'--'Preface .

--,

Methods in Environmental History

Timo Myllyntaus

Reality is a narrow but continuously moving slice of time, for only the present
moment is existent and tangible. Of the past we retain fading traces and the future
we can just glimpse through our flashes of anticipation: ultimately we have direct
contact with neither. While nothing but a tiny present moment is real, we are
mentally beset by uncertain signals from the past and future. Time flies and we
can never get a firm grip on it.
Something that makes historical research exciting is that conceptions of
time and reality vary from one subdiscipline to another. Dimensions of time in
nature and society also differ, which is one reason why environmental and human
history have divergent analytical palettes. The aim of this volume is to examine
the past from an environmental perspective and to elaborate on approaches to
environmental history, a fascinating and rapidly expanding field ofstudy, wielding
a great variety of methods. Challenges facing this relatively new multidisciplinary
area include the need to originate and refine methodological tools for the study of
complex relations between humans and nature in the past.
Methods mean to researchers what tools do to craftsmen. For both groups,
although the devices and techniques are important, the skills required to deploy
them are equally significant. The skilful use of proper tools can produce a master-
piece with reasonable expenditure of time and effort. This dialectic relationship
between methods and skills, defined here as craftsmanship, is a prerequisite ofsuc-
cessful and result-oriented work. Historical research is based on various elements
and combines various methods to organise, connect and interpret versatile data
sets. Methods guide procedures in how research materials are selected, processed
and placed in a context. Historians use them to analyse primary sources and other
evidence in their search for solutions to their research questions and arguments,
as well as when they give expression to their knowledge and interpretations. The
2 3
Timo Myllyntaus Methods in Environmental History

primary incentive for compiling this edited volume is our interest in gathering an In one sense, environmental historians started out with clear viewpoints
appropriate methodological arsenal for the study of environmental history. as early as the 1970s and 1980s, when they tended to focus on big issues, often
Environmental history is effectively the broadest discipline of historical environmental problems ofthe past or the present. As they concentrated on serious
research because it examines the interaction of the natural material world and hu- issueswith manifold environmental and societal consequences, the entire discipline
man affairs, whereas other branches primarily focus on human and societal issues. got the image of 'dismal history'. Later, environmental historians included minor
Given the extent and complexiry ofthe discipline, the methods used tend to be more topics and favourable developments in their purview. This has helped give a more
numerous and versatile in environmental history than in other fields of historical balanced impression of the discipline, revealing that both favourable and unfa-
research. In facing these challenges, environmental historians have invested much vourable developments take shape simultaneously. Differentiating between these
time and effort in discovering and applying various methods, some of which are contrasting lines of development may be difficult - at least in the short term. Petra
perhaps less commonly utilised in other fields of historical research. van Dam and Wybren Verstegen write that 'to evaluate environmental changes as
According to the Finnish historian Jorma Kalela, historical research is char- good or bad, one must first define the criteria being used: good or bad for whom
acterised by three major premises.' The first of these is the choice of study subject or what, for which people or species and so on?'6
to give direction to the research process; the second is the selection of an approach, Highlighting favourable development lines helps advance the belief that
which means deciding on the context within which the historian will address the work for the environment serves a purpose; in some cases there is an opportunity
research topic; and the third is its significance - why the researcher supposes it is to improve the state of the environment and increase the motivation to do so in
important to examine a certain topic from a particular angle in a chosen context. society at large. Narratives and analyses ofsuccesscarry potential to spread optimism,
These are the necessary starting points for any research endeavour.' Studying history even passion, for the future wellbeing of the environment.
means making choices, defining and framing topics - processes that also structure Nevertheless, environmental historians cannot specialiseonly in telling stories
environmental historical research. with happy endings or promising prospects. 7 They should also reveal grim cases of
failure and discord in interactions between the natural and societal realms." Some
critics argue that current environmental history is too cautious in its objectives;
Significance of topics"
they expect those within the discipline to tackle environmental problems with
One might claim that environmental history lacks a methodology of its own and more determination and show 'what went wrong'. These kinds of expectations
that, therefore, environmental historians have to borrow research methods from are not generally loaded onto the shoulders of other historians. Environmental
other disciplines. Considering the varied approaches of environmental history as a history is essentially focused on analysing problems in humans' relationship with
whole, one might say that the methodological palette of the discipline is diverse. It the environment. This viewpoint is accepted, at least on a general level, by most
is still shaping its approaches and perspectives.' Many of the distinctions that are environmental historians; however, very many ofthem are unwilling to work prima-
clear in other fields of historical research, such as macro-history and micro-history rily on environmental problems and calamities because they regard environmental
or the history of events and history of structures, have not yet been established in history as a much broader research field.
environmental history. Donald Worster may be considered the best-known excep-
tion among environmental historians, his 'levels of environmental history' being limo Massa, 'Ymparisrohisroria tutkimuskohteena', Historiallinen aikakauskirja 89/4 (1991):
widely referred to and discussed." 296-7;, ~imo. Myllynraus, 'Environment in Explaining History: Restoring H~mans as Part of
~ature.' m Timo M~llyntaus and Mikko Saikku (eds.), Encountering the Pastin Nature:Essays
In EnuironmentnlHIStory, (Athens: Ohio University Press 2001), pp. 152-5.
1. Jorma Kale/a, Historiantutkimusja bistoria, (Helsinki: Gaudeamus 2000), pp. 76-8.
6. Petra].E.M. van Dam and S. Wybren Verstegen, 'Environmental History: Object of Study
2. Kale/a, Historiantutkimus ja historia, pp. 76-8. and Methodology', in Jan J. Boersema and Lucas Reijnders (eds.), Principles ojEnvironmental
3. I am grateful to Tomasz Samojlik for his constructive comments on this section. Sciences, (Berlin: Springer 2009), p. 26.
4. Timo Myllyntaus, 'Old Wine in New Bottles? Traditions of Finnish Environmental History', 7. See for simple 'triumphalisr' stories, Peter Burke, 'The New History: Its Past and Its Future', in
in Erland Marald and Christer Nordlund (eds.), varna, varda, udrdera: Miljohistorisak aspekter Peter Burke (ed.), New Perspectives on Historical Writing, 2nd ed. (Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania
ochaspekter pa miljobistoria, Skrifter fran forskningsprogrammet Landskaper sorn arena nr 5, State University Press 200 I), p. 20.
(Umea: NyheternasTryckeri 2003), pp. 177-200. 8. For ex~mple, Tomasz Samojlik, 'The Brown Bear - a Story without a Happy Ending', in B.
5. Donald Worster, 'Doing Environmental History', in Donald Worster (ed.), TheEnds ojthe jedrzejewska and J .M. Wojcik (eds.), Essays on Mammal, oJBiafowieiaForest, (Bialowieza:
Earth:Perspectives on Modern EnvironmentalflJstory, (Cambridge: CUP 1988), p. 293; Cf
,,~
Mammal Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences 2004), pp. 69-76.
4 5
Timo Myllyntaus Methods in Environmental History

'Historians are to tell stories.P That is a common conception, but it is not issue there is whether or not to expand the 150,000-hectare Bialowieza National
necessarily right to expect 'historical stories' to be mere entertainment. In fact, a Park to cover the entire Polish part ofBialowieza Primeval Forest (BPF) and improve
narrative can also reveal social or environmental problems and take a stand on the conservation prospects of the European lowland bison (wisent) or whether to
developing trends. In general, focusing on significant societal and environmental modernise the economy of the region.'! In 1981 the Soviet Union built a fence
issues is considered a good characteristic of historical research; therefore, in envi- to divide Polish and Belarusian parts of this primeval forest, in order to stop the
ronmental history, one should not take that belief to represent an unfavourable Polish Solidarity movement from spreading eastward. Even after Poland joined the
stigma. Revealing and solving problems is among the core tasks ofall sciences. It is European Union in 2004, this 'iron curtain' continued to obstruct the migration
wrong to expect any branch ofscientific knowledge to provide only bedside stories. of bison, because Belarus has preferred to dose its border against illegal intruders
It is considered natural for social sciences to attempt to explain human with an impenetrable fence. As of now, the national park covers only 105 of 1500
2
behaviour by tackling major societal issues. It is thus surprising that focusing on km of the Polish part of BPF. The second, larger part of the forest lies in Belarus
environmental problems is often regarded as dismal, pessimistic or politically and the two parts have been divided for three decades. This fence, however, also
motivated research, impelling environmental historians to avoid the big issues and prevents the movements of bison in the region. Nevertheless, the stock of460 Eu-
concentrate their research efforts on exploring harmless - if not trivial- curiosities. ropean bison keeps on growing in the Polish part of the forest, whereas no proper
Perhaps some readers prefer to consume this sort of history and this phenomenon statistics are available ftom the Belarusian part.
may be a factor that persuades funding institutions to support research projects Some people consider that the growing bison population and plans to
of this popular type. Nevertheless, there should be space and resources for envi- expand the BPF are threats to the regional economy and the wellbeing of the local
ronmental history that confronts and explains the emergence of major, intractable population. For several decades, Eastern Poland in general has had difficulties in
problems. That challenging area ofresearch, though more difficult to articulate to a maintaining its population and developing its economy, because thousands, espe-
wide readership, is necessary to achieve a critical understanding of the evolution of cially middle-aged breadwinners, have become migrant workers and left for large
the human-environment relationship: it is therefore the task ofthe environmental Polish cities or abroad. However, Bialowieza and other nearby villages have begun
historian to exercise craft and produce compelling work that appeals to an audience to grow in recent years, primarily because the tourism industry has succeeded in
beyond the academic sphere. turning economic activity in the region from ebb to flood."
We do not know environmental changes profoundly enough. For instance, Bialowieza Primeval Forest is a case where the interests ofendangered nature
we are not aware ofhow and why some environmental problems have emerged and, and a human community seem to be in contradiction. Although the European
therefore, we do not understand them with sufficient depth. Nevertheless, such bison has very few natural enemies - only wolves and bears besides humans - the
knowledge would make tackling these problems easier and perhaps more effective. species population has gradually dwindled in Europe since the Middle Ages."
Revealing distasteful facts from the past may not be pleasant but, for the common During the Holocene period, the European bison lived all over Europe, from the
interest, it may nevertheless be necessary. Such grim research should be given a leafy banks of the Russian river Volga to forests in northern Sweden and the green
chance as well as public and financial support to bring its results under discussion. plains of Spain. The stock of free-ranging bison was preserved longest in the zone
In environmental history, several damaging natural trends still lack explana- from the Bialowieza to the Caucasus Mounralns.U The last wild lowland bison were
tions. Why were harvest failures and famines so frequent in history and why do poached in BPF in 1919, and the last Caucasian bison were shot by poachers in the
they persist? This is but an example of a major past environmental issue; there are
many other unexplained problems. 11. 'Two subspecies are recognised in European bison, i.e. the lowland bison or wisent (Bison b.
'If where we live is so unique for the whole of Europe, why shouldn't bonasus) and the extinct highland or Caucasus bison (Bison b. caucasicus)' - Norbert Benecke,
'The Holocene Distribution of European Bison - The Archaeozoological Record', Munibe
the residents benefit rather than suffer?' asked Mayor Albert Litwinowicz of the (Antropologia - Arkeologia) 57 (2005): 421-8, http://www.aranzadi-zientziak.org/fileadmin/
Bialowieza district (population 2,400) in eastern Poland in July 2009. 10 The key docs/Munibe/20050 1421428AA.pdf
12. Baczynska, 'Feature: Climate Change'.
9. William Kelleher Storey, WritingHistory, A Guidefor Students, (New York: Oxford Universiry 13. M. Krasiriska and Z. A. Krasinski, European Bison. 1heNature Mon(Jgraph, (Bialowieia: Mam-
Press 1999). mal Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, 2007), pp. 1-307.
10. Gabriela Baczynska, 'Feature: Climate Change Clouds Fate of Ancient Polish Woods', Online 14. It is estimated that the bison became extinct in Gallia, France by the end of the s- century,
article by Reuters, US Edition, 29 July 2009, http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLN291035 while it survived to the l l th century in southern Sweden. Zdzislaw Pucek, 'European Bison _
Accessed 15 March 2010. History of a Flagship Species', in B. Jedrzejewska and J. M. Wojcik (eds.), Essays on Mammals
6 7
Timo Myllyntaus Methods in Environmental History

Western Caucasus in 1927 15 but this did not lead to the complete extinction.of the In many countries a vivid public debate has continued for years on 'alien
biggest mammal on European soil. A few dozen European bison were preserved in species ofplants and animals' and their relationship to 'original or national species'.
zoos and, from captivity, have been reintroduced into the wild since 1952. Now European nature was in constant flux even before human impact and variations
free-ranging herds are found in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, in climate have often boosted the changes. Still, humans have greatly modified
Russia, Slovakia, Latvia, Kyrgyzstan and, since 2005, Moldova." In 2006, it was stocks of species and thus it is ofteri very difficult to differentiate 'original species'
estimated that 1,800 lowland European bison were living in the wild and about from 'latecomers and alien species'r" Environmental historians have participated
1,400 in captivity.'? Although numbers ofAmerican bison (Bison bison) have also in tracking down when various species arrived in certain areas and understanding
been hard-hit, they have never dropped below 1,500. The present population is the kinds of habitats where they lived. The issue of regulating stocks and habitats
estimated at 350,000. 18 of species is becoming ever more important and in various cases decisions have
Besidesthe modernisers ofeastern Poland, climate change has become another gone to the political level. So this is another instance where the knowledge and
threat to the Bialowieza Primeval Forest and the European bison." Concurrently, expertise of environmental history can influence political choices and define the
new pastures have been opened to those animals in Swedish national parks and outlines ofenvironmental policy. Connections made between environmental history
zoos. In 2009, with the stock still growing, Swedish bison were sent for a reintro- and policy-making should not be considered an obstacle or burden to academic
duction project in Romania. 20 As a result ofclimate change, reintroduction may in experts but an opportunity to provide political bodies with historical and scientific
the future change its direction and there may be more moves of endangered species information in order to promote smart decision-making about the environment.
from central Europe to the Nordic countries, which will be able to accommodate Changes in the economy can influence changes in the use ofnatural resources,
these species with more appropriate habitats, which could be lost in their present such as fields, forests and watercourses. When the established commercial utilisation
central and south-eastern European habitats. of certain resources comes to an end, these become available for other purposes
One might ask whether environmental historians have any role in the and, as with formerly economically productive forests, may return to their earlier
relocation of endangered species, an activity that may increase considerably as a state. The problem here is determining the state to which these forests should be
result of accelerated climate change. Can and should environmental historians restored. Because there are many alternatives, landowners ought to cooperate with
work more as consultants for such large international projects to protect and save various specialists and authorities in order to find an appropriate solution. Forest
numerous endangered species? Yes, they certainly should provide their services to historians and environmental historians specialising in restoration issues can provide
practical protection efforts. It is to be hoped that their education will train them valuable information and assist in selecting target states for restoration efforts. 23
to participate in such activities." The examples above are given to show that environmental history has the
potential to construct practical connections with areas beyond the academic sphere.
ofBialowieiaForest, (Bialowieza, Poland: Mammal Research Institute, PolishAcademy of The missions and expertise ofenvironmental historians are therefore more versatile
Sciences 2004), pp. 25-6. and constructive in practice than is generally believed.
15. Ibid. pp. 25-30; Wikipedia, English edition, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WisentAccessed 15
March 2010.
16. Irina Belousovaand Zdzislaw Pucek, European Bison. Status Surveyand Conservation Action Contributions to the volume
Plan, (Gland, Switzerland: World Conservation Union/IUCN/SSC 2004); 'Bison in the
Republic of Moldova, http://www.iatp.md/arii/text/eng/pad_domn_bison.htm Accessed This book ultimately assembles a methodological toolbox for environmental his-
15.March 2010. torians, partly by presenting some case themes currently under research. It intro-
17. Zdzislaw Pucek, 'Euroopan biisonien paluu luonroon', Tieteen kuvalehti 4 (2001): 74-77; duces various approaches to environmental history including the eco-biographical
Wikipedia, Finnish edition, http://fi.wikipedia.org/wikiNisentti Accessed 15 March 2010. approach, traditional environmental knowledge, environmental literacy analysis,
18. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_BisonAccessed 31 Dec. 2010. interviews ala oral history, reconstruction of memoryscapes, using art to express
19. Zdzislaw Pucek, European Bison (Bison bonasus): CurrentState ofthe Species and Strategy jor Its
Conservation, (Strasbourg: Council of Europe 2004).
22. See discussion of these issues in Marcus Hall (ed.), Restoration and History. TheSearch fir a
20. Wikipedia, Swedish edition, http://sv.wikipedia.org/wikiNisentAccessed 15 March 2010. Usable Environmental Past, Routledge Srudies in Modern History vol. 8, (London: Routledge
21. Cf. C. Josh Donlan and Harry W. Greene, 'NLlMBY, No Lions in My Backyard', in Marcus 2010).
Hall (ed.), Restoration and History, TheSeachfir a Usable EnvironmentalPast, (New York: 23. See, for more on environmental restoration, Timo Myllyntaus, 'Changing Forests, Moving
Routledge 2010), pp. 293-305. Targets in Finland', in Hall (ed.), Restoration and History, pp. 46-57.
8 9
Timo Myllyntaus Methods in Environmental History

environmental ideas, environmental discourse analysis and a case study approach nomad cattle herders, in terms of environmental literacy and their opinions about
to linear-logarithmic regression analysis. The volume comprises fourteen chapters, degradation and desertification of their land. Her conclusion is that these people
divided into five major sections. In the first section, 'Approaching the Environment have their own ways ofobserving and evaluating African landscapes. Timothy Clack
of the Past', Fiona Watson and Donald Worster examine some methodological also investigates the environment in relation to culture and the collective memory in
approaches used in environmental history. Watson evaluates interdisciplinarity his study of communities around Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. He claims that
as disciplinary collaboration between historians, scientists and researchers in the it is a feature of modernity to separate nature from culture and to 'set up humanity
social sciences and discusses the gap between reality and perceptions. Worster, as the arbitrator of reality'. He takes a more holistic view and considers landscape
meanwhile, focuses on what a biographical approach can give to environmental as humanised space or as memoryscape, an approach that recalls an old definition:
history. He does not see this as a substitute for large-scale historical explanations 'Landscape is a mirror of the soul.' Leena Rossi, too, focuses on landscape-related
of history: on the contrary, it is a complementary, micro-level approach aimed at personal experiences and memories in her chapter. She evaluates the potential sig-
recovering individuals' experiences, perceptions and feelings in encounters with nificance oforal history to environmental history and how methods ofinterviewing
various past environments. Eco-biography is a form of grassroots environmental can deepen our knowledge ofhow a landscape painter experiences his/her subjects.
history, or history from below.24 Indigenous peoples and their traditional ecological knowledge are themes
Interaction between society and the environment iscomplex and changeable. that have attracted the attention of numerous researchers in recent decades. The
Environmental history has versatile connections to political history, while politics third section, 'Indigenous Peoples and the Pressures of Modernisation', contains
is a major governing force in the environmental sphere. Frank Uekotter gives an two chapters on the contemporary history ofthe Sami people and their relationship
interesting case study ofhow the political context has affected nature conservation, with nature. The Sami are a minority people living in Lapland, which borders the
by highlighting relations between Nazi rule and the German conservation move- Arctic Ocean to the north, and they are scattered to the remote corners of four
ment in the 1930s and 1940s. countries: Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. The Sami people are considered
The second section, 'Cultural Perceptions of Landscapes', focuses on re- one of the few remaining indigenous peoples in Europe. It is assumed that reindeer
search into landscapes and different ways of observing, analysing and studying herding has enabled the Sami to maintain their culture in the Arctic environment
our emerging environment. The six chapters apply various approaches, with case and to preserve their close relationship with nature. However, the traditional Sami
studies scattered over fivecontinents. Dilshad Rahat Ara investigates the vernacular way of life is under threat. Economic considerations favour modernisation but
architecture ofvillage houses in the Chittagong Hills in Bangladesh. Her approach the Sami want to define the limits and conditions themselves and do not wish
is interdisciplinary in that she takes an anthropological view ofarchitectural design, to be driven by outsiders. Helena Ruotsala considers the traditional ecological
positing that the shaping and use of architectural 'space is culturally determined knowledge of reindeer herders and their ability to read, interpret and verbalise
- it is a construct, not a "given"'. Libby Robin concentrates on the arid deserts of their Arctic environment, while Jukka Nyyssonen focuses on different approaches
central Australia and on spatial aspects ofenvironmental history. She also compares to forest disputes in north-eastern regions of Finnish Lapland. At the same time he
Western scientific knowledge and the indigenous ecological knowledge ofAustral- examines a longlasting problem for the Sami people: the dilemma between Sami
ian Aboriginal peoples, emphasising in her conclusions that 'landscapes demand a culture and modernisation. The radicals of the Sami movement, like Nils-Aslak
visual appreciation and narrative voice, not just action plans for eradicating weeds'. Valkeapaa, have regarded modernisation as pernicious Westernisation that tends
The expansion of the North African deserts towards the south and the to corrupt the Sami way of thinking and force the adoption into their culture of
shrinkage of green vegetated areas have been subjects ofheated debate and objects foreign items. In contrast, practically minded participants in the discussion, such
of international diplomacy for decades". In her contribution, Anu Eskonheimo as the head of the Arctic Centre at the University of Lapland, Paula Kankaanpaa,
examines the idiosyncrasies oflocal people in Central Sudan, especially farmers and claim that 'nobody in the northern regions wants to live in an open air rnuseum'r'"
The Sami prefer to decide themselves how to move with the times. Central issues
24. History from below is research conducted from the perspective of the crowd, or ordinary in the mobilisation of the Sami movement have been landownership, conserva-
people of unprivileged classes. It is an approach, not a focus on the bottom mud of the past. tion ofwilderness, the economic utilisation of natural resources and adaptation of
See Norman J. Wilson, Historyin Crisis? RecentDirections in Historiography, 2nd ed. (Upper traditional means of living to modern society. Nyyssonen comes to the conclusion
Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson 2004), pp. 77-82.
25. SeeAlon Tal, 'Desertification', in Frank Uekotrer, TheTurningPoints ofEnvironmentalHistory 26. Kari Huhta, 'Lappi kuumenee jo ennen ilmastonrnuurosra', Helsingin Sanomat 31 Dec. 2010:
(Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 2210) pp. 146-161. A5.
10 11
Timo Myllyntaus Methods in Environmental History

that 'identity is indeed power' but the use of that power requires political skills. Missions of environmental history
Successful identity politics call for appropriate negotiation strategies and entering
For environmental historians, climate change is not entirely a threat - it is also a
into constructive alliances.
chance. Ifpredicted climate change takes place, the global environment could look
Environmental history is not unified in its approaches, methods and research
drastically different in 2050. Because of irreversible global warming, habitats and
agendas. In recent decades, the holistic features of the discipline have become
their species composition m~y substantially change. Even the present state ofnature
blurred and specific areas of expertise are emerging. Water history is an example
will then become only a past memory. Considering this scenario, it seems quite
of a large and complex sector with its own special characteristics. Water issues have
obvious that the significance of environmental history will increase. The change
numerous interrelated aspects, many of which involve sophisticated relationships
may be shocking and society will need explanations as to what has happened in
between nature and humanity. The four chapters in the fourth and fifth sections
the environment and why profound changes have taken place. In such a situation,
consider the complexities ofwater history. For millennia, humans have wanted to
environmental history may find a new growth path by being able to assist societies
govern and utilise water. However, watercourses have proven taxing and burden-
in adapting to significant environmental change. The new role of environmental
some to harness. Time after time, communities and entire societies have had to
historians will be to consult decision makers and the public at large, as experts in
face the power ofwater in the form of torrents of rain, floods, pollution and other
the past and future change. The tasks of future generations include coping with a
catastrophes. The section 'Managing Flood Catastrophes' focuses on some of the
rapidly changing environment.
worst natural calamities Central Europe has experienced. In their chapter jochen
For the public, it is hard to accept certain quick changes such as, in Finland,
Seidel et al. investigate a major natural disaster on the River Neckar in Germany
the loss of cloudberries or the expansion of alien species like Spanish slugs (Arion
in 1824. Guido Poliwoda next considers how flood calamities were managed in
vulgaris) or Eastern European deer ked or deer fly (Lipoptena cervi).27 These phe-
Saxony between 1784 and 1845 and how people and institutions responded to those
nomena are with us now and Finns have to tackle them. Firstly we have to learn
catastrophes. Investments in risk management strategies are a challenge to regions
the 'new nature' and accept its existence. Secondly there is a requirement to adopt
like these, with several big rivers and densely populated areas along their banks.
new concepts and approaches, so that nothing less is in question than redefining
The final section, 'Remoulding Rivers, Reshaping Societies', examines other
the characteristics of the national environment and national landscapes. It is quite
types of river-borne environmental problems. The story told by Erik Tornlund is
evident that we have to learn to read the emerging environment in new ways, but
much less dramatic than flood disasters but still significant and fascinating. Export-
who will carry out the redefinitions and will public opinion accept rhemi"
ing huge amounts of sawn timber, pulp and paper was a major factor in Swedish
Traditions and memories do not disappear in a generation; some changes
industrialisation in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Floating timber, using
will be more difficult to accept than others. If, for example, European bison were
the energy offlowingwater, from the upper tributaries to the deltas ofbig rivers was
to reclaim Lappish reindeer pastures in the Nordic countries, the intrusion would
the predominant transport method and this led to comprehensive modifications
precipitate not only major environmental changes, but serious consequences for
of natural northern rivers. When timber transportation was moved to wheels, to
the cultural identity and lifestyle of the Sami people. For them, the return of the
railways and trucks, in the late twentieth century, some rivers were restored to their
European bison would be the biggest change in millennia." Ifsuch encounters be-
'natural state' and landscapes were reshaped again. Viktor Pal also examines the
tween humans and changing environments increase in this century, the information
environmental impact ofindustrialisation. His case study concerns water issues in
provided by disciplined environmental historians will act as a useful resource and
Miskolc, which used to be the second-largest industrial centre in Hungary. His con-
a powerful tool for society to better understand the environmental consequences
clusion is that political oppression was not the main factor silencing environmental
it consciously or unconsciously determines through its actions.
debate in the socialist Hungary of 1945-1989. Potential environmental uprisings
were suppressed by unfortunate circumstances, since ordinary Hungarians apparently
lacked competence in reading signs ofpollution and environmental degradation as 27. See http://en.wikipedia.otg/wiki/Spanish_slug; http://en.wikipedia.otg/wiki/Lipoptena_cetvi
well as being short of appropriate discussion forums on environmental problems. Read 31 Dec. 2010.
28. On the concept of 'Environmental literacy', see more in Minna Hares, Anu Eskonheimo,
Timo Myllyntaus and Olavi Luukkanen, 'Environmental Literacy in Interpreting Endangered
Susrainabiliry: Case studies from Thailand and the Sudan', Geoforum 37 (2006): 128-44.
29. For some yearsAmerican bison have been ranging a small number of Finnish farms.
12 13
Timo Myllyntaus Methods in Environmental History

Environmental historians cannot stop global climate change and other major Massa, Ilmo, 'Yrnparistohistoria tutkimuskohteena', Historiallinen aikakauskirja 89/4
environmental alterations. However, they will be among the scholars called upon to (1991): 294-301.
contribute their knowledge and tools to describe the world's environments, past and Myllyntaus, Timo, 'Environment in Explaining History: Restoring Humans as Part
present. Nostalgia for lost environments will grow concurrentlywith climate change. of Nature', in Timo Myllyntaus and Mikko Saikku (eds.), Encountering the Pastin
If demand for recollections of nature's history grows, so too will public interest in Nature:Essays in EnvironmentalHistory, (Athens: Ohio Universiry Press 2001), pp.
environmental issues. Ever more accurate scientific information and acute analyses 141-60.
will be expected. Are environmental historians prepared to meet this challenge? 'The Myllynraus, Timo, 'Old Wine in New Bottles?Traditions of Finnish Environmental
ability to respond to it is one of the pressing missions of environmental history. History', in Erland Marald and Christer Nordlund (eds.), varna, udrda, udrdera:
'This book approaches environmental issues on a broad basis and highlights Miljohistorisak aspekter ochaspekter pit miljiihistoria. Skrifrer fran forskningsprogram-
themes and regions that have been neglected by mainstream environmental history, met Landskaper som arena nr 5, (Urnei: Nyheternas Tryckeri 2003), pp. 177-200.
attempting to open new viewpoints and work on analyses that will inspire future Myllyntaus, Timo, 'Changing Forests, Moving Targets in Finland; Marcus Hall (ed.), Res-
research. All involved in this volume will be satisfied if it produces constructive toration and History. The Search for a Usable EnvironmentalPast, Routledge Studies in
Modern History vol. 8, (London: Routledge 2010), pp. 46-57.
contributions to the important discussion of green global history.
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Timo Myllyntaus

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PART I

Approaching the Environment of the Past

Thinking through the Environment
Green Approaches to Global History

Edited by

Timo Myllyntaus

Editorial Board
PerttiGranholm
Laura Hollsten
[aroJulkunen
Aino Laine
TimoMyllyntaus, chair

The White Horse Press

Copyright © 2011 Contents

The White Horse Press, 10 High Street, Knapwell, Cambridge, CB23 4NR, UK
List of Illustrations and Tables viii

Set in 10 point Adobe Garamond Pro Acknowledgements ix

Printed by Lightning Source Biographical Sketches xii

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of Preface
criticism or review, no part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised Methods in Environmental History
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, including photocopy- Timo Myllyntaus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
ing or recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system. PART I. APPROACHING THE ENVIRONMENT OF THE PAST
Chapter 1
Interdisciplinarity as Disciplinary Co-operation:
A Plea for the Future of Environmental History
Fiona ~tson 17
Chapter 2
Living in Nature: Biography and Environmental History
Donald WOrster 28
Chapter 3
The Nazis and the Environment - a Relevant Topic?
Frank Uekiitter 40
PART II. CULTURAL PERCEPTIONS OF LANDSCAPES
Chapter 4
The Culture of Space: Temporal Precincts
of a Vernacular Architecture in the Chittagong Hills
DilshadRahatAra .............•.................... 63
Chapter 5
Perceptions of Place and Deep Time in the Australian Desert:
Using Art in Environmental History:
Libby Robin 81
The cover illustration represents the European lowland bison. It was published
as a lithograph in the 14th edition of Brockhaus' Konversations-Lexikon (Leipzig, Chapter 6
1892-1897). Desertification - A Significant Problem? Diverse Environmental
Literacy in the North Kordofan Area in Sudan
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Anu Eskonheimo 100
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-874267-62-1 (HB)

vi vii

Chapter 7 Chapter 14
Thinking Through Memoryscapes: Symbolic Environmental Potency To Act or Not to Act:
on Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania Water Problems in North-East Hungary after 1945
Timothy Clack 115 Viktor ra. 268
Chapter 8 Index .............. '" . " " 289
Oral History and Individual Environmental Experiences
Leena Rossi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
PART III. INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND THE PRESSURES OF
MODERNISATION
Chapter 9
Ancestors' Wisdom or Desktop Reindeer Management?
The Role ofTraditional Ecological Knowledge
in Contemporary Reindeer Herding
Helena Ruotsala 159
Chapter 10
Identity Politics and Alliance Building between the Sami Delegation
and Conservationists in the Kessi Forest Dispute
]ukka Nyyssdnen 179
PART rv MANAGING FLOOD CATASTROPHES
Chapter 11
Reconstruction and Analysis of the Flood Catastrophe along the River
Neckar (South-West Germany) in October 1824
]ochen Seidel PaulDostal Katrin Burger, Florian Imbery
andA1arianoBarriendOs 201
Chapter 12
Times of Flood - Times of Favour. Disaster Management and the Social
Response to Catastrophic Floods: the Example of Saxony (1784-1845)
Guido Poliwoda 218
PARTY. REMOULDING RIVERS, RESHAPING SOCIETIES
Chapter 13
From Natural to Modified Rivers and Back?
Timber Floating in Northern Sweden in 1850-1980 and the Use of
Historical Knowledge in Today's Ecological Stream Restoration
Erik Tbrnlund 243