1. INTRODUCTION.

With a strong emphasis now being

laid on the improvement of the productivity of the livestock sector, the
necessity of improving the aval and quality of feed and fodder is
recognized as being of paramount imp. Demand for green fodder
remain fairly constant throughout the year and in order to comply
with demand and at the same time adhere to definite rotation , area
under each selected crop should also remain constant from year to
year.

2. The key issue to address in attempting to bring about

improvement in livestock feeding in developing countries is the eff
use of aval feed resources. It is imp to consider factors such as
climatic conditions, agronomic practices, feed processing tech, and
genetic variations, which affect the nutritive value of feed for
livestock.

3. Feed resources incl Green roughages, Dry roughages and

concentrates. The gen term roughage is defined as plant material in a
fresh, dried, or conserved form. Efforts need to be made to inc yields
by cultivating high yielding fodder varieties, conserving any seasonal
sur fodder and optimizing fodder production from problem soils.
Fodder production is limited by climate extremes leading to two pds
of critical fodder shortage; one is winter (Nov to Feb) and the other in
summer (May to Jul).
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4. Aim. Aim of this presentation is to highlight the fodder

provision to farm animals round the yr through planning fodder
cropping and its further conservation for army animals.

5. Scheme of presentation. After introducing and giving aim of

this presentation I will proceed as fol.

a. Aval Green Fodders.

b. Sowing plan for round the yr aval.
c. Crop Rotation.
d. Fodder conservation.
(1) Silage.
(2) Hay making
(3) Improving different feeds through processing.

6. Green Roughages. The general term roughage is defined

as plant material in fresh, dried, or conserved state. Roughages are
bulky and fibrous in nature and normally contain more then 18%
crude fibre on a dry wt basis. Green roughages are commonly used
for livestock feeding. They are higher in moisture and easily digestible
Legume species have a higher protein content than non-leguminous
fodders. In Pak green fodders are classified according to their
growing season as: -

a. Rabi Season Green Fodders.

(1) Barseem.
(2) Lucern.
(3) Oats.
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(4) Barley.
(5) Mustard.
(6) Sugarcane.
b. Kharif Season Green Fodders.
(1) Maize.
(2) Sada Bahar.
(3) Sorghum.
(4) Cowpea
(5) Guara.
(6) Sugar Beet tops.
(7) Bajra (Millet).

7. Aval fodder crops to be sown. Fol are the different fodder

crops aval in Pak for sowing in two of the above seasons i.e., Rabi
and Kharif. These will be very briefly discussed individually.

a. Barseem. It is one of the most imp fodder crop and

recently been described as king of fodders. It has special
place in animals husbandry programme throughout the
Indian sub continent. It gives highly nutritious and
palatable fodder in repeated cuttings from Nov to May. It
grows well on medium to hy soils. A good crop is possible
on a land, which is properly lvlled and is free from weeds.
To achieve better stand 3-4 ploughings followed by
planking are req. Six to eight Kg of seed should be
broadcast in standing water. To ensure Kashni free seed,
put the seed in 5% Sodium chloride solution and sieve the
floating Kashni seeds. It is sown in last week of Sep to 1 st
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week of Oct but may continue for whole month of Oct. Its
irrigation after planting is imp for good crop stand. On light
soils the 1st irrigation may be given within 3-5 days after
sowing, where as on hy soils, the irrigation may be given
7-10 days after sowing. Subsequent irrigation may be
given 7-10 days after sowing. After germination provide
light irrigation and then subsequent irrigation may be
continued as for broadcast crop. The 1st cut is ready in
50-60 days. Subsequent cuttings are aval at 40 days in
winter and 25-30 days in spring. In all 4-6 cutting are
common. The total yield is around 37 tons per acre. Take
the final cutting in the last week of Mar. There may be
slight variation in humid and dry areas. Irrigate the crop
frequently during seed setting to avoid seed shrinkage.
The seed forms in May or early Jun. Varieties are:

b. Lucern. It is perennial leguminous plant and remains

green throughout the yr. It is liked by all kinds of animals.
It is also valuable crop for soil improvement. It continues
to supply fodder for 3-4 yrs. The crop flourishes well on
loamy soils. Though seed bed preparation with one furrow
turning plough fol by three to four shallow cultivation and
planking may be achieved. One bag of DAP per acre is
sufficient. 6-8 Kg per acre of healthy seed should be
used. Crop sown b/w 15th Oct to 15th Nov gives good
return. Lines sown at 45 cm apart give better result.
Broadcasting of seed is also common practice. Sow the
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corps with pore or drilling in good water. 1st irrigation after

3 weeks of sowing is recommended. Subsequent
irrigation may be applied at an interval of 15-20 days in
winter and 10-15 days in summer depending upon the
weather. Armyworm and aphid often attack the corps use
7-8.5% w.p before flowering and No gas after flowering.
Yield Six to eight cuttings a yr yield around 45-50 metric
tons per acre of green fodder. In seed crop stop cutting s
after Feb. Corp gets ready for harvest by the end of May
or early Jun. Harvest the corps when 2/3 rd of pods dry
up to avoid shattering loss. Its varieties incl Type 8 x 9,
which is combination of type 8 and type 9.

c. Oats.It is highly esteemed fodder especially for

conservation in the form of hay through out the world. Oat
is an imp Rabi fodder and its nutritive value is next to
Barseem. It prefers clay loam soils for better growth.
Pulverized seedbed with one furrow turning plough and
three to four local ploughs along with planking may be
achieved to raise good crop. One bag of DAP and one
bag of urea be applied at sowing to get better yield.
Average green yield 250 – 400 quintals per hector. It is
better to harvest before flowering otherwise stems get
hard & fibrous which cattle do not seem to like.

d. Maize. It is one of the most popular crops,

which attracts cattle. It req warm & temperate climate. It
grows well one alluvial low fertile and well-drained soils,
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the crop grows well in slightly acidic to neutral soils. May

be ploughed with mould board plough after irrigation.
Thereafter, 2 to 3 harrowing or ploughing with disc
plough. Seed may be spread 15 to 20 Kgs per acre for
grains production & about 30 – 40 Kg for fodder
production. The sowing should be done with row-to-row
distance of 35 cm by drill or pora or kera method and
broad costing. Sowing is done from Mar to mid Sep for
fodder and in Jul for grains in plane and May to Jun in
hills. Water under rain conditions no irrigation req but
otherwise after every fortnight depending upon climate of
soil condition. About 300 to 350 Kg of Ammonium
sulphate inc the forage production. This is ready in 60 to
70 days for fodder production but for grains production it
takes 90 – 110 days. Yield is 350 to 450 Quintals/hectors.

e. Sorghum (Jowar). Sorghum is an imp kharif fodder. It

remains green longer than maize and bajra. Varying from
light sandy to hy loam but it likes clay loam for better
return. It prefers hot and dry climate for luxuriant growth.
Humidity enhances chances of red leaf spot. For better
return one bag of DAP and one bag of urea per acre
sufficient. Full dose of DAP with ½ bag of urea be added
at planting and remaining ½ bag of urea at first irrigation.
Use 32 Kg good quality seed for fodder and 8 Kg per acre
for grain purpose. Crop may be planted at any time b/w
Mar and Aug. Mid Jul to first week of Aug is right time for
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grain crop. In barani areas grain crop may be sown with

onset of monsoon. Crop is gen planted by broadcast,
though lines sown at 30 cm apart give better return. I.S
263. It is a sweet, high yielding variety suitable for
irrigation and rain-fed areas. It is susceptible to red leaf
spot.

(1)Pak SS II. Pak sorghum selection no. II was released

for general cultivation in 1974. It is medium tall with
broad green leaves. It is non-sweet, crop matures
whereas the stalks remain green for about 15 days to
one month after ear removal and can be fed to animals
as green fodder.
(2)Hegari, 1119, Forage SGM:- These are now promising
strains.

f. Bajra. Bajra is an imp dual-purpose crop grown

throughout the Country either as a MONO crop or as
mixed crop sorghum and maize. It is more popular in
areas with rainfall varying from 400-500 mm. It has good
tolerance for drought condition. It doses best on light
sandy loam soils. It is warm weather crop and is preferred
in areas where water scarcity is often experienced. One
bag of urea and one bag of DAP or 2 bags Nitrophos/acre
at planting are sufficient. 5-6 Kg seed per acre is used for
fodder crop whereas for seed crop only 2-3 Kg/acre is
sufficient. It can be sown at any time from April to Aug
under rain fed condition before the onset of moon soon.
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Board-cast is common but sowing in rains does not permit

sowing. Sow the seed in nursery and transplant when
plants are three weeks old. This may be practiced only in
grain crop. First irrigation is made after three weeks of
sowing. Subsequent irrigation may be applied when
needed. Fodder crop is free from insects and diseases. It
yields 15-20 M. Tons of green fodder/acre. The crop may
be harvested near flowering. Ergot attacked crop if fed to
animals may cause abortion. Varieties incl.

(1). A 13. It is an old variety with thin stem and short

compact ears.

(2). 18 BY. It was released for general cultivation in

1974. It is dual purpose suitable for fodder and
grain. It is medium tall and has long compact ears.
It is free from diseases.

g. Sadabahar. It was released for gen cultivation from

maize and millets research institute, Yousaf wala. It is an
excellent summer fodder. It gives repeated cuttings and is
safely termed as barseem for the summer. Fertile piece of
land may be picked-up for hy out- turn throughout
summer. Good seedbed is possible with one furrow
turning plough. One bag of urea and one bag DAP or two
bags of nitrophos per acre are req at sowing. For
repeated cutting ½ bags of urea after each cut assures hy
tonnage. 8 Kg per acre seed is sufficient to plant one
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acre. The crop may be planted b/w 15th Feb to 15th Mar to
cover lean pd in May when barseem is over. In late
sowing crop number of cutting are reduced. It is sown in
lines at 45 cm apart is recommended. This help to check
weeds, which can be removed by lt cultivation after each
cut. In early spring shoot-fly does severe damage
whereas from Mar on ward borer is common. For good
result, it is safe to apply 3% Furadon granules at the rate
of 10 – 12 Kg per acre with sowing or with first irrigation.
First cut is ready for harvest after 60 days. Subsequent
cuts may be taken after 45- 60 days. Total fodder yield
from 4-5 cuts is gen around 50 – 60 M/Tons per acre.

h.. Cowpeas. Cowpeas find their way only in inter cropping.

Two to three ploughing is req to prepare good seed bed.
One bag of DAP per acre may be applied at sowing.
Twelve Kg per acre seed for fodder and 8 Kg per acre for
grain crop are sufficient. Two planting times are
recommended i.e. mid Mar and Jul. It is sown in lines 45
cm apart for fodder and 60 cm for grain crops are
suggested. First irrigation is made after three weeks of
sowing and subsequent irrigation when needed. Corp is
sensitive, therefore, over irrigation may be avoided. 2-3
irrigation will do well for fodder crops.. It yields about 16-
20 tonnes green fodder per acre.

j. Guara. Guara is a very popular crop of the

country particularly Punjab and the areas where
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rainfall is scanty. A mixture of Jowar and Guara is

the most popular fodder with the growers. It is
leguminous crop and also enriches the soils. It
grows on all types of soils. Well-drained, med to lt
soils are more suitable. One to two ploughings fol
by planking are sufficient. 16 – 20 Kg for fodder and
10 – 12 for seed is sufficient. The sowing should be
done with row-to-row distance of 30 cm by drill pora
or kera method. It can be broadcasted. It can be
sown from April to Jul under irrigation conditions
whereas sowing in rain fed region are suggested
prior to monsoon. For fodder crop 2 – 3 irrigations
are sufficient depending upon the main crop with
which it has been mixed sown. Harvesting for
fodder at pod fmn stage gives nutritious fodder.
Average green yields 250 – 400 quintals per hector.
It is better to harvest before flowering other wise
stems get hard which cattle do not like.

8. FODDER QUALITY. Till recently little attention was paid to

fodder quality. It was the qty and not the quality on which farmers
evaluated fodders. Green fodder provide adequate qty of proteins,
carbohydrates, fats and minerals. These nutrients are needed in bal
form for optimum production of livestock products. Some of the
factors affecting the quality of fodder are:

a. Genetic make-up. The cultivated fodders have been

developed over the time for improved quality. The protein
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content, digestibility and palatability are largely genetically

con. Multicut millet, for example, has been genetically
developed for improved quality. Several other forages
(Sadabahar, dwarf napier grass, maize etc) have also
been improved genetically.

b. Stage of cutting. The bulk of the digestible nutrients

are present in leaves and softer portions of the stem.
Cutting at the wrong stage will result in lignifications and
reduce total digestible nutrients and palatability. Cutting
too early reduces yield and there is always a trade off b/w
qty and quality. The stage of harvesting which give the
max yield of digestible nutrients is given on chart.

9. FORAGE CROP ESTB. Hereunder is given the details.

a. Land preparation. Inadequate land preparation due

to lack of time, leads to poor germination, emergence of
competing weeds and low fodder quality. Fodder and
other cash crops deplete the soil of nutrients. Therefore,
prior to next sowing there is a need to top up with
nutrients. For cereals use nitrogenous fertilizers (Urea,
DAP etc). Phosphate fertilizer is req for leguminous crops
since these are nitrogen fixers. Since we are resource
poor, we cannot afford most of the inputs (fertilizers,
insecticides). Cost can be substantially reduced by the
use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM). An appropriate use of
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FYM under many conditions will yield an excellent

harvest.

b. Sowing Method. A proper sowing tech must be fol.

Multicut summer and winter fodders (Sadabahar, Mott,
Lucern etc) should be line sown. This helps in con weeds.
Seed size and structure are also imp factors. Large seeds
need sufficient depth and moisture for germination
(maize, Sorghum etc). Small seed (Barseem, Lucern)
should not be burried deep otherwise poor germination
will result. Soaking prior to planting (oats, Barley) is
sometimes useful for clay soils.

c. Fertilizer use. Fertilizer improves both the qty

and quality of fodder. For cereals crop nitrogenous
fertilizers are used. For leguminous fodder always use
phosphate fertilizers.

d. Seasonal changes. In hot weather the fmn of

structural compounds such as carbohydrates occurs at a
faster rate than the absorption of nutrients from the soil.
This results in lower protein and mineral contents.

10. Pre- requisites for a successful fodder programme.

Several factors are imp for making a fodder programme a
success.

a. Procurement of seed. Good seed is one of the

most imp inputs for obtaining max and quality production.
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In recent yrs quality fodder seed is aval although to a

limited extent but our MFs are totally ignorant of it. For
several fodder crops, I/C cultivation keeps part of the crop
for homegrown seed. There is no harm in keeping
homegrown seeds if collected and processed for quality.
However, never save seeds from the hybrids. Seed
cleaning at the farm lvl may be encouraged. Removing
chaff, dirt etc is well known practice at MFs.

b. Est of input needs. Various inputs (seed, fertilizer,

insecticide, fuel for irrigation, labour etc) are to be
procured well in time to max production. Shortage of
fertilizer and insecticides is very common particularly at
sowing time. Mostly improper fertilizers are used which go
waste.

11. Yr-round feeding system for livestock. An eff fodder

production programme can be implemented by careful sel of the
varieties, need of the Farm, type of livestock, capital and labour
resources and objectives of producer. It is even possible to have
seasonal sur for conservation into silage or hay. In combination with
crop residues an yr round better feed sup is possible. The various
combinations are:

a. Maize + Cowpeas - Sadabahar - Barseem +

Oats.
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b. Maize + Cowpeas - Sorghum + Guara -

Barseem + Oats.

c. mott - Sadabhar - Barseem + oats.

12. Fodder production Programme. To est need of green fodder

for livestock, no of animals are converted into units, each adult
buffalo/cow is considered as one unit, YS I and II are considered as
half unit and calves over 6 months as one fourth unit. Indegenous
cow req appx 15 tons, cross-bred cow 20 tons and buffalo 25 tons of
green fodder throughout the yr. To get max from the livestock they
should be provided the qty of green fodder mentioned above along
with bal rat. To get sufficient qty of green fodder round the yr to meet
the req of livestock careful planning in sowing of crops is essential.
Planning of sowing green fodder in one square of land as guideline
can be as fol. Sowing and harvesting planning chart is also given .

a. Culturable area - 25 acres

b. Cropping intensity - 140 %

c. Total area sown - 35 acres

d. Kharif season: -

(1) Maize + Cowpeas - 5 acres

(2) Sadabahar - 8 acres

(3) Maize + Swank + Bajra- 4 acres

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(4) Total area under cultivation - 17 acres

e. Rabi season: -

(1) Barseem + Sarsoon + Oats - 12 acres

(2) Oats - 6 acres

(3) Total area under cultivation - 18 acres

13. Crop Rotation. It is the type of system of sowing different

kinds of crops in recurrent succession on same land in a specific
period of time with an object to get max profit from least investment
without disturbing the soil fertility. It has certainly many advantages
which could be as fol.

a. It inc the crop production.

b. It maint the soil strength and fertility.
c. It helps in con the crop pests and diseases.
d. It helps in the con of weeds.
e. Labour req is spread more evenly throughout the yr.
f. Income from the land spreads round the yr.
g. Risk to crops is reduced.
h. Supervision of crops becomes easy.

14. Conservation of fodder. Forage aval in Pak is not

constant throughout the yr. At certain times, fodders are aval in
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abundance, but during the dry season there is scarcity. As a principle

of good mgmt, forages should be preserved during the pd of aval by
converting them to silage or hay. Different procedures for fodder
conservation will be discussed in succeeding paragraphs.

15. Silage Making. In prevailing livestock production systems

animals have access to green, dry fodder or grazing with extreme
seasonal shortage in May-Jun and Nov to Feb. However, under a
well-planned fodder production programme seasonal fodder sur do
occur. The sur fodder can be converted to silage for utilization during
feed scarcity pds. Properly prepared and stored silage fits well in the
feeding systems. Higher energy crops make best quality silage. Other
forage crops such as Mott, millet, sugarcane tops and grasses can
also be converted to silage.
16. Silage making is the preservation of green plant material in a
moist state in the absence of air. In this process, soluble
carbohydrates present in the plant material are fermented by
anaerobic bacteria to produce organic acids (lactic acid and acetic
acid). Which reduce the pH and keep the plant material preserved.
Silage can be prepared from maize, sorghum, millet, barley fodders
and grasses. Wet sugar beet pulp, due to its soluble carbohydrate
content, can also be preserved as silage; silage is well accepted by
animals and has a high nutritive value. Various additives such as
molasses, formic acid, sodium chloride, formalin and limestone can
be used to improve the quality of silage. The process by which green
fodders may be preserved is called siloing or ensiling and the
resultant product is known as silage or ensilage. In the process of
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siloing, fermentation is never actually stopped, but continues in

varying degree according to the method employed. Various
substances are thus produced from the partial decomposition of the
fiber, cellulose, starch and proteins of the plant material. Some of
these products are carbon dioxide water acetic acid and lactic acid.
Their amount and type will depend on the nature of the material
siloed and the method of siloing it.

17. Silage is especially valuable if no green fodder is aval and the

roughage is of inferior quality.
18. Advantages of Silage: Silage production caries significant
imp in the livestock industry. The advantages of silage production
are:-
a. It produces 30 to 50 percent more forage per unit area
and, therefore, inc the carrying capacity of the farm by the
same.
b. It generates 30 to 50 percent more nutrients per unit area
than the same crop converted into grain and crop residue.
c. Its nutritional value is unchanged for the entire feeding pd
without dependence upon weather or the pd of the yr.
d. It is the most eco because it eliminates wastage of the
less favored parts of fresh herbage (such as stem),
because animals are compelled to consume the entire
plant.
e. It req three times less storage space (calculated on DM
basis) than hay, even when baled or chopped.
f. It cannot be destroyed by fire.
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g. It facilitates preservation of crop residues, by products

and wastes, and inc their palatability and enhances their
intake.
h. It provides succulent feed during dry pds, during the time
of feed scarcity, particularly when the vegetable growth is
dormant.
j. It improves the digestibility or protein in herbage and
wastes.
k. It preserves most of the vitamins.
l. It facilitates incorporation of NPN without toxicity danger,
which may otherwise occur when urea or other NPN
compounds are fed directly.
m. It facilitates utilization of animal wastes (poultry litter,
poultry and cattle manure) as a safe system in eliminating
pathogens including nematodic parasites, which normally
survive conventional drying or even sterilization
processes.
o. Ensiled animal wastes do not resemble their original in
smell, taste or structure.
p. It saves forage or crops damaged by storm or other
disasters, because they can be collected, in case of
emergency, at any stage of plant development. The
nutritional value of the herbage is preserved in the most
efficient way.
q. In comparison with pasture it does not req fencing, yields
about 30 percent more forage per unit area, is harvested
at optimum maturity stage, the feeding is more uniform,
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and no bloat normally occurs in feeding silage as in case

of grazing.
r. It allows for min forage supply in a similar manner as cut
and carry system but it is more eco.
s. It destroys most of the phytotoxins such as oxalic acid
(rice straw), prussic acid, and tannins.
t. It reduces wastage of coarse steamy forages or
roughages.

20. Prac Req for the Production of Quality Silage: Silage

production is aiming at establishing optimum conditions for the quick
growth of lactic acid producing bacteria. In prac terms, this means
the fol:-
a. Sel of the optimum harvesting time of plant matters to
provide a high content of soluble carbohydrates.
Additives are req, where sugar lvls are inadequate
(legumes, late cuts of grass, some crop residues)
b. Sel of suitable silo type with dimensions related:-
(1) To the total feed req.
(2) To the daily feed req of the herd in order to:-
(a) Promote silage density (height of silo).
(b) Restrict exposure of silage to air at the time of
removal of silage for feeding.
c. Wilting of cut plant matter to 28.35% dry matter:-
(1) To concentrate soluble carbohydrates per unit of
volume.
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(2) To inc osmotic pressure (concentration of soluble in

the water fraction) in plant cells detrimental to the
growth of butyric acid producing bacteria.
(3) To reduce losses of nutrients due to seepage.
d. Chopping of plant matter by hand (slow) or mechanical
devices to a length of 30-50 mm.
(1) To release sugar from plant cells.
(2) To compact the plant matter in the silo to achieve
anaerobic conditions for fermentation and a high
density of the silage stock.
(3) To achieve a high palatability of silage at the time of
feeding. Quick filling of silo: More than any other
op step during silage making, does a continuous,
uninterrupted filling of the silo, fol by a quick sealing
of the surface of the forage stock, ensure
appropriate fermentation and production of quality
silage. Silos should be filled within one day of work.
A quick filling of the silo is very much related to the
time req for chopping of the plant matter to be
ensiled.
22. Types of Silo: Various types of silo may be used,
depending on local conditions:-
a. Tower Silo: The tall cylindrical tower which may be
made of wood, concrete, or bricks, and should be
constructed so that the walls are air tight, smooth and
perpendicular, in order that the fodder as it is placed in
the tower can settle down into a compact mass. The silo
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should be provided with a roof and a window, and a

series of doors from top to bottom, which can be opened
so as to permit workers to pack or remove the silage at
different lvls. When the silo is to be filled, the fodder
should be cut up in a chaffing machine on the gr, and
then blown up a chute to the top where it falls through a
distributor so as to ensure even packing.
b. Gr Silos: The constr of tower silos is both unnec and
expensive as silage can be stored in pits as successfully
as in the tower. The site chosen for the constr of the pit
should be as near as possible to the center of the area to
be cut, so as to avoid the unnec carriage of grass or
crops to the pit. The site should be on high gr or at least
on some gr where water does not lodge during hy rain.
A pit 13 m long 5 m wide and 3 m deep that is, having
cubic capacity of 195 cubic ms will contain approx 68250
kgs of silage, approx 350 kg of silage is contained in one
cubic m of space. The capacity of the pit may be varied
to suit local req, the depth and width remaining constant,
and the length only being varied, as a small cross sec will
limit the amount of fodder damage by exposure to the air.
When covering the pit, labor can conveniently throw the
earth covering a distance of about 6 ft.
23. Crop residues as raw material for silage preservation: The
preservation of silage is most imp for prevention from deterioration
caused by growth of microorganisms. Different crop residues used as
silage preservations are discussed below:-
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a. Almost all the agricultural crops produce after harvesting

and processing a residue or by-product, though their
quantities and value for livestock feeding may vary
considerably. Variation is due to: -
(1) Crop yields/area.
(2) Time and mode of harvesting.
(3) Method of processing after harvesting and storing.
b. Straws of various kinds have been utilized since long as a
maint feed to livestock. Sur straw can be utilized more
efficiently, if it is ensiled or treated by alkali.
c. Crop residues are basically a source of energy. They are
def in protein, minerals and vitamins.
d. Residues of various kinds can be ensiled together or with
a forage crop. Poultry manure or poultry litter may be
used to enrich low quality straws with protein and
minerals.
e. The principle of combination is to: -
(1) Reconstitute material with low moisture content
(55%).
(2) Inc DM content of residues with moisture content of
78% and more.
(3) Improve the texture of some residue (feed intake).
(4) Improve the feed value of the raw material.
f. Moisture content of crop residues: -
(1) Low moisture content (55%). Stalks of maize,
sorghum, cotton, bagasse, all straws, grnut, hulls,
sunflower heads etc.
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(2) High moisture content (78%). Citrus pulp, orange

peels, pineapple cannery waste, sisal waste etc.
g. The principle of silage making from crop residues is the
same as for other crops. But more care has to be taken
as to determine moisture content of residues (Fd test).
Appropriate drainage from the silo must be procured.
Chopping of stalks is must.
h. Addition of urea to reconstituted crop residue is risky
(concentration through effluent in bottom layers).
Application of poultry litter (from peanut hulls, corn cobs
etc.), is of advantage and easy.
j. All silages may be fed according to intake by the animal.
There is no restriction in quantities, though the intake may
not exceed the 25 kg/head/day mark. Prior to feeding,
silages should be analyzed to determine the amount of
protein, minerals and vitamins for which supplementation
are req.
k. Elaboration of feeding plans, which are to incl crop
residues, must take care of the fertility aspect of the soil.
A certain qty of crop residues is req to remain in the fd to
replace organic matter and nutrients, which have been
removed.
l. Mixing of plant material with different dry matter content
and calculation of mix by square-method.
(1) Example 1.
 24

(a) Aval is fresh barseem with a low DM content

(12%) and jowar (sorghum straw with a high
DM content (85%).
(b) A dry matter content of 30% is wanted for
ensiling a mix of barseem and rice straw.
(2) Example 2.
(1) Aval is citrus pulp with a low DM content (8%)
and jowar straw with a high DM content
(90%).
(2) A dry matter content of 28% is wanted for
ensiling a mix of citrus pulp and jowar straw.

24. DISADVANTAGES OF SILAGE: The salient disadvantages of

silage are: -
a. It req silo storage structures which may be costly than hay
making particularly at small farm lvl.
b. Silage is poorer in Vitamin D than hay.
c. About three times more tonnage has to be handled in
comparison with hay.
d. DM losses (5-30 percent) may occur as a result of
prolonged aerobic phase due to poor packing of silage
during its preparation and mgmt.

25. HAY MAKING. Drying forages harvested before

maturity prepare Hay. The haymaking procedure is used to reduce
their moisture content of cut forage to inhibit the action of plant and
microbial enzymes. Hay can be prepared from all types of grasses,
 25

fodder and other green plant materials. The stage at which the plants
are harvested for haymaking is one of the most imp factors
determining the nutritive value of hay. It is always desirable to harvest
the crop at the flowering stage when the nutrient-concentration is
highest. For proper curing of the harvested crop, it should be spread
in the fd and turned once or twice a day until the leaves are dried.
After curing the hay, it should be properly stored to protect it from
sun, rain, and birds. Factors, which can adversely affect the quality of
hay incl using mature, plant material, over drying, storing while the
material is still moist (moisture 15%) and hard weather during hay
making. High moisture content encourages the development of
moulds.

26. The object of haymaking is to reduce moisture in green fodders

to a sufficient degree so that they can be stored without fear of
fermentation losses or spoilage due to mould growth. In that process
the endeavour should be to preserve the max amount of nutrients
possible. The stage of maturity of the crop at the time of cutting is
very imp as far as nutritive value of the hay is concerned. An early cut
means more nutritive value but fewer yields. Late cuttings on the
other hand will result in less nutritive value but more bulk. A
compromise, therefore, has to be struck. A stage when the gain due
to inc bulk no longer could counter balance the loss in nutritive value,
is soon reached. In most of the cases this is the early flowering stage.
The plants should be cut at this stage for the preparation of hay.
 26

27. Properties of Good Hay. The fodder cut at the proper stage
will have the max nutrients and, therefore, will make better hay. Delay
in harvesting fodder for haymaking will make the stems woody and
lignified with the resultant deterioration in the nutritive value. Besides,
a part of the nutrients would have been used up in seed fmn. Thus,
crop cut at the proper stage can make good quality hay. Good hay
will be having a maj proportion of the leaves preserved. The leaves
are richer nutrients compared to other parts. Shattering of leaves
during the process of hay making will, therefore, reduce the quality of
hay. Green colour of hay is an indication of its quality. It means that a
greater proportion of the leaves have been preserved and losses due
to bleaching, leaching, fermentation, etc, have been minimized. It will
be made out of thin-stemmed crops so that it is soft and palatable.
The crop used for haymaking should be free from weeds and
poisonous plants to get good hay. Hay should not have more than 20-
23 per cent moisture when, stored. If there is more moisture
fermentation will take place, generating a great deal of heat.
Ultimately it may lead to spontaneous combustion. Even if it does not
catch fire, the nutritive value would have been seriously affected.
Good hay will be free from dust and mould. It will have a pleasant
aroma, which adds to its palatability.

28. DIFFERENT TYPES OF HAY. Depending on the crop from

which hay is made, they may be cl as legume hay, non-legume hay
and mixed hay. Legume hay is made out of leguminous plants like
Lucerne and other clovers. They are gen rich in proteins, vitamins
and minerals as compared to non-leguminous ones. This hay is
 27

usually fed to young calves in calf-starter rations. The non-

leguminous hay contains less proteins, minerals and vitamins. This
type of hay may be from crops or from grasses. Those made from
green crops like barley or oats are usually rich in carbohydrates.
Mixed hay is made from a mixed crop of leguminous and non-
leguminous plants. Such a crop is gen cut early, as they do not come
to the flowering stage simultaneously. The nutritive value of such hay
will depend on the proportion of leguminous and non-leguminous
plants.

29. Basic Steps in making of Hay. The production of hay

involves the fol basic steps in all the methods of haymaking:-
a. Selection of suitable plant varieties and its cultivation on
good soil with proper care in the form of watering,
fertilization, etc, the seed-rate should be high to ensure
dense stand of the crop which will result in finer stems,
heavier yield and less weeds.
b. Cutting the fodder at the proper stage of maturity, for
Lucerne in the first cut, it is the early bloom stage and in
the second and subsequent it is when one-tenth to one-
forth of the crops are in bloom or when new shoots begin
to head out, for grain crops when grain is in the milk stage
and for cow-pea when pods are half to fully matured.
c. In curing hay the objectives are to preserve max nutrients,
and to remove moisture sufficiently to avoid mouldiness
and spoilage. During curing, shattering losses should be
minimized. In leguminous plants, shattering is more and
 28

special care may be taken to avoid it. Leaves constitute

roughly 50 per cent by wt but contain more than 70 per
cent of the protein and 90 per cent of carotene. Even
under ideal conditions there is loss of nutrients during
curing. But, when temp is too high or when moisture
content has not been kept low enough, severe losses due
to bleaching and fermentation take place. The green
colour of the hay is more or less proportional to the
carotene content. Losses in nutrients due to leaching from
rain are the maj loss when one tries to make hay during
monsoon season. The leaching losses are negligible if the
rain falls just after cutting of the crop. Losses inc with the
advancement of curing if leaching takes place.
d. From freshly cut crop with moisture content of 70 to 80
per cent, hay with the fol moisture content has to be
prepared.
For loose hay 25-28 per cent water
For baled hay 22-25 per cent water
For chopped hay 19-22 per cent water
In order to judge whether hay is properly cured, two
thumb rule methods are aval.
(1)The scrape method. With the nail try to scrape the
epidermis from the stem of the plant. If the epidermis
can be peeled from the stem it is not sufficiently cured.
(2)The twist method. A small amount of the hay is
twisted in the hands. If the stem breaks a little and
 29

no ‘plant juice’ comes out from the twisted stems, the

hay can be assumed to have been cured well.
e. Storing properly. Enough care may be taken while storing
hay to protect it from rain and sunlight.
f. There are four popular methods of haymaking. They are
fd curing, mow curing, artificial drying and pelleting:-
(1) Fd Curing. As the name indicates, cut plants are
cured in the fd itself to make hay. The various steps
in this process incl, any type of mower, or hand
cutting may be used. It is highly desirable to mow in
the same dir. The crop is left there itself in the swath
to dry partially. Time of cutting and the presence of
dew; have only slight effect on the quality of hay.
Hay is dried much more rapidly in the swath than
windrow. Therefore max advantage of swath curing
may be taken to speed up the ops. But after a
certain degree of curing there will be shattering and
bleaching of leaves reducing the nutritive value of
hay considerably. The forage should be left to cure
in the swath until it is wilted sufficiently but before
there is danger of shattering and loss of carotene
due to bleaching action of sun. No definite time can
be assigned for swath curing, as it is dependant on
climatic variables and the nature-and density of the
crop. Roughly the moisture at this time will be 40
per cent. After wilting forage to about 40 per cent
moisture in the swath it is rolled into small loose
 30

fluffy cylindrical bundles known as windrows. This is

preferably done by the side delivery rake or with
hand. It is better to do raking in the morning as dew
makes the hay a little tougher and prevent
shattering. This is the process of making windrows
into bigger heaps after hay had been cured
partially in the windrows. Cocksure even
protected with hay caps where rain and storm
are expected. Due to labour shortage this step is
discarded in many advanced countries. Hay is
completely cured in the windrow. But in countries
like Pak where labour is cheap cocking is
advisable, as it will give better hay with more
carotene content. Pick-up baling directly from
windrow is the most automated system where the
baler attached to a tractor picks up hay in the form
of windrows and bales it. Stationary balers are also
aval where hay has to be carried to the baler.
Where such machines are not aval hay may be
stored as loose bundles.
(2) Mow Curing (Barn Drying). Mow curing refers to
the practice of curing partially dried hay inside the
barns in mows. Heated or unheated air is blown on
to the mows until the moisture is reduced to 20-25
per cent. Swath curing is completed in the fd itself
and when the moisture is 35-40 per cent it is taken
in the barns and placed on the mows. It takes seven
 31

to fourteen days on the mows with unheated air to

cure the hay fully. With heated air it takes less time.
Gen the hay produced in this manner will be
greener and leaner and of a higher quality than fd
cured hay.
(3). Dehydration or Artificial Drying. This is the
process of chopping freshly cut or wilted fodder and
drying it in artificial driers. For the large part, this is
limited to large commercial ops where Alfa Alfa
meal or Alfa Alfa leaf meal for use chiefly as a
vitamin supplement for poultry and swine are
produced. Such hay is consistently of superior
quality.
(4) Pelleting. The hay is made into pellets by a
pelleting machine. This has the advantages of:-
(a)Simplifying haymaking.
(b)Lessening tn and storage space from one-
third to one-fifth.
(c) Inc the density and, therefore, the dry
matter consumption of the animals.
(d)Reduce labour.
(e)Decreasing nutrient losses.
(f) Making automatic feeding of hay possible.
(g)Eliminating dust. But these req costly
equipments and, therefore, the small
farmer cannot afford it.
 32

30. TIME TO CUT FODDER FOR MAKING HAY. The optimum

time to cut is when the maj of crop/grasses are in the flowering stage
in grasses if the head is shaken, the pollen flies about in the air like
fine powder. It is wiser to be on the side of being too early rather than
being too late. As soon as plant flowers, much of the food material
contained in the leaves and the stems begins to be drawn upto the
flowering head, they’re to be stored in the seed. The stems at the
same time become lignified, and consequently less palatable, less
digestible and less nutritious. The earlier, the crop/grass is cut, within
limits, the better will be the hay made. Harvesting should commence
as soon as the danger of hy rain is over, and as soon as the land is
sufficiently dry to make harvesting practicable. In many localities
certain regular break in the monsoon are experienced, and in such
cases the manager should endeavour to make sufficient hay during
these breaks. Where there are large tin-sheds it is a good policy to
empty these before the monsoon. So that any hay made in unsettled
weather may be carried in and stored under cover. Extensive hay
making ops should not be commenced until the danger of hy rain is
over. Fol are different methods of cutting fodder for making hay:
a. Machine cutting. It has been found
satisfactory to organize cutting by machine and
indeed all-harvesting ops on the unit system. Early
in the season when and where it is possible to work
for twelve hours during the day, the cutting is
organized in six-two-hourly shifts. Allotted to each
machine are two bullocks’ drivers and one labourer.
During each shift one pair of bullocks and two to
 33

these men are working with the machine. The third

man is engaged in sharpening the spare knife and
looking after the second pair of bullocks. At the end
of the shift the bullocks are changed and one of the
men on the machine is relieved. Thus during the
day each pair of bullocks will do three shifts of two
hours each and each man four such shifts. No time
is allowed for the mid-day meal, as ample time is
given to each man whilst he is not working on the
mower for this purpose. In case of tractor and vicon
disc mower at least six labourers should be
engaged for collection of harvested fodder/grass
and placing it on drying racks. Another method of
economizing bullocks during the harvest is to
convert hay rakes from double to single bullock draft
on areas of light crops. The unit is placed in the
charge of senior and responsible bullock driver, and
machines and rakes are handed over to the unit at
the commencement of the harvest and remain with
that unit until the harvest is completed. The driver in
charge of the unit is held responsible for the
maintenance and the care of the equipment in the
unit’s charge. The next day’s task for each machine
is measured out and shown to the bullock driver in
charge of the unit during the evening. In a twelve-
hour day and with this organization, when no mid-
day halt is allowed, each machine may be allotted
 34

from 6 to 7 acres, depending upon the wt of the

crop to be harvested. A separate area should be
allotted to each machine. If machines are allowed to
follow one another and the first machine breaks
down, the two-machine fol will also stop, being
impeded by the first. In a hy crop headlands should
not be cut, the machine being thrown out of gear
after cutting the long side of the task. Definite orders
should be issued, laying down the frequency of
oiling and greasing, and a tin of grease and oil can,
should be issued to each machine. At the end of the
shift bullocks and knives should be changed; this
should not take longer than five minutes provided
the organization is running smoothly. A locked box
containing such spare parts as may be easily fitted
should be issued to each unit at the commencement
of the harvest. The key should be in the possession
of the Farm Assistant, who is present on the plot in
sub-charge of the harvest. It is suggested that the
farm workshop should be temporarily
accommodated at some central point on the
farmland, as much delay and consequent loss of
working time will be avoided, and breakdowns can
be at once attended by a mechanic blacksmith,
without the need of calling him from HQ. If
temporary bullock lines drivers can be
 35

accommodated in tents, much valuable time can be

saved in the mornings.

b. Cutting by Hand
(1) The three systems of arranging hand cutting
are: -
(a) Cutting by daily labour.
(b) Cutting by wt.
(c) Cutting by acreage.
(2) From an accounting point of view, and for
many other reasons the second of these is to
be preferred, and resort should not be had to
cutting by daily labour, or by acreage without
some very special reason. Arrangements for
labour should be made well in advance,
particularly when labour has to be imported
from other districts.

31. Hay Making. The fol is the procedure for haymaking: -

a. When green plants are cut for hay making, they may
contain 70 to 75 per cent of water, but this rapidly
decreases as the harvest progresses. Before the fodder
can be safely preserved in the form of hay, the water
content must be reduced to about 15 to 20 per cent. The
problem in Pak, however, is not so much to reduce the
moisture content to this lvl as to prevent excessive drying.
The whole process of haymaking is an endeavour to
prevent the decomposition to which any cut
vegetation is subject in the absence of
specialprecautions, and to prevent the growth of fungus
and moulds. Nutritive value and ultimate palatability
 36

must also be kept in view. Repeated wetting dissolves the

protective waxy material, which covers the stems, allows
water to penetrate into the fodder/grass, and washes out
many of the soluble carbohydrates and other imp
substances, thus robbing the fodder of much of its
nutritive value.
c. Sun and wind are the agencies upon which we rely to
perform the drying process and, although in Pak these
agencies are fairly reliable, season vary and with them
varies the quality of hay made. Hay making req
considerable experience and skill.
d. The difficulties which are to be overcome in making hay
are: -
(1)Long and sometimes hy monsoon which induce very
coarse growth, or alternatively.
(2)The almost total failure of the rains, which means a
very sparse, stunted growth.
(3)The very large areas which have to be harvested, and
the enormous quantities of fodder which have to be
handled. In the absence of adequate organization this
entails a protracted harvest with resultant poor quality
fodder.
(4)The rapid maturing of fodder/grasses as soon as the
rains end when the seed is formed, into which the maj
portion of the feeding value of fodder/grass goes. The
seed falls to the gr and is lost.
e. The 1, 2, 3 Rule and Its Modifications.
 37

(1)In most places early in the season when moisture

content of the grass is high, the 1,2,3 rule should be
employed, that is, Ist day cut, 2nd day make, 3rd day
cock.
(2)This rule is subject to modification and the good
haymaker knows from experience when it should be
modified. When moisture content of the fodder/grass
drops below a certain percentage, and whilst max
temps are still very high, it may be nec to cock
fodder/grass the day after cutting or even on the day of
cutting, particularly if the harvest is protected. When
making hay there is one vital rule; the less the
fodder/grass is handled, the better will be the hay
produced, the fodder/grass is handled, the better will
be the hay produced, in that the leaves of
fodders/grass become so fragile when they dry that
excessive handling will entail the loss of this most imp
part of the hay.
(3)Fodder/grass, after cutting either by machine or by
hand, is left in the swathe and in ordinary weather and
with a normal crop, it should be allowed to lie and wilt
until evening when it should be raked into windrows
the rakes should work across the swathe so that the
length of the fodder/grass comes against the teeth of
the rake. Gen, two or three swathes can be raked into
one windrow, but this will depend upon the heaviness
of the crop. In very hy crops, one swathe may form a
 38

windrow the next morning after the dew is off the

fodder/grass, the windrows should be turned by hand
and towards evening the windrows should be
examined, and if nec, turned again. Fodder/grass
should always be left in windrows should be examined,
and if nec, turned again. Fodder/grass should be left in
windrows during the night, when dew falls, as if spread
thinly over the gr the dew will wet it and spoil its colour.
On the third day if sufficiently dry, the fodder/grass will
be cocked.
e. If rain falls during the harvest, the hay is bound to be
damaged but the extent of this damage depends very
largely upon the manager. Provided the grass is left in
swathes or windrows during rain damage will be reduced
to a min, particularly if the grass is still green. Where
partially dried grass is concerned, however, wetting by
rain very quickly spoils it. Whenever there appears to be a
possibility of getting hay dried sufficiently to put it into the
cock, the swathe or windrow should be turned, but unless
turning and cocking can be done on the same day, it is
better to leave the swathes untouched. During unsettled
weather no more fodder/grass should be cut, than can be
dealt with by the labour aval. The afternoon is gen the
hottest part of the day, so that the fodder/grass turned in
the morning is frequently ready for cocking that evening.
f. The Making and Cocking Unit. The number of the
labourers in the making and cocking unit will depend upon
 39

the wt of the crop. In a normal crop 1 cocker and 8

carriers will deal with 150 to 200 units of grass in the
course of the day. That is to say, they can turn this qty of
grass cut the previous day, and cock this qty of grass cut
the previous day, and cock this qty of grass cut the day
before that, where the 1,2,3 rule is in op. With a crop
yielding 1,000 kgs of hay to the acre, and green grass
yielding 420 units of hay will be cut daily. With such crop
two hay making units of the above size should be
engaged. It will be readily understood that the scantier the
crop the less will be the qty dealt with by cocking units in
the course of the day, as the scantier the crop, the longer
will be the carry to the cock.
a. Cocking.
(1)More damage is done to hay by bad cocking than in
any other harvesting op; it is, however, gen impossible
to stack straight from the windrow. In order to prevent
bleaching and over drying cocks, especially when they
may have to stand for lengthy pds, should be made as
big as possible, because cocked hay is fairly safe from
rain, provided cocks are properly made.
(2)Firstly, they should contain not less than 100 units
except that in a poor crop this is sometimes eco
unsound, owing to the cost of the carriage of the crop a
long distance to the cock. In such cases smaller cocks
should be made, but the hay must be put in the stack
sooner.
 40

(3)Secondly, cocks should be conical in shape, and must

not have round, flat tops, as this offers a greater
surface to sun and wind, which bleach and dry the hay.
A flat-topped cock enables rain to penetrate further
than it would into one with a pointed top. The bottom
of the cock must always be compacted by kicking it in.
This prevents dew wetting the hay lying loose round
the bottom of the cock, which will be absorbed into the
cock. Next the situation of the cock must be
considered. Convenient as it is to have all cocks in
lines, this with a poor crop may entail additional
expense. The main consideration is to have the cock in
the middle of the area, from which the fodder/grass is
to be carried. The importance of making good cocks
cannot be too heavily stressed and provided raking
has been done as explained above, hay in the
windrows will be easy to handle and easy to cock. Hay
should not be rolled or pushed into a heap, but lifted in
tidy pitches with the fork and built, one layer on the top
of another into the cock. In each layer the centre
should be slightly higher than the sides so that the
layers slope down wards and outwards. This helps to
throw off rain and makes less permeable cocks, into
which even hy rain will not penetrate very far. The
importance of early cocking must always be borne in
mind. Little damage will be experienced in Pak from
 41

cocking too soon, and usual inclination is error on the

side of over-drying.
32. General Remarks. The fol needs to be considered in hay
making:-
a. In the course of haymaking, there are three main causes
of loss and damage, which must be avoided as far as
possible. These are, one, the leaves of crops/grasses is
more nutritious, palatable and digestible than the stems,
but unfortunately they are more brittle when dry, which
makes them more liable to loss, when handled
excessively. Therefore, when haymaking turns the
fodder/grass but do not scatter it. Two, Some of the crop’s
valuable food constituents are soluble in water and
therefore, liable to be lost in wet weather at harvest time.
Therefore, protect the fodder/grass by keeping it in
swathes. Three, Excessive exposure to the sun, bleaches
and over dries hay whereby its feeding value is greatly
reduced. This is possibly our biggest problem. Therefore,
keep the fodder/green in swathes and windrows before
cocking, cook the hay as soon as possible, if you cannot
stack make the cocks large and of as good a shape as
possible, in fact reduce exposure to the sun by all means
is in your power.
b. It must be remembered that the object is to make good
quality hay, and the qty of hay produced must always be
subordinated to the quality.
 42

33. THE MAKING OF OAT HAY. Oats grown for hay should
be type, which has fine stems, and abundant foliage. The seed rate
employed should be sufficiently hy to ensure fineness of stem. The
crop should not be irrigated for at least 10 days before harvesting: -

a. Ist Method. There are two methods of making oat

hay the first is only possible on a very small scale as it is
too expensive for prac purpose when several hundred
acres of oat hay have to be made. It is, however, given as
the ideal. The crop is ready to cut when the maj of the
plants have shot the ear, and when the grain first comes
into the milky stage. Cutting should not take place before
10 or 11 0’ clock in the morning, when the dew has dried.
In practice it is sound to arrange, that the labourers
engaged upon cutting the green fodder rations should
harvest the oat hay crop. Cutters should be set to work in
line, making poolas average 1 to 2 kg. Behind the cutters
should be a line of boys, stacking up these poolas. On the
fol morning, one or two poolas should be examined to see
whether heat has been generated. If heat in the poolas is
excessive they should be untied, and spread out thinly
over their khubbars or ties. Poolas must be retied and re-
stocked before evening, and the process of opening them
must be continued daily, whilst excessive heat is being
generated. As soon as it is considered safe to leave the
poolas tied during the day, the only op nec will be to turn
them in stooks, and move the stock on to fresh gr every
 43

day. The making of oat hay is an expensive and lengthy

process, which it is considered, should only be resorted
to, in case of special necessity, or when there is a glut of
green fodder on the Farm, which can be disposed off in
no other way.
b. 2nd Method. The second method is to wait until the crop is
considerably drier that is, just before the stems start to
turn yellow. Cut in this state the grain has not ripened and
will not fall when the oat hay is handled. The best method
is to cut by mowing machines vicon disc mower whenever
possible, if not by hand. In both cases collies then tie up
the oat hay into poolas and stook it. The stooks should
only need turning once. As it is not possible to cut the
crop in one day it may be nec to start a little earlier than
stated above in which case the cut crop must be left lying
on the land for a day turned on the second day and then
tied into poolas and stooked.

34. HAY CURING AND HANDLING PRACTICES. Ist day

Barseem is cut in the morning by tractor operated grass mower. The
moisture content of the fresh crop amounts to 83%. There are rain
showers during and after mowing. The crop is not lifted and turned to
promote airing of plant matter and evaporation of rainwater from the
plant surface. Second day Rain showers continue. Wilting plant
matter is slow. The crop is lifted and turned twice by fork to facilitate
uniform drying. Third day three tripods are set up in the morning and
stacked with the hay crop. The moisture content is 56%. Each tripod
 44

carries about 500 kg of pre dried plant matter. Tripods are set up at
the side of the fd, thus not to effect re growth of barseem after the
first or second cut. Thirteenth day the moisture content of the
barseem crop drying on tripod has dropped to 9.53%. The hay is
removed from the tripod(s) and moved to the final storage site. Under
a thin top layer of bleached plant matter, berseem has kept the green
colour of the hay crop at the time of harvesting. It has a pleasant
odour and has preserved most of its leaves. Baling by baling boxes is
done at moisture content 30% - 40%. Waiting for a lower moisture
content recommended for safe storing (16-20%), will inc losses in
protein and vitamins due to leaf shattering. Bales from feet
compacted hay is of low density and permit quick further drying due
to appropriate airing.

35. Methods of improving the nutritive value of crop residues.

As discussed earlier, poor quality roughages are less digestible
than higher quality ones and hence cannot be efficiently utilized by
animals. Various physical, chemical and biological methods are aval
to improve the digestibility of poor quality roughages. It is beyond the
scope of this presentation to discuss these methods individually. In
view of the prevailing farm condition in Pak very few of the above
listed methods applicable here because of their high cost and difficult
mgmt. Among the physical methods, farms, especially with maize,
sorghum, already practice chopping. Regarding the chemical
methods, ammonia treatment of cereal straw is appropriate in some
situations in Pak and is, therefore, recommended for application.
 45

a. Ammonia Treatment. Ammonia treatment of poor quality

roughages gen improves their digestibility by up to 15%
and at the same time gaseous ammonia is usually used
for ammonisation. In Pak, due to the high cost of gaseous
ammonia the treatment is accomplished by using urea.
The procedure is based on the principle that urea in the
presence of moisture is broken down in to ammonia by
the urease enzyme. The plant material is exposed to
ammonia under sealed conditions for a pd of two to four
weeks which results in the breakdown of some cellulose
bounds, thus improving by exposing the cellulose to
rumen bacteria.

36. CONCLUSION. In this era of changing word to coup with the

req of milk and milk products, it is essential to know about the
composition of fodder and concentrate. There should be no
compromise on the quality of fodder. Conversion of pure quality
roughages and brining the known conventional feed stuff in use and
balancing the rations is the only key of success. The objective of
making hay is to preserve food grown in the summer in order to have
a supply with which to feed stock during the months of the yr when
there is little or no vegetative growth. In Pak where such large area
are sown to wheat which result in aval of white bhoosa during the pd
in which there is extremely limited growth and is represented only by
the short spell b/w end of Rabi harvest (as late May for Barseem) and
early Kharif crops (maize May or Jun). Yrs ago before mechanization
the Army in Pak depended upon, quite substantial areas of
 46

grasslands were irrigated and cultivated intensively and the produce

fed green and any sur to green req saved for hay. Now a day,
however, hay production has been considerably reduced. In the
farms having excessive production, haymaking can effectively be
used and preserved for subsequent use in months of dry seasons.

37. References.

a. Annonymous (1993). Farm cultivation Manual, General

Headquarters, Rawalpindi: 31-55, 80-107.

b. Banerjee, G.C. (2000). Animal nutrition, Oxford and IBH

publishing Company. Pvt Ltd. New Delhi: 41-51.

c. Martin, J. H. and W. H. Leonard, (1964), Principles of

Field crop production, The National Book Foundation,

Islamabad: 291, 400, 477.

d. Mcdonald, P. and C. A. Morgan, (1999). Animal Nutrition,

fifth edition,. Addison Wisely publication, USA: 54-64.

e. McGraw-Hill, (1957), Growing Field crops, McGraw-Hill

Boot Company, USA: 231-256.

f. Miller, E., (1952), Fundamental of Soil Science, New York

John Wiley and Sns, Inc, London: 35, 59, 290, 328.

g. Ranjhan, S. K., (1999). Animal Nutrition, fourth edition,

Vikas publishing house, New Delhi: 151-154.