons are interactive elements that users click or tap to perform actions. They need to
be intuitive and easy to recognize.

Example:

Facebook: Facebook uses a consistent design for its buttons, like the blue “Like” button with a
thumbs-up icon, making it immediately recognizable and easy to use.
5. Navigation
Navigation design involves creating menus, links, and other tools that help users find what they’re
looking for.
Example:

Amazon: Amazon’s navigation bar at the top of the page features a search bar, categories, and
account options, ensuring users can easily find products, track orders, and manage their accounts.
6. Forms and Input Fields
Forms and input fields are where users enter data, such as login details or search queries. These
elements need to be straightforward and efficient.

Example:

Twitter Sign-Up Form: Twitter’s sign-up form is simple and straightforward, asking for basic
information in a step-by-step manner. This reduces user friction and makes the sign-up process
quicker.
7. Feedback Mechanisms
Feedback mechanisms provide users with responses to their actions, ensuring they understand what
has happened.

Example:

Instagram Likes: When a user double-taps on a photo to like it, a heart icon appears momentarily,
providing immediate visual feedback that the action has been registered.
8. Consistency
Consistency in UI design means using uniform design elements and patterns across the interface,
making it predictable and easier for users to learn.

Example:

Apple’s iOS: Apple’s iOS maintains consistent design patterns across all its apps, such as uniform
button styles and navigation gestures. This consistency helps users to quickly become familiar with
new apps on the platform.
9. Accessibility
Accessibility ensures that the UI is usable by people with varying abilities, including those with
disabilities.

Example:

BBC Website: The BBC website includes features like adjustable text size, screen reader
compatibility, and high-contrast color schemes to accommodate users with visual impairments.
10. Microinteractions
Microinteractions are small animations or design elements that provide subtle feedback to users.

Example:

LinkedIn Notifications: LinkedIn uses small red dots to indicate new notifications. When clicked, a
smooth dropdown animation provides a seamless user experience.

Q.11) Explain coupling and cohesion related to software design concepts.

Coupling:
Coupling refers to the degree of interdependence between modules or components within a software
system. It measures how closely connected or dependent one module is on another. There are
different types of coupling:
Low Coupling: Modules are loosely connected and have minimal interdependencies. Changes in one
module have little or no impact on other modules.
High Coupling: Modules are tightly connected and have strong interdependencies. Changes in one
module may require modifications in multiple other modules.
Cohesion:
Cohesion refers to the degree to which the elements within a module or component are related to
each other. It measures how well the responsibilities of a module are focused and how closely
related its functionality is. There are different levels of cohesion:

Low Cohesion: Module elements are loosely related and perform unrelated or loosely related
functions. This indicates poor organization and may lead to a lack of clarity and increased
complexity.
High Cohesion: Module elements are closely related and perform a single, well-defined function or
set of related functions. This indicates a well-organized and focused module with clear
responsibilities.