INTRODUCTION

The term "modernity" encompasses a dynamic concept, evolving from its initial negative
connotations to its current positive associations with progress and development. In the realm
of political philosophy, modernity embodies normative values like individualism, humanism,
and secularism, as well as ideals of justice, liberty, and equality. This evolution was
significantly influenced by the Enlightenment movement of the 18th century, which reshaped
ideas about religion, politics, society, and reason. The Enlightenment catalyzed revolutionary
developments across various domains, including art, philosophy, science, and politics, laying
the foundation for many of the normative values associated with modern political philosophy.
Hence, the Enlightenment played a pivotal role in shaping the modernity project and
continues to inform contemporary political thought.

MODERNISATION THEORY
According to Rostow, there is a universal model of Modernisation that needs to be followed.
According to this idea, there is only one way or path that will lead to Modernisation and that
path is shown to the world by Western Europe. However, this view is being criticised because
there cannot be one track of Modernisation theory. Moreover, this leads to economic
reductionism where economic advancement is considered as a prime factor of Modernisation.

The idea of Modernisation only as a progressive movement towards development is also open
to question. The varied path to development may lead to diverse outcomes. With this logic
history of modern society has no absolute beginning or pre-determined goal.

All philosophers of Enlightenment agreed that Enlightenment included reason, science,

progress, empiricism, universalism, individualism, toleration, freedom, uniformity of human
nature and secularism. Enlightenment is a period in European intellectual history that spans
from the 1st quarter to the last quarter of the 18th century. Geographically centered on France
with important outposts in most European states it composed of ideas and writings of fairly
heterogeneous groups often called by their French name philosophes.

Enlightenment was the work of 3 overlapping but linked generations of philosophes -

1. Voltaire and Montesquieu

2. David Huge and Rousseau

3. Kant and Adam Smith

It is Kant who has the slogan Enlightenment meaning "dare to know". This was a period
where a bundle of ideas and intellectual movements developed the 4 important clusters of
Enlightenment were Paris, Edinburgh, Glasgow and London. This period gave a new belief
system to the world. New publishing industries emerged and new types of people were
engaged in intellectual discourse. New academic disciplines like sociology later under this
particular age of Enlightenment. Enlightenment is considered to be a significant movement in
the history of Western political philosophy.

EVOLUTION OF MODERNITY
Stuart Hall discusses 4 major processes that have led to modernity. Modernity is explained in
terms of interaction between these 4 - political, social, economic and cultural. The leading
ideas include progress, science, reason and nature. It was believed that modernity would lead
to an era of material progress and prosperity, abolition of superstitions, and mastery of nature
based on the expansion of knowledge.

There are certain defining characteristics of modern societies-

1. Dominance of secular forms of political power, sovereignty, legitimacy and defined

territory.

2. Monetized exchange market economy, private property

3. Decline of traditional social order, new class formations, and distinctive patriarchal
relations between men and women.

4. The decline of religious worldview and the rise of secular materialistic culture
exhibiting individualism, rationalism and instrumental impulses.

According to S Hal, the cultural processes are part of the new intellectual world. Modern
societies importantly constructed cultural and social identities as part of a formative process.
For many centuries for the people of Western Europe Christianity was the only common
identity but in Modern societies, the idea of a sense of belonging "imagined communities"
with new images, symbols and languages emerged.

Political, economic, social and cultural processes were 'motors' of the formative process of
modernity. These processes gave Modern societies a distinctive shape making them not just
societies but social formations. Modern societies were societies with definitive structures and
well-defined sets of social relations. This also refers to the processes and structures of
modernity that include the polity, economy, social structure and cultural sphere. In this
process we don't see history as unfolding according to one logic rather there were continuities
and ruptures. In this process of modern societies, different timelines and different outcomes
need to be involved.

WHAT IS ENLIGHTENMENT?
Kant's work What is Enlightenment? was published in 1784 it was an outgrowth of scientific
revolution and the idea that knowledge could be examined and tested. This piece emphasises
that thinking should be independent and open to scrutiny. This was also influenced by
Renaissance Humanism which emphasises that human should recognize their autonomy. In
conclusion, according to Kant Enlightenment is discussed as an organic process that requires
freedom for its completion.

According to Kant Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-imposed immaturity.

Many scholars refer to call Enlightenment as multiple Enlightenments because there were a
lot of contributions from other fields that illuminated generations. One keyword that emerges
in Kant's work is immaturity.

According to Kant immaturity is the ability to use one's understanding without guidance from
others. That is why Kant writes in his work, "Dare to Know". Kant writes laziness has
surrounded all of us therefore if we work to help ourselves we will become a mature person.
We should have the freedom to use our reason publicly in all matters. Kant argues the use of
man's reason must be free and it can bring us towards the path of Enlightenment. Kant
discusses 2 uses of reason- public reason & private reason. According to Public Use of
Reason, everyone is a scholar and must publicly express or make use of reason.

According to the private idea of reason, people do have specific roles as occupational duties
therefore to promote public order person must perform the duties that have been entrusted to
him. According to the idea of public use of reason, there should be complete freedom to
express our opinion however According to private use of reason public needs to be protected.

Laziness and cowardice are the 2 obstacles to achieving Enlightenment. Real Enlightenment
is possible through collective efforts which will be attained slowly. To achieve this we need
freedom. Kant argues that in his society restraints on free thinking are slowly lifted and that is
why he says it is the "age of Enlightenment but not an Enlightened age". Kant argues that an
Enlightened ruler does not impose religious beliefs on people. He allows freedom of religion
and freedom of speech. Moreover when freedom is given to arts, science and other aspects of
life people will naturally come out of barbarianism.

He argues Enlightenment is inevitable because it is the natural progression of mankind

gradually people will realize their natural potential and will move towards the path of
Enlightenment.
There are 3 roots to achieve Enlightenment:
● Overcome immaturity on their own, but Kant says people are scared of maturity and
fond of dependence. Therefore It is difficult for people to break from immaturity
alone.

● Rebellion- a revolution can end restrictions on independent thinking however one

limitation is that it will not change the pattern of thinking therefore it will be difficult
to achieve Enlightenment.

● Collective Enlightenment- it is a gradual and complete achievement of Enlightenment

which is supported by Kant. Kant argues once guardians are Enlightened they will
encourage people to value independent thought. He further writes "argue as much as
 you want and about what you want but obey". This statement reflects Kant's vision of
an Enlightened state. Kant argues that the state is a place where intellectual freedom
thrives but social order is preserved. Therefore he mentions the role of the army to
maintain order.

CRITIQUE
Several thinkers critiqued Kantian Enlightenment. Michel Foucault argued that Kant's notion
of enlightenment is not universally applicable but is instead shaped by historical and cultural
contexts. Foucault challenged the idea of a single, linear progression towards enlightenment
and instead emphasized the diversity of human experiences and the complexities of power
relations within societies. He highlighted how institutions and discourses control and shape
individuals' understanding of truth and rationality. Furthermore, Foucault criticized Kant's
emphasis on the autonomous subject, suggesting that individual agency is constrained by
societal norms and power dynamics. He believed that true enlightenment requires a critical
examination of these power structures and the liberation of individuals from oppressive
systems.
Additionally, Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer and Jean-François Lyotard criticized Kant's
notion of enlightenment for its potential to lead to instrumental reason and societal control.

REFERENCES
Foucault’s Kantian Critique: Philosophy and the Present-Christina Hendricks
What is Enlightenment?- Emmanuel Kant
Formations of Modernity- Stuart Hall & Bram Gieben