A CLINICAL OVERVIEW

1
Sympathetic
nervous system
and pain

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 A CLINICAL OVERVIEW

1
A clinical overview of the
autonomic nervous system,
the supply to the gut and
mind–body pathways

LOUIS GIFFORD AND MICK THACKER

Introduction
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is an ‘output’, ‘effector’ or ‘motor’
system (see Gifford 1998b)—i.e. it responds to the demands of the sensory
systems and the central nervous system (CNS) by producing an effect on the
tissues it supplies. There are no sympathetic or parasympathetic sensory
(afferent) fibres as such, although a great many visceral sensory fibres do
travel in nerves like the vagus and splanchnic, which are commonly described
in parasympathetic and sympathetic sections of anatomy texts and often
referred to as ‘sympathetic afferents’ (see discussion of visceral afferents
below).
Since the ANS is an output system, its role in pain states has to be
secondary to its effects on sensory systems (see following chapters).
ANS fibres create their ‘effects’ via electrochemical stimulation of smooth
muscles or glands. Their secretions also produce direct chemical effects on
the tissues they innervate and thus change their chemical characteristics.
Any chemical or physiological tissue changes may in turn be fed back to the
CNS via stimulation of sensory afferent pathways. This is important because
ANS activity has been implicated not only in producing and modulating
nociception and pain, but also as playing a role in the expression and
conscious awareness of emotions (see Meyers 1986). Recent studies show,
for example, that different emotions (anger, fear, disgust, sadness, happiness,
surprise) can be distinguished to some extent on the basis of different
autonomic nervous system responses (like skin temperature and heart rate)
(LeDoux 1998, p 292). We all know that strong emotions are expressed as

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bodily sensations and that ‘gut feelings’ play crucial roles in our emotional
experiences and can have a strong impact on our decision making processes
(Damasio 1995, LeDoux 1998, Damasio 2000).
In their detailed overview of the ANS, Janig and Habler (1999) go out of
their way to debunk the traditional descriptions of the ANS and the view
that it is ‘all or nothing’ and general in its mode of action. In parallel with the
neuroendocrine system, the ANS regulates target organs in order to maintain
the homeostasis of the body. Simply, it adapts, adjusts and co-ordinates
appropriate systems so as to produce the required physiological conditions
for life, which includes, any required physical activity. In this way it is
involved in producing and co-ordinating the necessary physiological
responses for activities like moving, resting, sleeping, feeding and digestion,
sex, pregnancy and nurturing, growth and repair and all extreme responses
relating to threatening and stressful situations. This includes responding to
tissue injury and to pain.

Neocortex

Limbic
system

Hypothalamus

Neuro Autonomic
Skeleto-
endocrine nervous
motor
system system
system
Body
organs External
world

Fig. 1.1 A modified version of Janig and Habler’s model of the integration and
relationships of the brain and body. What it so nicely illustrates are the forward and
back communication links between all levels of the nervous system, the body, and the
environment. Communication is via neuronal, hormonal and humoral pathways.

Adapted from: Janig W, Habler HJ 1999 Organization of the autonomic nervous system: structure
and function. In: Appenzeller O (ed) Handbook of Clinical Neurology Vol 74 (30): The Autonomic
Nervous System Part 1: Normal Functions. Elsevier, Amsterdam

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 A CLINICAL OVERVIEW

ANS activities can be viewed as being governed by the commands it receives

from the modules of the CNS that ‘scrutinise and appraise’ the sensory and
incoming information received (Gifford 1998). Thus, environmental inputs
from sense organs, electrochemical sensory inputs from body tissues and
organs, inputs derived from the immune system and inputs that derive from
the thinking, analysing and planning centres of the brain, all serve to create
specific ANS driving stimuli. Thus, at least in part, the ANS is subservient to
the wishes and desires created in our mind. If you want to get up out of the
chair and go for a walk—the ANS has to organise the physiological backup
and supply networks that support the action demanded.
Figure 1.1, taken from Janig and Habler (1999) and modified slightly,
usefully illustrates where the ANS occupancy of the nervous/homeostatic
systems sits. The model, which is quite like the Mature Organism Model
(Gifford 1998) in that it is ‘circular’—having input, processing and output
elements—nicely illustrates the integration of all elements of the body
including the brain and its higher centres.
The following example may help you/the reader appreciate the role of
the ANS and the importance of models like these to clinical reasoning.
In creation of hunger, ‘body organs’ relay information to the CNS about
the levels of glucose in the blood. Information may be via neural or humoral/
endocrine systems and messengers. From the neural pathway perspective,
it is known that special chemoreceptive sensory nerve fibre endings that
respond to blood glucose levels exist in the pancreas and gastrointestinal
tract as well as in the blood vessels of the third ventricle of the brain adjacent
to the hypothalamus. The ‘sampled’ information is then relayed to specific
regions of the CNS that scrutinise and deal with ‘actions’ relating to hunger
and energy supply. The message is simply—‘energy levels low, please
restore.’ The CNS regions involved in scrutinising and mounting a co-
ordinated response are thought to reside in the hypothalamus, in particular,
the paraventricular and ventromedial nuclei and the lateral hypothalamic
areas (Westmoreland et al 1994). ‘Output’ from these areas may be directed
to the limbic and neocortical areas, creating the sensation of hunger, which
in turn drives food gathering behaviour via the musculoskeletal system and
thence to the ‘external world’ as noted in Figure 1.1.
At the same time:
• Autonomic output activates relevant regions of the alimentary tract in
order to make ready for food intake and digestion.
• Autonomic activity will also stimulate the pancreas and adrenal glands,
both of which are important in the hormonal regulation of glucose and
energy metabolism.
• Autonomic activity will co-ordinate the cardiovascular system so that blood
supply demands may be met from the musculoskeletal system whose
activities are needed to gather food, prepare, eat, and metabolise it.
As the process of food gathering and feeding proceed so the input,
scrutinising, and output systems change their activities in response to the
changing situations.

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It is often said that the sympathetic system ‘kicks into action during
emergencies’. Robert Salposky (1994) adds the (clinically) important caveat
‘or what you think are emergencies’—that underlines the importance of
personal assessment of the situation we find ourselves in. Thus, how the
sympathetic system responds is very much influenced by the emotional,
cognitive and conscious brain—‘our’ interpretation of the situation we are in
is hugely responsible for its activities. If you believe the pain you have signifies
a serious illness or condition you will have a far different ‘sympathetic’ reaction
than if you dismiss the pain and pass it off as trivial. If as a patient you think
that what the therapist is doing to you makes sense and feels right you will
have quite a different response from someone who might be feeling unsure or
even slightly anxious about what is being done to them (see also Chapter 4). It
is probable that a clinician’s most powerful effect on a patient’s sympathetic
system activity is produced via the atmosphere of the therapeutic interaction.
Importantly, this relates more to what the patient actually feels and interprets,
than to what the clinician thinks they should feel or should have interpreted.
The effect of a productive ‘therapeutic alliance’ on the activities of systems
like the ANS should never be underestimated (see the Placebo section in Topical
Issues in Pain 4.)

Autonomic anatomy—from spinal cord out

As discussed, the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are efferent—
just like the somatic motor system they have an ‘effect’ on the tissues that
they innervate. Simply, impulses radiate from the central nervous system to
target tissues in the body. While activity in somatic motor efferent neurones
cause striated muscles to contract, those in the autonomic nervous system
have a wide range of targets and effects. For example, via the sympathetic
innervation of smooth muscles in blood vessel walls sympathetic activity
can alter vessel lumen size and hence alter blood flow; it can cause secretory
glands to be activated or inactivated; and, via secretion of chemicals from
vesicles in its terminals, it can influence the chemical environment, the health
and the healing of the tissues innervated (see Chapters 2 and 3). As well as
having the capacity to have quite massive effects, it also seems that the
autonomic nervous system is capable of acting in a highly specific and
localised way.

The sympathetic system

This section is intended to provide the reader with an overview of a poorly
understood system. Review of classic anatomical texts and overviews by
current leaders in the field of autonomic nervous system anatomy, physiology
and function reveals quite marked discrepancies and inconsistencies. The
reader would be well advised to read some of the papers and texts cited at
the end of this chapter for fuller accounts.

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Fig. 1.2 The thoracic paravertebral sympathetic chain and its relationships

Adapted from: Harati Y, Machkhas H 1997 Spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. In: Low PA
(ed) Clinical Autonomic Disorders 2nd edn. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia

The best known parts of the sympathetic system are the two sympathetic
chains or trunks that extend from the base of the skull to the coccyx. These
two ‘paravertebral’ sympathetic chains lie on either side of the vertebral
column (Figs 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 & 1.5) but may come together and fuse in the sacral
region to form the ganglion ‘impar’. Each chain has about 22 or 23
paravertebral ganglia which contain nerve axons and the cell bodies of
postganglionic neurones. A ganglion is a swelling of a nerve due to the large
numbers of cell bodies it contains. Sympathetic ganglia can be thought of as
communication boxes or relay stations where information in the form of
impulses may be modulated and passed on, even prevented from passing

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Fig. 1.3 The organisation, layout, relations and basic supply of the peripheral
sympathetic system. Dashed lines represent preganglionic fibres, continuous lines
represent postganglionic fibres.

Adapted from: Harati Y, Machkhas H 1997 Spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. In: Low PA
(ed) Clinical Autonomic Disorders 2nd edn. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia

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 A CLINICAL OVERVIEW

Fig. 1.4 The origin and course of the sympathetic fibres to the arm. The diagram also
shows the cervical sympathetic chain, roots and brachial plexus relationships. The
preganglionic fibres from T2 and T7 are dotted because their supply to the upper limb
is uncertain. The preganglionic fibres from T1 and T8 are dashed to show they are
present but not involved in the upper limb sympathetic supply. The cervical roots have
no preganglionic fibres and the spinal nerves of the plexus that derive from these roots
only have grey rami communicantes. SCG: superior cervical ganglion; MG middle cervical
ganglion; SG stellate ganglion.

Adapted from Grieve GP 1994 The autonomic nervous system in vertebral pain syndromes, Fig.
20.4. In: Boyling JD, Palastanga N (eds) Grieve’s Modern Manual Therapy 2nd edn. Churchill
Livingstone, Edinburgh

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TOPICAL ISSUES IN PAIN 3

Fig. 1.5 The sympathetic supply to the lower limbs following the principle of Fig. 1.4.
The parasympathetic supply is also illustrated.

Adapted from Grieve GP 1994 The autonomic nervous system in vertebral pain syndromes, Fig.
20.5. In: Boyling JD, Palastanga N (eds) Grieve’s Modern Manual Therapy 2nd edn. Churchill
Livingstone, Edinburgh

on, or simply allowed to pass straight through unchecked. Many of the

paravertebral ganglia relate to the cord segment from which they derive
(Fig. 1.3). However, there are fewer in number than there are segments in
the spine as some of the ganglia are fused. In the cervical region there are
normally three ganglia—the most rostral being the superior cervical ganglion,
below this is the middle cervical, and lowest of all, the stellate ganglia (Figs
1.3, 1.4). The stellate ganglion consists of the fused inferior cervical ganglion

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with the first thoracic ganglion. There are usually four ganglia in the lumbar
part of the chain and four or five in the sacral region.
The spinal cord only connects to the sympathetic chain via the 14 spinal
nerves that exit from the intervertebral foramen between T1 and L3 (i.e. via
roots T1–L2) (Figs 1.3, 1.4, 1.5). Hence its ‘outflow’ is said to be ‘thoraco-
lumbar’. This means that all the peripheral sympathetic nerve pathways to
the target tissues and organs of the body have their origins in the spinal cord
segments of T1 to L3 (but see Grieve 1994, p 297).
Although it has segmental origins, the SNS, to quite a marked extent,
actually defies the traditional description of a segmental system (see below).
Thus, sympathetic supply to the head and neck has its origins from the nerve
roots of T1–T5 (mostly upper 2 or 3); the upper limb from roots T2–T6 (but
possibly as far as T7 or T8) (Fig. 1.4); the thorax from roots T3–T6; the abdomen
from roots T7–T11 and the lower limbs from roots T10–L2 or L3 (Fig. 1.5).
This supply may be an important consideration when investigating the
consequences of thoracic and high lumbar nerve trunk and nerve root injuries
or irritations. What can be applauded is the neat fact that these vital control
supply lines exit and have their origins from parts of the spinal column that
are relatively rarely injured and well protected.
The sympathetic supply involves a two neurone pathway from the spinal
cord to the target tissues of the periphery (Fig. 1.6). These neurones are termed
preganglionic and postganglionic respectively.
There is some evidence that the sympathetic ganglia contain inter-
neurones, termed ‘SIF’ (small intensely fluorescent) cells that may serve
modulatory functions, i.e. they aid in the integration or processing of
incoming and outgoing information (see Grieve 1994, p 299).
The preganglionic neurones of the sympathetic system have their cell
bodies in the lateral grey horn (Fig. 1.7), (also known as the intermediate
zone, or interomediolateral cell column) of the spinal cord. As already noted,
the cell bodies of these neurones are only found in segments T1 to L3
(Westmoreland et al 1994) of the spinal cord. Its segmental origins are worth
noting since the sympathetic system innervates just about every tissue of
the body via these spinal segments.
Myelinated preganglionic fibres pass away from the spinal cord via the
ventral root and into the spinal nerve for a short distance, then via the white
rami communicantes they join the sympathetic trunk.
Having reached the sympathetic trunk, the preganglionic sympathetic
fibres may do several things (see Fig. 1.7). Some synapse with postganglionic
cells in the paravertebral ganglion that lies at the same level from which they
exit the vertebral column (nos 1, 3 & 4 in Fig. 1.7). Others pass through their
segmental ganglion and run up or down to more distant paravertebral ganglia
where they terminate and synapse with postganglionic fibres (no. 5 in Fig.
1.7). Note how this defies the idea of ‘segmentalism’. It is commonly stated
that there is a pre to postganglionic neurone divergence ratio of anything
from 1:1 to 1:196 (see Grieve 1994, Williams et al 1995). In other words one
preganglionic fibre may terminate with only one postganglionic fibre, or
may have a massive terminal aborisation connecting to a great many. The

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Fig. 1.6 The basic arrangement of the peripheral components of the sympathetic
and parasympathetic systems. Note the long to short relationship of the pre to post
ganglionic sympathetic fibres and the opposite for the parasympathetic fibres. Cranial
outflow of the parasympathetic system not illustrated here. Classic neurotransmitters
and receptor types for each system are illustrated: A-r adrenoreceptor; mr muscarinic
receptor; n nicotinic receptor; N-a noradrenaline/norepinephrine; Ach acetylcholine.

reality is that there is anatomical convergence (many preganglionic fibres going

to one postganglionic fibre), as well as anatomical divergence (the opposite).
Importantly, anatomical convergence/divergence does not mean that all the
connections are necessarily always functional. Just as elsewhere in the
nervous system, there is a huge potential for a spread of effect or a focus of
effect that is dependent on continuously fluctuating inhibitory and excitatory
modulatory controls. This attribute allows for both expansion and exquisite
refinement of autonomic outputs and argues against the blind acceptance of
the generalised fight and flight-related function of this system. The possible
modulatory role of ganglionic inter-neurones as well as branches from
returning visceral sensory afferents (see below) may be important here.
What we do know is that the SNS tends to be a functionally ‘divergent’
system—where small numbers of preganglionic fibres have the potential to
influence larger numbers of postganglionic fibres—hence the potential for a
single ‘action’ message producing far reaching effects on target organs and

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Fig. 1.7 Diagrammatic representation of the various ‘pathways’ the sympathetic

system can take from the thoracic cord to the periphery. Refer to text for details of nos
1–5.

Adapted from: Harati Y, Machkhas H 1997 Spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. In: Low PA
(ed) Clinical Autonomic Disorders 2nd edn. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia

tissues. The fact that there may be provision for control of this divergence
helps explain a degree of specificity, too.
In a similar way to that described in the CNS, the potential for excessive
reactivity and spread of effect due to maladaptively altered modulatory
controls, or even loss of control, having far reaching effects on sympathetic
activity seems a reasonable possibility. Clinically this may provide a possible
explanation for reports of localised patches of skin colour change, or localised
sweating or swelling disturbances that spread to larger areas over time.
Many preganglionic fibres pass right through the sympathetic chain and
paravertebral ganglia without synapsing on postganglionic fibre cells at all
(no. 2 in Fig. 1.7). These continue out of the sympathetic chains in the
splanchnic nerves to reach remote ganglia situated nearer their target organs.
These more distant ganglia are often called ‘prevertebral’ ganglia (Figs 1.3,
1.7). Well known prevertebral ganglia supplied via the thoracic splanchnic
nerves are the celiac, superior and inferior mesenteric ganglia. These ganglia

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are situated in the abdomen anterior to the abdominal aorta close to the origin
of the celiac and mesenteric arteries. Via postganglionic fibres they form the
celiac plexus that innervates abdominal, pelvic and perineal organs. While
the thoracic splanchnic nerves derive from branches arising from the lower
eight thoracic paravertebral ganglia, the lumbar splanchnic nerves derive from
branches arising from the upper three lumbar paravertebral ganglia.
One special group of preganglionic neurones pass directly to their target
tissue (see Fig. 1.3). These innervate the adrenal medulla, seemingly omitting
the ‘postganglionic’ component of the pathway. In fact, the adrenal medulla
resembles nervous tissue more than it does a typical endocrine gland. Its cells
behave like neurones and derive embryologically from postganglionic
sympathetic cells. These adrenal medulla cells secrete adrenaline (epinephrine)
and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) into the circulation in response to SNS
activity that derives from situations that are exciting or stressful, or that are
anticipated to be exciting or stressful. This is an excellent example of how
mind influences body and can easily be translated to the clinical encounter!
Postganglionic fibres have their cell bodies in the autonomic ganglia
described above. Their unmyelinated axons radiate to the target tissues. Those
postganglionic fibres that have their origins in the ganglia of the paravertebral
sympathetic chain follow three main courses:
1. Pass back into the spinal somatic nerve trunk via grey rami
communicantes (no. 4 in Fig. 1.7). Some apparently may pass back in via
the white rami communicantes, too (Janig & Habler 1999). From there,
the fibres travel in the peripheral nerves to supply the target tissues, for
example, the blood vessels (vasomotor), and sweat glands (sudomotor)
in the territories of the nerves they accompany. Thus, postganglionic axons
from the cervical ganglia innervate upper extremity tissues by entering
the cervical spinal nerves of the brachial plexus deriving from C4–C8,
and following the peripheral nerve trunks (see Fig. 1.4). Grey rami
communicantes in the neck may pierce and travel through the longus
capitis or the scalenus anterior muscles—a fact that may be an important
consideration in whiplash injury (see Thacker 1998). Clearly, if these grey
rami are injured it may mean the loss of sympathetic supply and control
to blood vessels and tissues of the arm.
2. Pass to blood vessels in the neighbourhood of the sympathetic trunk (no.
3 in Figs 1.7 and 1.2, 1.4, & 1.5) and supply these or travel along with
them to reach more distal targets. For example, axons from the superior
cervical ganglion innervate the pupil of the eye and provide sweat gland
innervation of the face by following the course of branches of the internal
and external carotid arteries to get there.
3. Pass to visceral organs. For example, postganglionic fibres whose origins
are in the lower cervical and upper thoracic ganglia innervate the heart
via the cardiac plexus to produce cardiac stimulation, or reach the
tracheobrachial tree via the pulmonary plexus to control bronchodilation
(we need more efficient lungs when we are about to perform physically,
e.g. as in competition or combat).

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Postganglionic fibres may pass to higher or lower levels within the

sympathetic trunk before leaving via the above routes. For example, although
we traditionally describe the efferent supply to the arm as arising from C4–
C8 it may be from as low as T7 or T8 if we trace the sympathetic supply back
to the roots and spinal cord.

Clinical implications
Some clinically related points:
1. It is important to emphasise that all peripheral nerves contain sympathetic
post ganglionic fibres and that they enter the nerves via grey rami
communicantes.
This means that those somatic nerves that derive from nerve roots above
T1 (including many cranial nerves) and from roots of L3 and below, still
receive their supply via grey rami communicantes but will have no white
rami communicantes (Figs 1.4 & 1.5). Think about it and you realise that all
the cervical nerve roots and those roots below L3 will have no sympathetic
neurones. The sympathetic nerve fibres join the spinal nerves outside the
intervertebral foramen. This may well be an important clinical/diagnostic
consideration. For example, it may explain the common clinical finding that
classic acute and sub-acute nerve root disorders in these regions show no
signs of classic ‘sympathetic abnormality’ when compared to patients with
symptoms attributable to nerve injury beyond the root level, or from levels
where roots contain sympathetic fibres. It has been suggested that the
tortuous routes taken by sympathetic fibres may in itself present a greater
potential for trauma and irritation (Pick 1970).
2. As stated earlier, the cervical ganglia contain preganglionic fibres that
may have their origins from nerve roots as low as T8.
This means that injuries or irritations of nerve roots in the upper and
middle thoracic regions can have effects in the arms and head as well as in
the viscera and somatic tissues more locally. Clinical investigations of upper
extremity oedema, skin health, changes in circulation, changes in temperature
or sweating must consider possible root origins in the thoracic spine.
3. The major sympathetic vasoconstrictor supply to the upper limb arteries
derives from roots T2 and T3.
The vasoconstrictor supply reaches the upper limb arteries via branches
from the brachial plexus. This beautifully illustrates the complex anatomical
routing of the sympathetic supply—from spinal cord, to ventral root of T2
and T3, into the ventral ramus, out via the white rami communicantes into
the sympathetic chain—then synapsing with postganglionic fibres that course
into the brachial plexus via grey rami communicantes before continuing on
in the peripheral nerves to their vascular destinations. Changes in skin
temperature and circulatory perfusion of the arm associated with

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musculoskeletal disorders like the chronic regional pain syndromes (CRPS I

and II) may well relate to modest nerve injuries or irritations whose origins
are in the upper thoracic regions.
Many postganglionic fibres that derive from the stellate ganglion supply
the vasoconstrictor and sudomotor supply to the head; secretory fibres to
the salivary glands; the pupil dilator muscles and muscles in the upper and
lower eyelids.
Recall ‘Horners syndrome’ that results from destruction of this ganglion.
Horner’s syndrome is characterised by constriction of the pupil, drooping
of the upper eyelid (ptosis), enophthalmos (recession of the eyeball within
the orbit) and absence of sweating on the face and neck. It is advisable for
clinicians to seek out information relating to the face and eyes following
significant neck traumas like whiplash.
Patients who have had simple tissue injuries, nerve injuries, spinal injuries
or sprains/strains and some patients with symptoms classified as nerve root
irritations quite often report symptoms and signs that are puzzling and not
easy to explain. Knowledge of the complex innervation and workings of the
sympathetic supply to the head, arms and legs can greatly help us, and often
the patient too, to understand the possible origins of odd and understandably
worrying symptoms. Common examples include: those related to
temperature changes, changes in circulation, skin coloration, abnormal
localised sweating, apparent and actual feelings of swelling, skin changes,
visual disturbances, and dry mouth. Skilled clinicians may well ask about
these types of symptoms in appropriate cases—and in so doing help to
reassure the patient that what they describe is quite logical and reasonable
when known anatomical features are taken into consideration.
Clinicians should also be on guard against an assumption of neural
pathology when these types of symptoms are reported. For example it is
well known that some patients with chronic pain syndromes demonstrate
increased levels of somatic awareness. Patients are often anxious about their
condition and their pain, more especially if they have been given an
inadequate examination and explanation by those who the patient feels
should know. The result can be that the patients’ attention becomes
increasingly focused on sensations from their body, many which are either
normal but are interpreted as abnormal or else relate to the physical
manifestations of their distress. Clinicians are urged to be aware that
symptoms of distress/anxiety often present in musculoskeletal tissues—for
example many people when they are stressed get pain across the base of the
neck and shoulders or in the low back.
In thoracic spinal injuries and presentations thought to have origins in
the thoracic spine it is worth considering the SNS supply to the viscera and
legs, and hence the potential for dysfunction in the relevant organs and
tissues. Here again, enquiries about digestive, excretory and sexual function
may be appropriate.
The sympathetic supply to the lower limb has its origins from T10, T11,
T12 and L1–L2 occasionally L3 segments of the spinal cord. These spinal

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levels may be justifiably considered as possible sources in patients reporting

‘sympathetic’ effects in the lower limbs.
In all cases where the label ‘sympathetic’ symptoms is a possibility, great
caution is advised in jumping to conclusions about pathology, pathological
sources, symptom mechanisms and interventions. There is insufficient
supportive evidence to pinpoint blame on the SNS unequivocally (see
Chapters 2–5).
The effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity on target organs
are summarised in Table 1.1.

The parasympathetic system

The traditional concept of the parasympathetic system is that it has an
opposite and antagonistic effect to sympathetic activity on the organs and
tissues innervated. However, Janig and Habler (1999) indicate that this state
of affairs is the exception rather than the rule. In their overview of both
systems (see Table 1.1) they state that:
• Most target tissues react only to one of the systems—the pacemaker cells
of the heart are the exception.
• A few organs react to both—e.g., the iris, heart and urinary bladder.
• Most effects of both systems are excitatory, inhibition being rare.
Where there is reciprocal effect of the two systems on the target cells, it
can usually be shown either that the systems work synergistically or that
they exert their influence under different functional conditions. Two examples
serve to illustrate this:
a) the opposite actions of sympathetic and parasympathetic systems on the
size of the pupil is a consequence of the separate target cells supplied by
each system – i.e. they go to different muscles;
b) fast changes of heart rate during changes of body position and emotional
stress are generated via changes in activity in the parasympathetic neurons
to the pacemaker cells; the sustained increase of heart rate during exercise is
mainly generated by activation of sympathetic neurons supplying the heart.
Because the parasympathetic system’s supply to its target tissues and
organs is via four cranial nerves and nerves that have their origins in the
second, third and fourth sacral nerves, the parasympathetic system is said
to have a ‘craniosacral outflow’ (Figs 1.8, 1.5). Like the sympathetic system,
the parasympathetic pathway consists of two neurones—a pre and
postganglionic, with synapsing occurring between the two in
parasympathetic ganglia. But unlike the sympathetic system, which mostly
has short preganglionic and long postganglionic fibres, the parasympathetic
system has very long preganglionic fibres. The postganglionic fibres tend to
be short and derive from many very small ganglia that lie very close, or
actually in, the target tissues. The ratio of pre to postganglionic fibres is
between 1:15 and 1:20. Figure 1.8 summarises the supply.

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Table 1.1 Effects of activation of sympathetic and parasympathetic neurones on

autonomic target organs. (Adapted from Janig & Habler 1999)
Organ and organ Activation of Activation of
system parasympathetic sympathetic
nerves nerves
Heart muscle Decrease of heart rate Increase of heart rate
Decrease of contractility Increase of contractility
(only atria) (atria, ventricles)
Blood vessels
Arteries
In skin of trunk and limbs 0 Vasoconstriction
In skin and mucosa of face Vasodilation Vasoconstriction
In visceral domain 0 Vasoconstriction
In skeletal muscle 0 Vasoconstriction
Vasodilation (cholinergic)
In heart (coronary arteries) Vasoconstriction
In erectile tissue Vasodilation Vasoconstriction
In cranium Vasodilation (?) Vasoconstriction
Veins 0 Vasoconstriction
Gastrointestinal tract
Longitudinal and circular muscle Increase of motility Decrease in motility
Sphincters Relaxation Contraction
Capsule of spleen 0 Contraction
Urinary bladder
Detrusor vesicae Contraction Relaxation (small)
Trigone (internal sphincter) 0 Contraction
Reproductive organs
Seminal vesicle, prostate 0 Contraction
Vas deferens 0 Contraction
Uterus 0 Contraction
Relaxation — depends on
species and hormonal state.
Eye
Dilator muscle of pupil 0 Contraction (mydriasis)
Sphincter muscle of pupil Contraction (miosis) 0
Ciliary muscle Contraction (accomodation)
Tarsal muscle 0 Contraction (lifting of lid)
Orbital muscle 0 Contraction (protrusion of eye)
Tracheo-bronchial muscles Contraction Relaxation (probably mainly
by adrenaline)
Piloerector muscles 0 Contraction
Exocrine glands
Salivary glands Copious secretion Weak mucous secretion
Lachrymal glands Secretion 0
Nasopharyngeal glands Secretion
Bronchial glands Secretion ?
Sweat glands 0 Secretion (cholinergic)
Digestive glands (stomach, pancreas) Secretion Decrease of secretion or 0
Mucosa (small, large intestine) Secretion Decrease of secretion or reabsorption
Pineal gland 0 Increase in synthesis of melatonin
Brown and adipose tissue 0 Heat production
Metabolism
Liver 0 Glycogenolysis, glucongeogenesis
Fat cells 0 Lipolysis (free fatty acids in
blood increased)
β-cells in islets of pancreas Secretion Decrease in secretion of pancreas
Adrenal medulla 0 Secretion of adrenaline and
noradrenaline
Lymphoid tissue 0 Depression of activity (e.g. of
natural killer cells)

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 A CLINICAL OVERVIEW

Some key nerves that contain parasympathetic innervation:

Oculomotor supply (cranial nerve III). The preganglionic fibres travel in
the oculomotor nerve to the ciliary ganglia. Short postganglionic fibres supply
the muscles of the eye and control lens focusing via the ciliary muscles.
Facial parasympathetic supply (cranial nerve VII). The facial nerve sends
preganglionic fibres to two major ganglia—the pterygopalatine and the
submandibular. The pterygopalatine postganglionic fibres supply glands in
the lining of the mouth and nose and the tear glands. They also supply
vasodilatory and secretory input to arteries, veins and glands of the face,
nose, mouth, tongue, eyes and cerebrum. The postganglionic innervation
deriving from the submandibular ganglia gives rise to a stimulatory supply
to the submandibular and sublingual glands (salivary).
Glossopharyngeal parasympathetic supply (cranial nerve IX). Preganglionic
fibres run to the otic ganglia that via its postganglionic fibres supplies the
parotid gland. Some postganglionic neurons may also supply blood vessels
of the jaw, the cerebral circulation and sweat glands around the lips.
Vagus parasympathetic supply (cranial nerve X). This dramatic nerve leaves
the skull via the jugular foramen with the same dural sleeve as the
glossopharyngeal and accessory nerves and descends into the abdomen. Its
efferent parasympathetic supply is summarised in Figure 1.8.
Sacral parasympathetic outflow. Preganglionic fibres pass from the spinal
cord segments S2–S4 to the ventral rami of the nerve roots. The fibres then
pass within the roots down the spinal canal and out of their respective ventral
foramen on the sacrum where they join to form the various branches and
nerves of the sacral plexus. Parasympathetic supply leaves the sacral plexus
as the pelvic splanchnic nerves. These nerves join the hypogastric plexus
that derives from the pelvic part of the sympathetic chain. The sacral
parasympathetic fibres supply the distal colon, rectum, bladder, prostate,
kidney, sex organs and external genitalia. (Fig. 1.8)
Those readers who wish to know more about urogenital nerve supply
and urogenital pain syndromes in men and women are advised to consult
Wesselmann’s work (Wesselmann 1999, Wesselmann 2000).

Neurotransmitters and receptors of the ANS

The nervous system specialises in sending information—fast. Fast
transmission of information involves impulses as a result of action potentials
along the length of the axon. Where axons end they form synapses with
other neurones or communicate with their target tissues via ‘neuroeffector’
junctions. The fast electrical message that arrives at the end of the axon
produces its effect by stimulating the release of chemical messenger agents
called neurotransmitters (see Fig. 1.6).
In the autonomic nervous system the peripheral pathway involves two
neurones and therefore a single synapse between the dendrites of the

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TOPICAL ISSUES IN PAIN 3

Fig. 1.8 The organisation, layout, relations and basic supply of the peripheral
parasympathetic system. Dashed lines represent preganglionic fibres, continuous lines
represent postganglionic fibres.

Adapted from: Harati Y, Machkhas H 1997 Spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. In: Low PA
(ed) Clinical Autonomic Disorders 2nd edn. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia

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 A CLINICAL OVERVIEW

preganglionic neurones and the ganglionic cell body of the postganglionic

neurones (see Fig. 1.6). Preganglionic neurones of all sympathetic and
parasympathetic neurones are said to be cholinergic because the
neurotransmitter they liberate following the arrival of an action potential
is acetylcholine. Acetylcholine then diffuses across the synaptic cleft and
binds to receptor molecules on the cell membrane of the postganglionic
cell body. This receptor binding process causes adjacent ion channels to
open and a flow of ions to occur across the cell membrane. The resultant
flow of ions across the cell membrane gives rise to a change in membrane
voltage which in turn leads to the formation of a post synaptic action
potential that then forms the impulse radiating to the nerve ends of the
postganglionic fibre in the target tissues. The predominant acetylcholine
receptor molecules in the postganglionic cell membrane are called nicotinic
receptors, so named because the excitatory effect can be imitated by locally
applied nicotine.
The end terminals of the postganglionic nerve are often termed neuroeffector
junctions. Here, the junctions of sympathetic and parasympathetic systems differ
in the chemical transmitters they secrete.
All postganglionic neurones contain large numbers of varicosities
(‘bags’ containing the neurotransmitters) strung along the axon
branches where they are in contact with the target organ tissue. The
chief sympathetic postganglionic neurone transmitter substance is
norepinephrine (noradrenaline)—hence the sympathetic system in
general is described as adrenergic. The parasympathetic neurone, on
the other hand secretes acetylcholine—hence the term cholinergic.
In the case of the sympathetic system, noradrenaline is released in to the
tissues and causes its effects there via noradrenaline receptors expressed on
the tissues it supplies. These receptors are usually referred to as
‘adrenoreceptors’ and there are many ‘subtypes’ now known.
Adrenoreceptors may be found:
• On the cells of the tissues innervated.
• On any immune cells that may be present.
• On smooth muscle cells in local vasculature.
• On any sensory cells in the area, for example nociceptors.
• On the sympathetic terminals themselves—hence noradrenaline may be
released by the sympathetic terminal and then act on it to produce further
activity.
This ‘self stimulation’ is termed an autocrine effect. For example, there is
now a good body of research demonstrating that released noradrenaline acts on
adjacent adrenoreceptors on the postganglionic terminals to cause the production
and release of prostaglandins that may cause nociceptor sensitisation or even
pain (see Levine & Reichling 1999; see also Chapters 2–4).
An important principle for the clinician is to appreciate that any
transmitter chemical like noradrenaline can only have an effect on a target
tissue if active and relevant receptors for the chemical are present. Appreciate

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TOPICAL ISSUES IN PAIN 3

also, that chemical agents that activate the receptors are called ‘agonists’
and that ‘antagonists’ block the receptors and hence prevent their activity.
Phentolamine, discussed in Chapter 4, is an example of an adrenoreceptor
antagonist commonly used in the diagnosis and management of
sympathetically maintained pain.
Readers interested in a more detailed account of the neurochemical
organisation of the autonomic nervous system are advised to consult Milner
et al (1999).

The enteric nervous system—the brain

of the gut
The enteric nervous system is peculiar to the gastrointestinal tract and consists
of a network of nerve cells and fibres embedded in its walls. It is considered
to be a semiautonomous system with specific ‘programmes’ for motor
responses, such as peristaltic reflexes and regional rate of contraction via its
pacemaker systems (Camilleri 1997).
It consists of two major plexuses, the myenteric (Auerbach’s) and the
submucous (Meissner’s) plexuses. There are also plexuses of nerve-fibre
bundles in the muscle layers, mucosa, subserosa and around arteries. It is
surprising to consider that there may be as many nerve cell bodies in the gut
as there are in the spinal cord, about 100 million!! Further details can be
found in Camilleri (1997).
According to Camilleri (1997), the current concept is that the enteric nerve
complex has integrative sensory, interneurone and motor systems that can
function independently of sympathetic and parasympathetic input from the
CNS. It is believed that there are ‘hard-wired’ modules that detect the
chemical and physical condition and contents of the gut, process the
information in well established inter-neurone circuits and then mount
appropriate motor responses involving control of secretory tissues and organs
as well as muscular activity. Inputs from the CNS via the parasympathetic
and sympathetic systems are thought to modulate the response patterns,
and may even be able to ‘select’ particular responses to suit conditions
elsewhere. CNS control is via the ‘excitatory’ parasympathetic vagal pathway
on the one hand, and the sympathetic pathways that function to inactivate
and inhibit gut muscle and digestive activities on the other.
The clinical message is that when under stress, threat or when life gets
exciting, gut ‘activity’ and digestion is inhibited or even shut down—since it
wastes vital energy that would otherwise be useful for survival. During stress
our digestive secretions dry up (water conservation) and peristalsis halts.
Diarrhoea associated with acute stress indicates however that one end of the
system is active! From an evolutionary perspective (see Sapolsky 1994) this
short lived event is a very adaptive strategy: first, clearing out the lower
bowel (and bladder too) lightens the load to enable escape/more efficient
action in the face of physical threat and second it makes you far less palatable
to any predator due to the noxious smell and rather unsightly mess! The

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 A CLINICAL OVERVIEW

detrimental effects of ongoing stress are likely to include negative effects on

bowel function—hence conditions like irritable bowel syndrome (reviewed
in Chaitow 2000) that often occur concurrently in patients with chronic pain
disability.
In times of low stress levels the gut is left unhindered to function
efficiently. Patients with ongoing pain states, or who have pain states that
are a source of high concern, are often highly distressed. The impact of this
kind of ongoing and unresolved stress response on gut function and gut
health is likely to be negative.

The visceral sensory system—the

‘autonomic or visceral afferents’
The viscera contains terminals of sensory neurones and very definitely has a
sensory innervation (see e.g. Janig & Habler 1995). Visceral afferents may be
mechanosensitive—being activated by various types of mechanical distortion
(think bladder, gut, lungs and blood pressure) or chemically, for example
picking up the osmolarity of the blood, or the concentrations of glucose.
Some afferents may only be excited when the tissues are inflamed and
therefore signal noxious events. Interestingly, vagal afferents innervating
the liver may signal information in relation to toxins/infections picked up
from the blood and as a result mediate general and protective sickness
behaviours which includes a generalised increase in physical sensitivity (i.e.
hyperalgesia) (Watkins et al 1995, Pennisi 1997, Sternberg & Gold 1997,
Watkins 1997). It is certainly common to feel physically stiff and generally
uncomfortable when you are suffering with an infection or are feeling unwell.
Minor knocks and bumps can often be sickeningly painful. It seems a
reasonable evolutionary tactic for the brain to put the somatic sensory systems
on higher alert when we are in a more vulnerable state. Consider also that
many patients in pain are well below ‘par’ and may already be nudged
towards a hyperalgesic state. Add to this the toxic effects of medications and
further shifts may occur.
Afferent fibres from the viscera travel to the central nervous system in
the nerves and nerve plexuses described above for the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems. Thus, visceral afferents are found in the vagus
and glossopharyngeal nerves and possibly other cranial nerves; also they
are found in the second, third and fourth sacral nerves and in the thoracic
and upper lumbar spinal nerves. Visceral sensory fibres can be divided into
three types:
1. Visceral afferents that project to the spinal cord (Fig. 1.9). Like their
somatic counterparts these visceral sensory fibres have their cell bodies
in the dorsal root ganglia and their central terminals in the outer lamina
of the cord dorsal horn. These ‘spinal’ afferents travel from the viscera
mainly in the splanchnic nerves and amount to only 1.5–2.0% of all spinal
afferents that have their cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia (Janig &

43
TOPICAL ISSUES IN PAIN 3

Habler 1995). Clearly, the viscera has a relatively poor sensory supply
when compared to the skin, where the supply is vast, or the deep somatic
domain, where it is more modest than the skin, but still significant
compared to the gut. As discussed below visceral primary afferents may
send collateral branches to sympathetic postganglionic efferents in the
prevertebral ganglia.
2. Visceral afferents that travel to the CNS via cranial nerves and terminate
in appropriate brain nuclei. For example, central endings of afferents
travelling in the vagus nerve mainly terminate in the nucleus of the solitary
tract (NST) that lies in the brain stem. Ritter et al (1992) state that 80–85%
of nerve fibres in the vagus nerve are afferent fibres.
Just like somatic sensory fibres, there are several functional subtypes of
spinal and cranial visceral afferents. These are discussed in relation to
visceral pain in the section following.
3. ‘Enteric’ visceral afferents (Fig. 1.9). These afferents lie in the walls of the
gut and communicate with enteric interneurones and motor neurones as
well as sending branches to prevertebral ganglia where they synapse with
postganglionic fibres of the autonomic system.
Visceral primary afferents continually sample the state of affairs in their
target organs. Hence information about such things as the contents of the
gut, bladder, colon, and the chemistry of the blood may be relayed centrally
for processing and the generation of appropriate responses. Higher centres
and ‘consciousness’ may become involved; we well know that situations in
the viscera often promote physical action, such as when our bladder or bowel
is full, when we are dehydrated, when we are hungry or satiated, and when
sexually aroused. However, for many of the mundane operations that go on
in the gut there is little need for conscious or subconscious analysis. Much
activity and control goes on far nearer the tissues themselves.
Several ‘levels’ of integrative control have been identified:
1. At the lowest integrative control level sits the enteric nervous system of
the gut. Here, the neural organisation illustrates its isolated ‘sample —
scrutinise — response’ capabilities and hence, its special autonomy.
2. A second integrative level consists of a local control loop involving
postganglionic autonomic fibres. Here, collateral branches of centrally
projecting primary afferents as well as projections from visceral afferents
of the enteric system (Fig. 1.9) synapse with postganglionic sympathetic
fibres in the prevertebral ganglia. Hence, the formation of an ‘extraspinal’
reflex feedback loop. Regulation at this level is said to be via ‘extracentral
reflexes’ since they can operate without involving the CNS, though they
may well be influenced by modulating central inputs. These reflexes are
thought to be important in control and regulation of gut motility
(enhancement of peristalsis, storage function), regulation of fluid
(excretion), as well as in protection. ‘Protection’ or protective reflexes that

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 A CLINICAL OVERVIEW

Fig. 1.9 The enteric nervous system and the afferent and efferent pathways between
the gut and the spinal cord. Note how the postganglionic fibre activity can be modulated
by visceral afferents going to the spinal cord as well as by gut visceral afferents that
send branches to the postganglionic cell body.

Adapted from: Janig J, Habler, HJ 1995 Visceral-autonomic integration. In: Gebhart GF (ed) Visceral
Pain. Progress in Pain Research and Management Vol. 5. IASP Press, Seattle

inhibit intestinal reflex activity might occur in relation to such things as

inflammation of organs, peritonitis, overdistension or obstruction. Similar
reflex pathways may also operate in the gall bladder and pancreas (Janig
& Habler 1995).
3. Visceral primary afferents are important for higher level integration
involving reflex segmental spinal and cranial pathways as well as higher
CNS processing and outputs.

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TOPICAL ISSUES IN PAIN 3

Effects of deep tissue pathology on

somatic tissues and skin—can visceral
disease precipitate musculosketal
disorder?
In 1893 Henry Head (1893), an English neurologist, described how diseases
of internal organs produced changes in skin areas that shared the same
segmental origins. He described changes in sensitivity of the skin to touch,
pressure and temperature that appeared in the acute phases of the disease
and disappeared with recovery. For example, in pathology of the gall bladder,
hyperalgesia can be found in skin derived from segments T6–T10. Later,
Mackenzie (1909) observed hypertonic alterations and hypersensitivity in
muscles belonging to the same segment as diseased organs. Some common
sites of pain referral are reviewed in Figure 1.10. Proponents of connective
tissue massage (CTM) have long considered the value of recognition and
treatment of zones of abnormality in tension in the skin and subcutaneous
layers relating to visceral dysfunction (reviewed in Luedecke 1969, Ebner
1975, Gifford J & Gifford L S 1988).
Clinical observations and research into disorders like the complex
regional pain syndromes that have long been associated with ‘autonomic’
signs and symptoms document quite marked changes in ‘secondary’ tissues.
Hence ‘referred’ signs and symptoms of pain, tenderness (hyperalgesia/
allodynia), altered tissue health, swelling, sweating, temperature, joint
function, bone health and so forth.
It seems that lesions in nerves or pathology/dysfunction of visceral organs
can lead to secondary symptoms and secondary physical changes, and hence
pathology, in tissues that are related via innervation and connectivity. In
support of this, there is even evidence that ‘visceral disease can actually be
predicted from examination of trophic changes in skin and its appendages,
subcutis, joint capsules, and fascia…with a probability of about 70%’ (Janig &
Habler 1995.)
Multiple theories abound (see Janig & Habler 1995), most focusing round
the concept that these secondary changes stem from the negative impact of
ongoing activity in viscero-sympathetic reflex arcs. Research summarised
by Janig and Habler (1995) demonstrates that increased visceral afferent
activity from a cat’s bladder will cause a segmentally related increase in
activity of sympathetic efferents involved in skin sweating and muscle
circulation and a decrease in activity in sympathetic efferents responsible for
skin circulation. Thus, noxious input due to excessive distension of the
bladder, or experimental inflammation of it, causes increased activity in all
visceral afferent fibre types. This includes nociceptors. This activity bears a
direct relation to activity in the segmentally related sympathetic efferent fibres
that control sweating and circulation. The findings show that noxious input
produces a significant decrease in circulation to muscles, an increase in
sweating and an increase in circulation to the skin. The research also

46
 A CLINICAL OVERVIEW

demonstrates significant ongoing activity for several hours after the

provocation abates. It is not difficult to envisage that ongoing activity of
days or weeks could lead to prolonged changes in circulation leading to
trophic and other changes in the tissues affected. For example, prolonged
increases in circulation to skin could result in oedema and prolonged
circulatory deprivation to muscle could cause muscle fibre degeneration,
dysfunction and impairment.
The disciples of a holistic approach to pain and health have been around
for a long time; the evidence that they are right is only now emerging. One
system’s health or ill-health appears to have the potential to significantly
impact traditionally unrelated tissues.

Fig. 1.10 Shaded areas show zones of pain referral felt when organs indicated are
diseased/inflamed.

Adapted from: Westmorland et al 1994 Medical Neurosciences 3rd edn. Little Brown, Boston

The autonomic innervation of the immune

system, stress and mind-body links
One area of recent interest to mind body pathways and the science of
psychoneuroimmunology is the finding that tissues where immune cells
develop have a rich autonomic innervation (Watkins 1997). This innervation
has been given little attention by pain researchers, yet it may be of
considerable relevance.

47
TOPICAL ISSUES IN PAIN 3

Thus, sympathetic and parasympathetic fibres are found in bone marrow,

the thymus gland and lymphoid tissue and organs generally. It seems that
the activity of both branches of the autonomic nervous system have the
capacity to modulate the maturity and activation of the immune cells,
especially in those areas like the airways and gut that are exposed to antigens
and allergens. Watkins (1997) states: ‘Although the exact role of autonomic
innervation in regulating immunity has not been clearly defined, there is
sufficient evidence to suggest that autonomic nerves are capable of regulating
almost all the cells involved in inflammation.’
There is some evidence to suggest that age-related dysfunction of the
ANS, including that to the lymphoid tissue, may be responsible for the age-
related decay in immunological function (see references in Watkins 1997 p.
17). One message is that we should look after our ANS for as long as we can!
Since the activity of the ANS is powerfully influenced by perception of
our circumstances, by emotions and by our mood state, this physical linking
to the immune system holds interest to those who embrace the need for
multidimensional models of health and disease.
The scientific scrutiny of mind-body links and pathways is gathering a
great deal of useful and interesting information for the multidimensionally
comfortable clinician. For example, in discussing the evidence for cortical
control of immunity Watkins (1997 p.17) reports:
• That the effects of stress, perception and personality on immunity have
all been extensively investigated (see below.)
• That there appears to be a relationship between cerebral dominance and
allergy and auto-immune disease—with left handers having a 11.5-fold
increase in incidence of self-reported allergy.
• Lesions of the cortex produced by electrolytic ablation have shown that
immunity is suppressed with lesions to the left cortex and enhanced with
ablations to the right!
Stress is known to activate central nervous system pathways that mediate
the activity of the sympathetic adreno–medullary (SAM) axis—hence
increasing levels of circulating adrenaline, as well as the hypothalamic–
pituitary–adreno-cortex (HPA) axis that results in increased levels of the
circulating steroid cortisol. It has long been postulated that ongoing stress,
and hence the effects mediated by these hormones or via the direct pathways
detailed above, may have detrimental effects and even produce or promote
somatic disease processes as well as changes in mood (e.g. Selye & Tuchweber
1976, Selye 1978, Sapolsky 1994, Martin 1997, Watkins 1997). While
fluctuations in stress are a normal part of everyday life and something that
evolution has catered for, ongoing stress with no let up is not.

Some points
Stressful situations activate the SAM axis resulting in the fight or flight
response and associated feelings of anger and anxiety.

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 A CLINICAL OVERVIEW

In contrast, activation of the HPA axis promotes submission, and the

emotions of defeat and despair. Typically, chronically stressful situations
promote a vacillation between anger and despair as individuals fight to gain
control over their situation or give up, believing they have no control. ‘These
cycles of anger and despair promote the production of a destructive range
of catabolic hormones, injurious to a number of bodily systems, not just the
immune system’ (see Watkins 1997, p11).
Animal studies have demonstrated immunosuppresive effects of a wide
range of stressors, for example, isolation, separation, overcrowding,
introduction of an aggressive intruder, restraint, cold, noise and inescapable
foot shock (see Watkins 1997). It seems relatively easy to see the possible
links to patients who suffer with ongoing pain syndromes.
Chronic stress has been shown to impair wound healing in humans. Death
of a spouse suppresses the immune system for 2–6 weeks. Traumatic marital
separation has been shown to be even more immunosuppresive than
bereavement. However, Watkins (1997), states that ‘current opinion now
believes that minor chronic stress, termed “microstress,” is more
immunosuppresive than single life events such as bereavement.’
In contrast, animal studies have shown increased survival of animals
exposed to influenza virus who also underwent restraint stress. The way a
stressor is perceived, or the ‘will to survive’ may have a huge impact on
whether there is a positive or negative impact on the immune system or
other potentially destructive processes that stress can precipitate. Clinically,
the key may be to improve patients’ ability to cope, and increase their feelings
of control and of self-esteem. If patients are unable to learn the skills that are
needed to pick themselves up, and if they continue to see their situation as
hopeless, then successful outcomes are unlikely. It seems that the ‘will to
survive’ or at least a positive belief in one’s ability to cope, get control, or
overcome a situation may have a significant multidimensional health
promoting impact.
With response to stress, there is a great inter-individual variability and a
marked spectrum to consider. What scares you or makes you feel cautious
may not necessarily have the same effect on the next person. But also, what
scares you now may not scare you in the future, and what doesn’t bother
you now, may well do so in years to come. Past experiences, our inborn
temperament and our learned and instinctive coping strategies may all have
a part to play in how we cope right now.
There is some evidence that psychosocial disruption in utero, postnatally,
and during childhood can have long-term consequences on the immune
system. Early emotionally traumatic years may manifest in poorer coping
responses to stress in adulthood. Psychological factors, such as our coping
strategies, have been shown to be as important as the characteristics of the
stress itself, in determining the immunological consequences of stress and
the outcome of disease. For example, coping strategies and psychological
factors have been shown to be significant predictors of who dies from acute
asthma, in addition to predicting the progression of viral infections, AIDS,

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TOPICAL ISSUES IN PAIN 3

cancer and heart disease. On a positive note is the evidence that some coping
strategies can minimise the detrimental effects of stressful life events; that
positive emotional states can enhance immunity (for all references see
Watkins 1997), and that some people’s poor coping strategies can be shifted
into more helpful and health promoting ones.
Clinicians are urged to consider the potentially massive positive psycho-
physiological impacts that can be achieved as a result of treatment encounters,
and that the ANS is regarded as a major efferent pathway linking mind and
body.

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