Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working

With Figures of Speech

Lesson Introduction
Psalm 98:8 beckons to nature, “Let the rivers clap their hands; let the mountains sing in unison.” I
have spent a lot of time outdoors in nature while hiking and camping, but I have never seen rivers or
mountains doing such things as these. Of course this verse was not meant to be taken so literally.
Most of us would immediately recognize that these are figures of speech in this verse.
Figures of speech permeate the psalms. In fact they are so prominent in the book of Psalms that it
would be safe to say we must know how to recognize and interpret them if we are to rightly
understand what the Holy Spirit is saying through God’s Word. Those who penned the psalms were
very expressive in their writing, and thus chose to use figures abundantly. Figures of speech add
vividness of expression, and they make the words of the text come alive. Figures also serve to touch
our emotions and make us feel what the author wanted to convey.
There are a great many types of figures of speech, far more than we could possibly study in one short
lesson. The purpose of this lesson, therefore, will be to acquaint us with some of the more common
figures that you are apt to encounter in your reading of the psalms, and to help you better understand
how figures are to be interpreted.

Lesson Outline
Topic 1: Introduction and Figures of Comparison
Simile and Metaphor
Hypocatastasis
Personification
Anthropomorphism and Zoomorphism
Topic 2: Figures of Substitution
Metonymy
Synecdoche
Topic 3: Other Significant Figures
Merism
Hyperbole
Idiom
Irony
Symbol
Topic 4: Figures in Psalm 91

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 1

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
 Understand how to recognize and identify figures of speech that are commonly used in the
Psalms
 Better interpret the intended meaning of a figure of speech that you might encounter when
studying the Psalms
 Be familiar with a resource tool to use in the future when working with figures of speech

Preparing for the Lesson

Kate Kutlow was sitting in the student lounge waiting for Tom to show up for their appointment.
They had agreed to meet just before the next session of the Psalms course. Tom, who was rarely on
time for anything, seemed to be particularly running late today. In fact Kate was nearly finished with
her first cup of coffee when Tom suddenly rounded the corner and came bounding up to the table.
Kate was not entirely pleased that Tom had nearly missed their appointment completely, but she was
at least happy to know that someone else had developed a fascination for studying the Psalms as
she had.
Tom had no sooner sat down before he blurted out, “Kate, do you think that God has wings?” Kate
gave Tom one of those strange looks, and cautiously replied, “I don’t think so. Why would you be
asking the question?” Tom, hoping to justify himself, fired back, “Last night I was meditating on
Psalm 57. Right there in the first verse, David said, ‘In the shadow of Your wings I will take refuge
until destruction passes by.’”
Kate now understood where Tom was coming from. Hoping not to sound too condescending, she
calmly spoke, “Tom, that’s a figure of speech. It doesn’t mean that God really has wings like birds
do. The psalmist is simply trying to convey to us that by drawing close to God, we can find protection
with Him.” Sensing a teachable moment with Tom, she continued, “There are figures of speech all
through the psalms. Furthermore, there are many different types of figures. Some are used for
purposes of comparison, while others are used as substitutes for other words or phrases. We can
discern the presence of a figure whenever words are used in a way that violates their normal meaning
or context. Then we must ask ourselves what the literal reality is that the author wished to convey by
this figure. By studying the different types of figures found in the psalms and knowing how they are
used, we can develop a sensitivity for this mode of communication.” Kate concluded by reminding
him, “Tom, if we are to correctly interpret the psalms, we must first learn to correctly interpret figures
of speech.”
Hoping that Kate would give him a little credit regarding the use of figures, Tom answered her,
“Your tongue is like a sharp sword, and you have dug a pit in which to lower me among the lions.”
Kate grimaced, “Tom, stop trying to sound so poetic. It’s just not you! Let’s go to class.”

Topic 1: Introduction and Figures of Comparison

One of the contributions of the Protestant Reformation was a renewed emphasis on a proper
interpretation of Scripture, or what is called the literal-historical-grammatical hermeneutic. On the
one hand, we want to interpret the Scriptures in a literal way (taking into account historical facts and
the proper grammar of words and sentences), rather than trying to read a meaning into the text or
interpreting the text allegorically. Yet even a literal interpretation of Scripture must make allowance

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 2

for the use of figures of speech. These two ideas are not really in conflict with one another. Behind
every figure of speech, there is a literal idea that the writer wishes to convey, and that is what we are
seeking to understand.
When God says through the prophet Isaiah, “All people are like grass” (Isa 40:6), He is not making a
biological statement about man. The reader intuitively understands this. Rather, God is making a
point about how transitory man’s life is. Like grass that quickly comes and quickly goes, so is man’s
time here on earth—from God’s eternal perspective. Since figures of speech are part of our everyday
normal way of conversing, we could say that the goal of interpretation is to identify the plain or
normal meaning. This takes into account such things as figures of speech, symbols, and divinely
intended types. So we should strive to interpret the Bible literally, but literal interpretation should be
defined as the normal meaning of words, giving due recognition to figures of speech.
A crucial question then is this: How do we recognize figures of speech? Most of the time (as in the
case of Isa 40:6), this is quite apparent. At other times, however, it may not be so evident. In general,
however, two conditions should be met:
(1) There must be some ascertainable point of deviation from ordinary usage of a word or
phrase. That is, the word or phrase is being used in an abnormal way.
(2) There must be a literal rendering available for the expression in question. That is, behind the
word or phrase used as a figure, there must be some literal idea that the author wished to convey,
and that is discernible to the reader.
The following discussion will introduce us to some of the more common figures of speech that one is
likely to encounter in reading the Psalms. An appendix that offers a more detailed treatment is
provided for those wishing to do further study. At the conclusion of this lesson, we will identify some
of the figures in Psalm 91 and observe how they contribute to the author’s message.

Simile and Metaphor

Two of the more common figures that you will encounter are the simile and metaphor. Both are
figures of comparison. The simile will use the word “like” or “as” to make the comparison between
two unlike things that have something in common. A good example of this can be seen in Psalm 1:3:
“he is like a tree planted by flowing streams” (emphasis added). This figure is used to describe the
blessed man who walks uprightly and delights in God’s Word.
To properly understand the point of the figure, we need to do three things. We need to identify the
subject, identify the thing compared, and discern the common element. In regard to Psalm 1:3, we
have the following:
 Subject: He (i.e., the blessed man)
 Thing compared: A tree planted by flowing streams
 Common element: Position close to a source of life and nourishment
 Point of the figure: The man who walks uprightly and meditates regularly in God’s Word is
drawing on a source of spiritual strength from God (which explains why he bears fruit and
prospers).
Remember, the key to recognizing a simile is the word “like” or “as.”
Before answering Question 1, carefully read the following words from Psalm 42:1-2:
As a deer longs for streams of water,

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 3

 so I long for you, O God!
I thirst for God, for the living God.
I say, “When will I be able to go and appear in God’s presence?”
QUESTION 1
Did you notice the simile in the first colon of verse 1? Match the following:
Analysis Identification
Subject Experiencing the agony of not having one’s desire met
Thing The psalmist (being oppressed by enemies and cut off from the temple worship),
compared expresses his intense longing for communion with God.
Common A deer thirsting for streams of water
element
Point of the I (i.e., the psalmist)
figure

The figure of a metaphor is very similar to a simile. Once again we have an explicit comparison of
two unlike things that have something in common, yet a metaphor does not use the words “like” or
“as.” Rather, the two things compared are joined by an equative verb (for example, “is” or “was”).
We can see a clear example of this in Psalm 23:1: “The LORD is my shepherd.” Rather than saying
He is like a shepherd, the text makes the comparison by simply equating him with a shepherd. Of
course, the end result is the same. Once again, we need to analyze the figure:
 Subject: The LORD
 Thing compared: A shepherd
 Common element: Attributes of caring, protecting, and providing for
 Point of the figure: The psalmist is comforted by his relationship to the LORD, who
cares, protects, and provides for him.
QUESTION 2
Carefully read the following words from Psalm 84:11: “For the LORD God is a sun and shield; the
LORD gives grace and glory; no good thing does He withhold from those who walk uprightly”
(NASB). The initial clause of this verse has a double metaphor. The LORD is both a sun and a shield.
(Select all that apply.)
A. In comparing the LORD to a shield, the point is that He is a protector.
B. In comparing the LORD to a shield, the point is that God’s children should be prepared to
fight.
C. In comparing the LORD to a sun, the point is that He energizes us for spiritual service.
D. In comparing the LORD to a sun, the point is that He is the source of blessing.

Hypocatastasis
Another type of figure implying a comparison is called “hypocatastasis.” Here, only one of the
elements of the comparison is mentioned. This element is simply declared to be something else, thus
implying the comparison. Notice the following example from Psalm 22:16 (emphasis added):
Yes, wild dogs surround me—a gang of evil men crowd around me.

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 4

Here we have to ask the question, Does David, the psalmist, want us to understand that a literal pack
of wild dogs has encircled and threatened him? The context makes it clear that we are not to
understand his words literally. Notice the following colon that mentions “a gang of evil men.”
Therefore this is a figure comparing his enemies to “wild dogs.” Also note that the words “like” or
“as” are not used (as in a simile). Also, two things are not equated, using a word like “is” or “was” (as
in a metaphor). Now let’s analyze the figure:
 Subject: Unstated (but identified from the context as his enemies)
 Thing compared: Wild dogs
 Common element: Attacking, ferocious, dangerous
 Point of the figure: The psalmist feels threatened by his enemies who ferociously harass and
attack him.
A word of caution: The figure of hypocatastasis will sometimes be difficult to differentiate from a
metonymy and synecdoche (see discussion to follow). A hypocatastasis does involve the substitution
of one word (or words) for something else—as do metonymy and synecdoche. However, with a
hypocatastasis, the emphasis is on the comparison that is implied.
QUESTION 3
In Matthew 16:6 we read, “‘Watch out,’ Jesus said to them, ‘beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and
Sadducees.’” What type of figure do we have in this verse?

QUESTION 4
What is the point of the figure in Matthew 16:6?
A. Jesus is comparing the Pharisees to yeast, because they were multiplying so rapidly.
B. Since yeast is found in every home, Jesus was making the point that the religious leaders
were commonly found everywhere.
C. Jesus was comparing the sacrifices offered by the religious leaders to yeast, as a way of
warning people not to participate in them.
D. Jesus was comparing the teaching of the religious leaders to yeast, in order to make the point
that their teaching quickly spread and influenced others. But its powerful influence must be
resisted.

Personification
Sometimes an inanimate object may be given human characteristics (or actions) or be described in
human-like ways. This can apply not only to inanimate objects, but also to abstract ideas, concepts,
and animals. Psalm 35:10 is a good example of a personification:
All my bones shall say, “O LORD, who is like You?” (literal translation)
Obviously the bones of our body do not speak; they do not make words. Rather, bones provide a
frame for our flesh, organs, and other body parts. Yet here they are portrayed as speaking, as being
personified. In this particular example we have a double figure. Some would view the phrase “all my
bones” as constituting a figure of substitution (a synecdoche), representing the whole person. Others
might see an implied comparison. Because bones are hard and strong (at least in our youth), they
easily represent strength. Hence the psalmist was saying, “with all my strength (or with all my being),
I declare that there is no one like the LORD.” (Although he states it as a question, this is really a

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 5

rhetorical question that implies a confession.) In fact the NET Bible interprets the figure for us rather
than rendering the words literally: “With all my strength I will say, ‘O LORD, who can compare to
You?’”
Another example of personification is in Psalm 137:5:
If I forget you, O Jerusalem, may my right hand forget. (literal translation)
This psalm was written during the period of exile when the Hebrew people were in Babylonia. In this
verse the author spoke about his right hand forgetting. In reality our minds may forget, but not our
hands. The author is speaking about his right hand losing its skill.

Anthropomorphism and Zoomorphism

The Scriptures sometimes speak of God in ways we would not expect. At times God may be
represented in the form of man, or with human attributes. In such cases we have a figure known as
“anthropomorphism” (from the Greek word anthrōpos meaning man). Notice Psalm 33:18:
Behold, the eye of the LORD is on those who fear Him. (literal translation)
In this verse, God is depicted as having human features, namely, an eye. The point is not that the
LORD has an eye, but that He takes notice of us. The NET Bible translated the verse, “The LORD
takes notice of his loyal followers.” The following list may be helpful in discerning these
anthropomorphisms in Scripture:
 His face denotes His presence
 His eyes denote His awareness
 His ears denote His attentiveness
 His nostrils denote His anger
 His heart denotes His moral intentions
A similar figure of speech is one called a “zoomorphism.” In this case God (and sometimes man) is
represented in the form of or with the attributes of the lower animals. Psalm 63:7 provides a classic
example:
For You have been my help, and in the shadow of Your wings I sing for joy. (literal
translation)
In this verse God is depicted with wings, although in reality He does not have wings. If we think of a
large bird that protects its young under its wings, we can begin to grasp the author’s point. There is
protective care for the one who seeks the nearness of God.

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 6

QUESTION 5
Read the following verses and try to match the verse with the appropriate figure of speech. (Italics are
used to clarify which words you should focus on.)
Verse (author’s own literal translations) Figure
Psalm 31:2 – “Incline Your ear to me; rescue me quickly.” Metaphor
Psalm 18:2 – “The LORD is my rock and my fortress and my deliverer, my Simile
God, my rock, in whom I take refuge.”
Psalm 114: 3-4 – “The sea looked and fled; the Jordan (river) turned back. Hypocatastasis
The mountains skipped like rams, the hills like lambs.”
Psalm 17:8 – “Keep me as the apple of the eye; hide me in the shadow of Zoomorphism
Your wings.”
Psalm 1:4 – “The wicked are not so, but they are like the chaff which the wind Personification
drives away.”
Psalm 57:4 – “My soul is among lions; I must lie among those who breathe Anthropomorphism
forth fire, the sons of men whose teeth are spears and arrows.”

Topic 2: Figures of Substitution

The figure of hypocatastasis involves a substitution of one word for another (e.g., lions for enemies in
the example above). In that case, however, the emphasis is more on comparison. Many times we have
a substitution of one word or phrase for another, but without emphasis on comparison. This topic will
introduce you to two common figures of substitution: metonymy and synecdoche. They can be easily
confused, so they must be studied carefully.

Metonymy
A metonymy involves the substitution of one word for another closely associated with it. Usually this
will involve a noun, but sometimes it can also be a verbal action. The word that is the figure will be
an attribute of another word, or it will suggest another word (e.g., crown for royalty). Notice the
following example from Leviticus 26:6:
…and no sword will pass through your land. (literal translation)
In this case the word “sword” is an intended substitute for another word. The author is really trying to
say that war will not come upon the land as a result of an invading army. More exactly this is a
metonymy of cause for effect. That is, the word “sword” is the cause, and “war” is the effect. The
figure of metonymy is a broad category of which there are four basic subgroups.
Metonymy of cause for effect. In this type of metonymy, the cause is stated but the effect is intended
(as in the example above). Here is another example from Psalm 5:9:
There is nothing reliable in what they say; . . . their throat is an open grave; they flatter with their
tongue. (NASB)
The author uses the word “throat,” but he intends something else, namely, their speech. David is
talking about the wicked and the evil things they speak about. Their speech is destructive, just as

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 7

destruction is associated with a grave. So, “throat” is put for speech, the throat being the organ that
causes or enables speech.
Metonymy of effect for cause. In this case the effect is stated but the cause is intended (the reverse of
the above). Psalm 51:8 is a good example:
Make me to hear joy and gladness. (literal translation)
Joy and gladness are emotions. One cannot hear them, although one can hear sounds coming from a
person who is joyful. Yet in this verse in Psalm 51, David is hoping to hear God’s assurance of
forgiveness that will bring him joy and gladness. So, joy and gladness are the effect that is put in
place of the cause (forgiveness).
Metonymy of subject for attribute/adjunct. In this type of metonymy, a word (subject) is put in place
of another that is an attribute or adjunct of it. Psalm 23:5 is an example:
You prepare a table in my presence, before my enemies. (literal translation)
Is David really speaking about a table and that’s all? No! The word “table” is substituted for
something associated with it, namely, a feast. The words table and feast are associated, since a feast
would be set on the table. So the word “table” (the subject) is substituted for the word “feast” (an
adjunct of it).
Metonymy of attribute/adjunct for subject. This is the opposite of the
preceding example. Now the attribute or adjunct that pertains to some subject
is put for the subject itself. Genesis 49:10 serves as a good example:
The scepter will not depart from Judah,
nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet.
A scepter, of course, is a staff or baton borne by a sovereign as an emblem of authority. Yet this verse
is not really making a prophecy about any literal scepter. Rather, the verse is speaking about the
ruling authority within the covenant nation that will remain with the tribe of Judah. So this is a
metonymy in which an item that is an adjunct (in this case, a scepter) is put in place of the subject
itself (namely, the ruling authority). Genesis 49:10 is a prophecy that is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus
Christ. Being a descendant of David, Jesus was born of the tribe of Judah. He will one day inherit a
kingdom and rule over all.
In Psalm 72:9 we see another example of a metonymy of attribute/adjunct for subject. In this case,
however, we have a verbal action put in place of another:
Before him the coastlands will bow down, and his enemies will lick the dust.
In this case, the appearance of a thing is put for the thing itself. That is, the real subject is being
prostrated and humbled. The idea “to lick the dust” signifies this. We could analyze the figure in this
way:
 Subject: Being made prostrate in humility
 Words substituted: “Lick the dust”
 Common element: Made low and humbled; subject to
 Point of the figure: The psalmist predicts that the king will completely triumph over his
enemies—those who oppose his rule. They will be completely humbled and made subject to
him.

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 8

Psalm 72:9 is also a prophecy that finds fulfillment in the Lord Jesus Christ. Just as the book of
Revelation predicts, He will one day return in glory, and all those who oppose Him will be humbled
and subjected to Him.
QUESTION 6
The following verse, Psalm 20:1, contains a metonymy in which an attribute or adjunct is substituted
for the actual subject. What is the actual subject for the words in italics? “May the LORD answer you
in the day of trouble; may the name of the God of Jacob set you (securely) on high” (literal
translation).
A. An angel of God
B. The name “I AM”
C. Yahweh (His personal name)
D. God Himself
QUESTION 7
Read the following verse from Psalm 7:3. Then choose the best answer that describes the subject. “O
LORD my God, if I had done this; if there were iniquity in my hands” (literal translation).
A. This is a metaphor, and David is comparing what he has done to iniquity.
B. This is a metonymy of attribute for subject: David is speaking about some deed he might
have done that would be regarded by God as iniquity.
C. This is a metonymy of cause for effect: David’s iniquity has caused him to do wrong.
D. This is a personification: David’s iniquity is personified as being in his hands.

A more extensive presentation on “Figures of Speech” is placed in the Appendix at the end of the
course. You can use this in the future when you need help analyzing figures of speech.

Synecdoche
A synecdoche is similar to a metonymy in that it involves a substitution of one word (or concept or
phrase) for another. With synecdoche, however, the words involved have a closer association. We can
say that they are related generically; they are of the same genus. This happens, for example, when a
part of something is specified but the greater whole is intended. Psalm 24:3-4 is an example.
3 Who may ascend into the hill of the LORD? And who may stand in His holy place?
4 He who has clean hands and a pure heart. (NASB)
The psalmist has raised the question about who is qualified to appear at the Lord’s holy place (i.e., in
Jerusalem). The requirement (he answers) is to have clean hands and a pure heart. In this verse, two
parts of the body are mentioned, hands and heart. Yet the psalmist is not limiting the cleanness to
these only. He really means the purity of the whole person. So in this example we have the part of

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 9

something put for the whole. Yet the hands, heart, and whole person are all of the same genus,
namely, a human being. So this is a synecdoche rather than a metonymy.
Distinguishing metonymy and synecdoche. The key thing to look for in trying to distinguish these two
figures is to observe whether or not the words are related generically. Let me illustrate.
With metonymy, the words/concepts are of different genera.
Psalm 23:5 You prepare a table before me in the presence of my enemies. (NASB, emphasis
added)
By a “table,” the psalmist means a feast. Yet “table” and “feast” are not of the same genus. One
is edible, while the other is not.
With synecdoche, the words/concepts are of the same genus. Matthew 6:11 illustrates this
Give us this day our daily bread. (NASB, emphasis added)
The Lord does not mean bread only; rather He means our daily food (of all sorts). But in this
case, “bread” and “food” are of the same genus, namely, that which is edible.
There are four broad categories of synecdoche:
Synecdoche of general for specific. In this case a more general word is substituted for a more specific
word. We have an example in Psalm 145:21:
And all flesh will bless His holy name. (NASB, emphasis added)
The psalmist means a specific kind of flesh, namely, that of human beings. So the point is that all
mankind is to bless (or praise) God’s name.
Synecdoche of specific for general. This is just the reverse of the preceding. A more general
word/concept is intended than the one expressed in the text. Psalm 44:6 is an example:
For I will not trust in my bow; nor will my sword deliver me. (literal translation)
The point that the psalmist is making is that he will not rely on human weapons—not just a bow or
sword, but any weapon of human making. So here we have a specific type of weapon put in the place
of the more general category of weapons.
Synecdoche of the whole for the part. In this case, a word/concept representing the entirety of
something is put in the place of a portion of it. An example is 1 Samuel 1:22:
But Hannah did not go up, for she said to her husband, “I will not go up until the
child is weaned; then I will bring him, that he may appear before the LORD and stay
there forever.” (NASB, emphasis added)
In this verse Hannah was referring to her son serving in the LORD’s tabernacle. Yet there is no way
he could literally do this forever. At some point he would die. So what she really means is Samuel’s
whole life. Hence, we have a word representing the whole of time (forever) put in place of a
word/concept that is a lesser part of it (his lifespan).
Synecdoche of the part for the whole. This is the reverse of the preceding. Notice this example from
Psalm 87:2:
The LORD loves the gates of Zion more than all the other dwelling places of Jacob.
The psalmist is not trying to restrict the LORD’s love merely to the city gates. He means the whole
city of Zion. Thus God has a special love for Jerusalem above all the other cities of the country. So a
part of the city (the gates) is put for the entire city.

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 10

QUESTION 8
Study the following verses, each of which contains a synecdoche (take note of the words in italics).
Then match the verse with its proper category.
Verse (author’s own literal translation) Figure and Category
Psalm 143:2 – “Do not enter into judgment with Your servant, for Synecdoche of the whole
there is not righteous before You any living.” for the part
Psalm 106:6 – “We have sinned with our fathers; we have committed Synecdoche of general for
iniquity; we have behaved wickedly.” the specific
2 Samuel 12:10 – “And now a sword shall not depart from your house Synecdoche of specific for
forever.” general
Psalm 102:11 – “My days are like a lengthened shadow; and I wither Synecdoche of the part for
away like grass.” the whole

Topic 3: Other Significant Figures

There are many more types of figures of speech than space allows for in this brief study. However,
there are a few more common ones that we ought to be acquainted with.

Merism
A merism involves two words or concepts that are used together to express the totality of something.
These two words will typically be contrasting parts or two extremities. A classic example is seen in
Psalm 139:2:
You know when I sit down and when I get up;
even from far away you understand my motives.
Here the psalmist referred to the time when he sat down and then to the time when he got up. These
words represent the extremities of time for the day. But the psalmist is not saying that God knows
him only at those particular moments of the day. Rather he is saying that God knows him at these
times and at all times in between these two. In other words God knows his every action at every
moment of the day.

Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a deliberately exaggerated statement for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect.
With hyperbole, more is said than is literally meant. Notice this example from Psalm 40:12:
My sins overtake me so I am unable to see;
they outnumber the hairs of my head so my strength fails me. (emphasis added)
The psalmist seems to feel overwhelmed by his own sins. Although they may be very numerous, he is
exaggerating their extent when he says that they outnumber the hairs of his head. But even though he
exaggerates their number, he still has a literal point to make, namely, that he senses how numerous
his sins are. Because of his multiplied sins, even his strength is weakened.

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 11

Idiom
Sometimes figurative words become a standard or common expression of a culture that we call an
idiom. This usually involves a phrase in which the collective meaning of the words is strikingly
different from their individual meaning. An example would be “sons of God,” an idiom for angels
(e.g., Job 1:6). Another example would be “breaking of bread” as an idiom for eating a meal. Idioms
are usually peculiar to a given culture, and hence may require cultural sensitivity to discern. To “lift
up the head” is an Old Testament idiom for honoring or extending favor to someone.

Irony
A writer uses irony when he says one thing but really intends something different, often intending the
very opposite of what he literally says. Notice this example from Amos 4:4:
Go to Bethel and rebel! At Gilgal rebel some more! Bring your sacrifices in the
morning, your tithes on the third day!
Bethel and Gilgal were illegitimate worship centers. Bethel, for example, was established by King
Jeroboam as a place for the people in the northern kingdom of Israel to worship so they would not go
to Jerusalem. The prophet was chiding the people when he urged them to go to these places to present
their sacrifices. In effect, he was saying, “Go ahead and go to places like Bethel, but know that as you
sacrifice there, you are really doing so in rebellion against God.”

Symbol
We have a symbol in the text when a material object is substituted for another reality (often implying
some characteristic or moral truth about the latter). Zechariah 4:7 is an example:
Who are you, you great mountain? Because of Zerubbabel you will become a level
plain.
In this verse, the great mountain is a symbol for the obstacles that stood in the way of rebuilding the
fallen temple. The governor Zerubbabel would succeed in rebuilding the temple.
We must be very careful not to label something a symbol which was not meant to be so. Oftentimes
the Bible will specifically identify the presence of a symbol (see Zech 3:8). At other times, careful
observance of the context will be essential to determine this. There is a great danger in treating
something as a symbol that was not intended as such, and we must always be careful not to interpret
the Bible symbolically. That is, we must be sure that God intended for something to be understood as
a symbol before we assume it to be one.
A horn is often a symbol in Scripture for power, especially military power. At times the horn can
refer to the king himself, since he was responsible for military success and the defense of the nation.
Notice Psalm 89:17-18:
17 You are the glory of their strength, and by Your favor our horn is exalted.
18 For our shield belongs to the LORD, and our king to the Holy One of Israel. (NASB,
emphasis added)

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 12

QUESTION 9
Match the following verses with the correct figure of speech. Focus on the words in bold. You may, if
you feel the need, look up the verses in your Bible to understand the context.
Verse (author’s own literal translations) Figure
Psalm 3:3 – “You, O LORD, are a shield about me, my glory, and the one who lifts my Hyperbole
head.”
Psalm 148:14 – “He has lifted up a horn for his people.” Irony
Psalm 139:3 – “You carefully observe my journeying and my lying down. You are Symbol
familiar with all my ways.”
Psalm 22:8 – “Entrust yourself to the LORD; let Him rescue him. Let him deliver him, Merism
since he trusted in him.” (spoken by the psalmist’s enemies)
Psalm 6:6 – “Every night I make my bed swim; with my tears I dissolve my couch.” Idiom

Topic 4: Figures in Psalm 91

At this point you have been introduced to quite a few of the figures of speech that you are likely to
encounter in the book of Psalms. The final topic to this lesson is meant to be applicational, giving you
an opportunity to practice what you have learned with one particular psalm, namely, Psalm 91. One
of the benefits of working through a lesson like this is that it helps you become more sensitive to the
presence of figures in the text. Having recognized the presence of a figure, we then need to discern
what the author was seeking to convey by the use of this figure. What does the figure mean and how
does this add to the author’s message?
Psalm 91 is a psalm about the believer taking refuge in the Lord God and experiencing His protection
and deliverance. Therefore it is a psalm of comfort and encouragement for those who put their trust in
the Lord in the face of great danger. The psalm is composed of three general sections: verses 1-2,
verses 3-13, and verses 14-16. In the first section (vv 1-2), we are introduced to the principle of
seeking refuge in the Lord. In the second section (vv 3-13), we are given several examples of how the
Lord protects the one who trusts in Him. In the third and final section (vv 14-16), the Lord Himself
speaks with words of encouragement and promise for the one who loves Him and puts his trust in
Him.

Psalm 91:1-2—The Principle of Security

The first two verses introduce us to an important principle of security: There is security and
protection for the believer who trusts in the Lord. The first colon speaks about the man who dwells in
the shelter (or hiding place) of the Most High. This expression for God Most High occurs first in
Genesis 14:18, which introduces us to Melchizedek, priest of the Most High God. This stresses His
exalted position above all else, thus emphasizing His qualification to protect others and to be a shelter
for them. The second colon (v 1) amplifies the same thought: “will abide in the shadow of the
Almighty” (NASB).
QUESTION 10
What kind of figure is the word “shadow”?

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 13

QUESTION 11
Now we have to decide what the figure of shadow is meant to depict. Choose the best answer from
the following options:
A. Refreshment (cool and refreshing)
B. Mysterious (dark and uncertain)
C. Unreliable (cannot be grasped)
D. Protection (shielding from scorching sun)
QUESTION 12
In Psalm 91:2, the psalmist said to the Lord, “My refuge and my fortress” (NASB). The words “You
are” should be supplied, that is, “You are My refuge, etc.” What kind of figure are the words “refuge”
and “fortress”?

QUESTION 13
What are the points of these figures in which the psalmist calls the LORD “my refuge” and “my
fortress”? (Select all that apply.)
A. Protection and safety
B. Strong defense
C. Cold and impersonal
D. High and unattainable
QUESTION 14
Open your Life Notebook. As you reflect back on verses 1-2, what comes to your mind when you
think of the LORD being your refuge and fortress? Are there times in your life when you find
yourself fleeing to Him and finding shelter from trials or the attacks on your life? Having described
the LORD and His comforting protection, the psalmist responds by saying “My God, in whom I
trust.” It is not enough to know that the LORD is a protecting refuge. This benefit is for those who
trust in Him. Write down how you think you can apply this principle in verses 1-2 to your life.

Psalm 91:3-13—The Lord’s Protecting Grace Illustrated

Having laid out the principle in verses 1-2 (that the God who is above all else is able to protect those
who place their trust in Him), the psalmist now turned to present various illustrations of God’s
protecting care. Several of these have to do with battlefield imagery, including disease that often
accompanies warfare.

Assignment
 Read Psalm 91:3-13.

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 14

QUESTION 15
Verse 3 begins by assuring the trusting believer of God’s deliverance from the snare of the hunter.
Consider the following options for identifying this figure of speech and choose the best answer.
A. This is a metaphor in which the psalmist compares one’s enemies to a hunter.
B. This is a symbol, in which the snare of the hunter symbolizes the attacks of the enemy.
C. This is a synecdoche, in which a snare represents attacks against him.
D. This is a hypocatastasis, in which the snare of the hunter implies a comparison (he is
comparing the plots and insidious attempts against his life to the way a hunter lays his trap).
QUESTION 16
Psalm 91:4 promises that the Lord will cover the psalmist with His pinions, and refuge can be found
“under His wings” (NASB). What kind of figure are these?
A. A merism
B. A metonymy
C. A zoomorphism
D. A synecdoche
QUESTION 17
The end of Psalm 91:4 states, “His faithfulness is a shield” (NASB). Since faithfulness is a character
quality and a shield is a physical defensive item, we must have a figure of speech here. What is it?

QUESTION 18
Verses 5-10 seem to make several allusions to experiences on the battlefield. Do the promises pertain
only to being in physical battle, or do we have a number of figures that ultimately speak of more
general threats? For example, is the promise of protection from the arrow in verse 5 limited only to
arrows, or is the word “arrow” a figure for weapons in general? In the following chart, match the
following words and phrases in bold with the appropriate figure.
Verse (author’s own literal translations) Figure
Verse 5 – “You will not be afraid … of the arrow that Synecdoche of species (specific for
flies by day.” general)
Verse 6 – “Of the pestilence that stalks in the darkness.” Metonymy of subject for attribute (the
container is put for the contents)
Verse 7 – “A thousand may fall at your side and ten Personification
thousand at your fight hand, but it shall not approach
you.”
Verse 10 – “No evil will befall you, nor will a plague Hyperbole
come near your tent.”

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 15

QUESTION 19
Psalm 91:11-13 introduces the subject of angelic help. There are thousands of holy angels whom God
can call into service to help those who seek refuge in Him. One should not foolishly apply this truth,
however, to put God to the test. Satan used these verses when he tempted Jesus in the wilderness (see
Mt 4:6-7). The final verse (v 13) mentions several dangerous creatures that the trusting believer will
tread on. This is probably intended to be understood figuratively. What kind of figure of speech do
these creatures represent?

QUESTION 20
Regarding question 19, if these creatures are a figure of speech, what do they represent and what is
the psalmist trying to convey? Choose the best answer from the following:
A. The psalmist is promising that believers can literally walk on lions and snakes.
B. The dangerous creatures are figurative of hostile powers (the wicked), and the psalmist is
promising victory over such threats.
C. Since this is a merism for all creatures (the bravest to the lowest), the psalmist is promising
that mankind will have dominion over the entire animal realm.
D. These animals can produce death, and therefore the psalmist is promising believers that they
will have victory over death through resurrection.

Psalm 91:14-16—The Lord’s Promises and Words of

Encouragement
In the final strophe the Lord Himself speaks as He promises His protection and offers words of
encouragement for the child of God seeking refuge in Him.

Assignment
 Reading Psalm 91:14-16.
The first thing that the LORD reveals is the cause for delivering the one who trusts in Him. Many
translations begin verse 14 by stating “Because he has loved Me” (NASB, emphasis added). Yet this
is not the normal word meaning to love. Rather this word (Hebrew ḥāshaq) has the basic meaning of
being attached to something. When emotions are involved, this can take on the meaning to desire or
take pleasure in. (See the use of ḥāshaq in Deut 21:11, and compare 1 Kgs 9:19.) In fact the
corresponding noun form (ḥēsheq) means a desire; a thing desired. Therefore the point of verse 14a is
probably something like this: “Because he has desired Me, I will deliver him.”

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 16

QUESTION 21
The second colon in Psalm 91:14 talks about God setting the psalmist securely on high (i.e.,
protecting him), because “he has known My name.” This latter word “name” is a figure of speech.
The psalmist does not have merely cognitive knowledge of God’s name. The word “name” stands for
the complete character and reputation of God. To know (have intimate knowledge of) God’s character
implies intimacy in the relationship (see Ex 33:17) and that one is trusting in and seeking Him (Ps
9:10). In light of this, what kind of figure is the word “name”?
A. Metonymy
B. Hypocatastasis
C. Metaphor
D. Synecdoche
In verse 15 we probably have another metonymy. The verse begins by stating, “He will call upon Me,
and I will answer him.” The words “answer him” are a metonymy. What the LORD really means is
that He will answer him by doing something on his behalf. That is, He will act favorably for him.
QUESTION 22
In the final verse (Ps 91:16), the Lord concludes by promising that the one who trusts in Him will be
shown “My salvation.” The word “salvation” in the Old Testament commonly means deliverance,
and the context clarifies what kind of deliverance is in view. Yet with the phrase “see My salvation,”
the word “see” is a figure of speech. Of the following options which one is the best answer?
A. Symbol - The believer will have a vision of Jesus dying on the cross.
B. Hyperbole - The believer will not really see the deliverance, but he will be rescued.
C. Simile - When God rescues him, it will be like seeing His salvation.
D. Metonymy (effect for cause) - The believer will experience God’s deliverance.
QUESTION 23
Take some time now to reflect on the last three verses from Psalm 91. What truth stands out to you
more than anything else? Perhaps it is about desiring God, or perhaps it is about knowing Him in a
more intimate way. Or maybe you are impressed with the fact that He promises to be with you in
trouble. Now see if you can write this down in your Life Notebook in the form of a principle. Here is
an example of a principle in regard to desiring God: “If God is my refuge and I hope for His
protection, I need to desire Him above all else.” After you have developed and written down your
own principle, try to write down at least one specific way you can apply this principle in your life. In
regard to the example above about desiring God, you could write, “I need to think of a specific way
that I can express the fact that I desire God more than anything else.”

Lesson 5: Recognizing and Working With Figures of Speech Page 17

Lesson 5 Self Check
QUESTION 1
Which of the following verses uses a simile?
A. Psalm 84:11: “For the LORD God is a sun and shield” (NASB).
B. Isaiah 40:6: “All flesh is grass” (NASB).
C. Psalm 42:1: “As a deer longs for streams of water, so I long for you, O God!”
D. Psalm 31:2: “Incline Your ear to me; rescue me quickly” (NASB).
QUESTION 2
In Matthew 16:6 Jesus’ reference to yeast (“beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees”)
involves a figure known as a hypocatastasis that makes an implied comparison of the teachings of the
religious leaders to yeast. True or False?
QUESTION 3
When inanimate objects are given human attributes or portrayed as making human actions, as in the
verse “All my bones shall say, ‘O LORD, who is like You?’” the figure is known as a personification.
True or False?
QUESTION 4
In Psalm 17:8 the psalmist prayed, “Keep me as the apple of the eye; hide me in the shadow of Your
wings” (NASB, emphasis added). The words “Your wings” are a figure known as an
anthropomorphism. True or False?
QUESTION 5
In Psalm 23:5 the word “table” in the verse “You prepare a table in my presence, before my enemies”
(NASB) is an example of a metonymy, the word “table” being substituted for a feast that is associated
with a table. True or False?
QUESTION 6
Psalm 44:6 states, “For I will not trust in my bow; nor will my sword deliver me” (literal translation).
In this case a specific type of weapon is substituted for the more general category of human weapons.
Because the words “bow” and “sword” are of the same genus (they are generically related), this figure
of speech is known as:
A. Hypocatastasis
B. Metaphor
C. Synecdoche
D. Metonymy
QUESTION 7
Psalm 95:3-4 reads, “The LORD is a great God and a great King above all gods, in whose hand are
the depths of the earth, the peaks of the mountains are His also” (NASB). Verse 4 (the second line) is
an example of a figure known as merism. True or False?

Lesson 5 Self Check Page 18

The psalmist described the conditions that will exist in the time of Messiah’s rule in the following
words (found in Ps 72:16):
May there be an abundance of grain in the earth;
on the tops of the mountains may it sway!
May its fruit trees flourish like the forests of Lebanon!
QUESTION 8
What kind of figure of speech is the psalmist using here? (Hint: We are not referring to the simile in
the last line, “like the forests of Lebanon.”)
A. Merism
B. Hyperbole
C. Zoomorphism
D. Hypocatastasis

Psalm 8 is a psalm of praise for God’s graciousness to man in granting him an esteemed role in God’s
creation. Observe the following words:
When I consider Your heavens, the work of your fingers, The moon and the stars,
which You have ordained; What is man that You take thought of him, And the son of
man that You care for him? (NASB, emphasis added)
QUESTION 9
In the verses above, the phrase “son of man” is
A. A symbol for the king of the nation.
B. An idiom for mankind in general.
C. A personification of the heavenly planets.
D. A metonymy for the person who will inherit his father’s fortune.
QUESTION 10
In Psalm 44:6 we read, “For I will not trust in my bow; nor will my sword deliver me” (emphasis
added). In this verse, what kind of figure is the word “bow”?
A. A symbol of military weapons.
B. This is an example of irony.
C. This is a simile.
D. This is a synecdoche (specific weapons are substituted for weapons in general).

Lesson 5 Self Check Page 19

Lesson 5 Answers to Questions
QUESTION 1
Analysis Identification
Subject I (i.e., the psalmist)
Thing A deer thirsting for streams of water
compared
Common Experiencing the agony of not having one’s desire met
element
Point of the The psalmist (being oppressed by enemies and cut off from the temple worship),
figure expresses his intense longing for communion with God.
QUESTION 2
A. In comparing the LORD to a shield, the point is that He is a protector.
D. In comparing the LORD to a sun, the point is that He is the source of blessing.
[The metaphor of the sun, probably alludes to God as a source of blessing. The second half of
verse 11 supports this, when it speaks about what God gives and blesses people with. Although
the sun can sometimes be seen as a threat because of its fierce rays and heat, in other contexts it is
a positive thing. The sunshine causes the growth of fruits and vegetables for eating, and also
provides warmth in frigid regions.]
QUESTION 3: Hypocatastasis
QUESTION 4
D. Jesus was comparing the teaching of the religious leaders to yeast, in order to make the point
that their teaching quickly spread and influenced others. But its powerful influence must be
resisted.
QUESTION 5
Verse (author’s own literal translations) Figure
Psalm 31:2 – “Incline Your ear to me; rescue me quickly.” Anthropomorphism
Psalm 18:2 – “The LORD is my rock and my fortress and my deliverer, my Metaphor
God, my rock, in whom I take refuge.”
Psalm 114: 3-4 – “The sea looked and fled; the Jordan (river) turned back. Personification
The mountains skipped like rams, the hills like lambs.”
Psalm 17:8 – “Keep me as the apple of the eye; hide me in the shadow of Zoomorphism
Your wings.”
Psalm 1:4 – “The wicked are not so, but they are like the chaff which the wind Simile
drives away.”
Psalm 57:4 – “My soul is among lions; I must lie among those who breathe Hypocatastasis
forth fire, the sons of men whose teeth are spears and arrows.”
QUESTION 6
D. God Himself [In this case the word “name” is put in the place of God Himself. It is not the
name that brings security but rather God Himself. In this metonymy, the name of a person is
put for the person himself.]
QUESTION 7
B. This is a metonymy of attribute for subject: David is speaking about some deed he might
have done that would be regarded by God as iniquity. [Primarily, this is a substitution of one
word for another. David really had in mind some specific deed that would be evil in nature.
Notice that he listed some possibilities in verse 4. While this is clearly a metonymy, some
might argue that this is a metonymy of effect for cause. That is, the effect of what he has done
was iniquity.]

Lesson 5 Answers to Questions Page 20

QUESTION 8
Verse (author’s own literal translation) Figure and Category
Psalm 143:2 – “Do not enter into judgment with Your servant, for Synecdoche of general for
there is not righteous before You any living.” the specific
Psalm 106:6 – “We have sinned with our fathers; we have committed Synecdoche of specific for
iniquity; we have behaved wickedly.” general
2 Samuel 12:10 – “And now a sword shall not depart from your house Synecdoche of the whole
forever.” for the part
Psalm 102:11 – “My days are like a lengthened shadow; and I wither Synecdoche of the part for
away like grass.” the whole
QUESTION 9
Verse (author’s own literal translations) Figure
Psalm 3:3 – “You, O LORD, are a shield about me, my glory, and the one who lifts my Idiom
head.”
Psalm 148:14 – “He has lifted up a horn for his people.” Symbol
Psalm 139:3 – “You carefully observe my journeying and my lying down. You are Merism
familiar with all my ways.”
Psalm 22:8 – “Entrust yourself to the LORD; let Him rescue him. Let him deliver him, Irony
since he trusted in him.” (spoken by the psalmist’s enemies)
Psalm 6:6 – “Every night I make my bed swim; with my tears I dissolve my couch.” Hyperbole
QUESTION 10: Metonymy [The word ‘shadow’ is a metonymy, and could be classified as a
metonymy of subject for attribute.]
QUESTION 11
D. Protection (shielding from scorching sun) [While a shadow could suggest several things, in
this context the idea of ‘protection’ is the most appropriate. The first colon as well as all of vs
2 supports this idea.]
QUESTION 12: Your answer should be one of the following:
Metaphors, Metaphor [Both the words “refuge” and “fortress” are metaphors.]
QUESTION 13
A. Protection and safety
B. Strong defense
[While the other characteristics in answers #3 and #4 may be true of a fortress in general, they do
not fit the context of Psalm 91.]
QUESTION 14: Your answer
QUESTION 15
D. This is a hypocatastasis, in which the snare of the hunter implies a comparison (he is
comparing the plots and insidious attempts against his life to the way a hunter lays his trap).
[The words “the snare of the hunter” are best understood as a hypocatastasis, since a
comparison is in view.]
QUESTION 16
C. A zoomorphism [The pinions/wings are a figure of safety and comfort.]
QUESTION 17: Your answer should be one of the following:
Metaphor, A metaphor

Lesson 5 Answers to Questions Page 21

QUESTION 18
Verse (author’s own literal translations) Figure
Verse 5 – “You will not be afraid … of the arrow that flies Synechdoche of species (specific for
by day.” general)
Verse 6 – “Of the pestilence that stalks in the darkness.” Personification
Verse 7 – “A thousand may fall at your side and ten Hyperbole
thousand at your fight hand, but it shall not approach you.”
(whole verse)
Verse 10 – “No evil will befall you, nor will a plague come Metonymy of subject for attribute (the
near your tent.” container is put for the contents)
QUESTION 19: Hypocatastasis [We have an implied comparison here.]
QUESTION 20
B. The dangerous creatures are figurative of hostile powers (the wicked), and the psalmist is
promising victory over such threats. [In Ps 58:3-5, the lies of the wicked are related to the
actions of wild creatures.]
QUESTION 21
A. Metonymy [The correct answer is metonymy. More specifically, this might be classified as a
metonymy of attribute/adjunct for subject. See Bullinger, “Figures of Speech”, 608.]
QUESTION 22
D. Metonymy (effect for cause) - The believer will experience God’s deliverance. [Since this is a
figure of substitution (the word “see”—effect—is substituted for another action), a metonymy
is the best choice.]
QUESTION 23: Your answer

Lesson 5 Answers to Questions Page 22

Lesson 5 Self Check Answers
QUESTION 1
C. Psalm 42:1: “As a deer longs for streams of water, so I long for you, O God!”
QUESTION 2: True
QUESTION 3: True
QUESTION 4: False
QUESTION 5: True
QUESTION 6
C. Synecdoche
QUESTION 7: True
QUESTION 8
B. Hyperbole
QUESTION 9
B. An idiom for mankind in general.
QUESTION 10
D. This is a synecdoche (specific weapons are substituted

Lesson 5 Answers to Questions Page 23