UNIVERSIDADE LICUNGO

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

HONOURS’ DEGREE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING WITH HABILITATION

IN PORTUGUESE

CONRADO ROBERTO MAZIVILA

NULL SUBJECT ON ENGLISH SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

AS A RESULT OF THE IMPACT OF PORTUGUESE
LANGUAGE: A CASE OF GRADE 12 AT COALANE
SECONDARY SCHOOL-QUELIMANE

Quelimane

2024
 CONRADO ROBERTO MAZIVILA

NULL SUBJECT ON ENGLISH SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

AS A RESULT OF THE IMPACT OF PORTUGUESE
LANGUAGE: A CASE OF GRADE 12 AT COALANE
SECONDARY SCHOOL-QUELIMANE

Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of

Education, for the attainment of the Honours’
degree in English language teaching.

Supervisor: Manuel Jossias, M.A

Quelimane

2024
 3

Declaration

I declare that this dissertation work is a result of my personal investigation under

guidance of my supervisor, its contents are original and all the sources are cited in the work,
in the notes as well as in the reference list of the work. Not only, I also declare that this work
has not been yet presented in any other academic institution for the attainment of any
academic degree.

Quelimane, ______ / February, 2024

_______________________________________________
Conrado Roberto Mazivila
 4

List of abbreviations and symbols

FTP- Final Teaching Practice

Hp- Hypothesis

L1- First language

L2- Second language

M.A- Master of arts

N°- Number

Q- Question

St- Students

%- Percentage
 5

List of tables and graphics

Table 1: language spoken at home…………………………….…………..………………….27
Table 2: students’ frequency with null subject sentences ……………………...…………….28
Table 3: correct sentences…………………………………………………………………….29
Graphic 1: Portuguese language influence……………………….…………………………...29
Table 4: students’ challenges due to the influence of the Portuguese language………..…….30
Table 5: strategies to improve understanding of English sentence construction…….....…….30
 6

Dedication

To my father Roberto Mazivila

 7

Acknowledgements
This work would not reach this stage without the power of God, for this reason I
express my thankfulness for the protection.
Above all, I express my gratitude to my supervisor Manuel Jossias M.A for the
patience to assist me, as most of the times I was not available for the meetings to discuss
aspects related to the study due to familiar and financial aspects, and for guidance on how to
conduct a study, thus, it was possible to reach at this stage because of his guidance.
To my family, specially my parents, Roberto Mazivila and Constância Cambula and
my siblings Leonel, Arisa, Zenilda, Puchia, Cassima and Mariamo for their support, I would
not accomplish all this without their care and love. To my uncle Lopes Cumbe Júnior who has
always assisted me during my studies, to my cousin Castro Cambula who always encouraged
me to study hard.
I would also like to thank the English language staff, Department of Language
Teaching, M.A Suzana Evali, M.A Antunes Jaime, PhD Gregorio Gonçalves, M.A José Pires,
M.A Joaquim Vinte, M.A Bernardo Caramba and M.A Elias Chichango for the guidance
during the course, and the University, specifically Faculty of Education for all the
opportunities given to me in order to achieve my goal.
To all five wise men, specially Crisóstomo Agostinho Machava (my friend), who
always participated in the design of this study
Finally, I thank all the people who directly or indirectly helped me along the course
and during the production of this dissertation.
 8

Abstract

Mazivila, C. (2023). Null Subject on English Sentence Construction as a Result of the

Impact of Portuguese Language: A Case of Grade 12 at Coalane Secondary School-
Quelimane. Universidade Licungo, Faculty of Education. Quelimane, Moçambique.
The learning of foreign or second language such as English is mostly supported by
first language. This factor may lead the learners to build wrong sentences in English,
transferring the rules of Portuguese language to English language. This study aimed at
exploring the factors leading the grade 12 students to drop the subject in English language
sentence construction. The research was based on both qualitative and quantitative design, or
mixed methods research which is an approach to research that combines both qualitative and
quantitative research methods within a single study or research. Moreover, the sample of the
study constituted of 21 participants. This study applied tests for the grade 12 students and
interview for the teacher as techniques for data collection. The impact of the Portuguese null
subject on English sentences primarily relates to differences in sentence structure and the
requirement for explicit subjects in English. Translating between the two languages can be a
nuanced process, and maintaining clarity and completeness in English sentences often
requires adding subject pronouns that are not present in the original Portuguese sentences.
Thus, the factors that lead grade 12 students at Colane secondary school to drop subject in
English sentences may be: overgeneralization of Portuguese language rules, lack of language
exposure. Therefore, there are approaches for an effective use of the subject in English
sentences such as deductive approach and inductive approach. So, the data collected from the
teachers of English language at Coalane secondary school indicate a need for general
language instruction that addresses both linguistic challenges and external factors such as
language exposition and language competency. On the other hand, the findings from the
students, revealed that the Portuguese language dominance at home contributes to the limited
exposure to English outside the classroom. Thus, the frequent construction of null subject
sentences in English may indicate the lack of sufficient exposure to this linguistic feature.
Therefore, the teachers of English language should provide students with a variety of reading
materials, including texts for them to be aware familiar with the English language structure,
and the students should read English books, or online content in order to get exposed into
various sentence structures.

Keywords: Subject. Null Subject. Sentence Construction.

 9

Contents page
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................11

1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................11

1.2 Research Topic...............................................................................................................12

1.3 Delimitation of the Study...............................................................................................12

1.4 Statement of the Problem...............................................................................................12

1.5 Rationale of the Study....................................................................................................13

1.6 Objective........................................................................................................................14

1.6.1 General objective.......................................................................................................14

1.7 Research Questions........................................................................................................14

1.8 Hypotheses..........................................................................................................................14

1.9 Research methodology...................................................................................................15

1.9.1 Research Design..............................................................................................................15

1.9.1. 1 Qualitative research.....................................................................................................15

1.9.1.2 Quantitative Research...................................................................................................16

1.9.2 Target population.......................................................................................................16

1.9.3 Sample........................................................................................................................17

1.9.4 Techniques and tools for data collection.........................................................................17

1.9.4.1 Tests..............................................................................................................................18

1.9.4.2 Interview.....................................................................................................................18

1.10 Ethical Issues.................................................................................................................19

1.11 Chapter summary..............................................................................................................20

CHAPTER II: LITEARATURE REVIEW..............................................................................21

2.1 First, second and foreign language learning.......................................................................21

2.2 Subject............................................................................................................................22

2.3 Null Subject...................................................................................................................23

2.3.1 Types of Portuguese Null subjects.............................................................................24

 10

2.4 The impact of Portuguese null subject in English sentences.........................................25

2.5 Factors that lead students to drop subject in English sentences.....................................26

2.5.1 Overgeneralization of Portuguese language rules.....................................................26

2.5.2 Language exposure....................................................................................................27

2.6 Approaches for promoting an effective use of the subject in English sentences...........27

2.7 Chapter summary................................................................................................................31

CHAPTER III: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS.................................................32

3.1 Data presentation from teachers’ interview guide..............................................................32

3.1.1 Data analysis...................................................................................................................33

3.2 Data presentation from students’ exercise guide................................................................35

3.2.1 Data analysis...................................................................................................................39

3.3 Chapter summary................................................................................................................42

CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSION, SUGGESTIONS AND LIMITATIONS.............................43

4.1 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................43

4.2 Suggestions.........................................................................................................................44

4.2.1 Suggestions for the teachers of English language...........................................................44

4.2.2 Suggestions for the students.............................................................................................45

4.3 Limitations of the study......................................................................................................45

Appendices................................................................................................................................48
 11

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

English is an international language, learnt and spoken in Mozambique as foreign

language. Nevertheless, this language is not used in Mozambican societies by many people. In
the other side, Portuguese is used as official and first language for some people. However, the
learning of foreign or second language such as English is mostly supported by first language.
This factor may lead the learners to build wrong sentences in English, transferring the rules of
Portuguese language to English language.
It was noticed, during lesson observations, at Sangariveira secondary school that most
of students tend to omit the subject when constructing English language sentences, whereas
this is one of Portuguese rules in which the subject is omitted if the verb provides enough
morphological information about it. So, this may happen because students have been learning
Portuguese since grade 1, and they speak it in the society.
In this way, Roberta (2014, p. 23), asserts that “null subject languages are those, which
leave the subject of the sentence unexpressed (hidden)”. Nevertheless, not all the languages
have this rule; there are specific languages which accept it, the example of Portuguese
language. The possibility of the occurrence of null subject in a language according to Yue
(2022), it is dependent on the existence of an inflectional system with a rich morphological
agreement, being able to unambiguously identify the subject. Thus, English being a language
with a (REMOVE) poor verb morphology, does not allow the occurrence of this rule. But,
most of the times the Portuguese null subject impacts on English sentences constructions.
What would happen to the language without null subject? Although many scholars
believe that English language has a poor verb morphology and it does not allow the
occurrence of null subject, through the impact of different languages, different categories or
types of null subject can raise, the example of “imperative, nonfinite and truncated null
subjects” Nordquist (2019). However, the current study aimed at exploring the factors that
lead the students to drop the subject in English language sentence construction, and it
concentrated on grade 12 students at Coalane secondary school.
The current study encompasses three chapters; the first chapter introduces the research
topic, covering subtopics such as Research Topic; Delimitation of the Study; Statement of the
Problem; Rationale of the Study; Objective; Research Questions; Hypotheses and Research
methodology. The second chapter presents the literature review in which a deeper discussion
concerning the impact of Portuguese null subject on English sentence construction is
 12

presented. The third chapter, is about data presentation and analyses, where the researcher
presented and analyzed the data collected at Coalane secondary school. Lastly, the fourth
chapter is about conclusion and suggestions.

1.2 Research Topic

The topic for this research is: Null Subject on English Sentence Construction as a
result of the Impact of Portuguese Language.

1.3 Delimitation of the Study

The current study focused exclusively on Grade 12 students at Coalane Secondary

School in Quelimane who are learning English as a foreign language and whose first language
is Portuguese. The investigation concentrated on the impact of Portuguese null subject in
English sentence construction. It did not explore other potential linguistic influences or factors
that may contribute to the null subject phenomenon. The data were collected through tests,
structured interviews, and analysis of written works such as books, articles and dissertations.
So, the study did not include observations of spoken interactions in or outside the school
setting, and the participants were grade 12 students and teachers of English language from the
aforementioned school.
The study was limited to Coalane Secondary School in Quelimane, Mozambique.
Thus, the results may not be generalizable to other regions or schools. And it primarily
focused on the null subject usage among Grade 12 students in the specific school setting. It
did not extensively compare this group with other student groups or populations. Notably, the
problem was found at Sangariveira secondary school and the researcher chose the
aforementioned setting because of the advantage of proximity. Lastly, the study was
conducted in October, 2023.

1.4 Statement of the Problem

It is common to hear sentences from Sangariveira secondary school students such as

(*Went to school yesterday), instead of (I went to school yesterday), which is a result of
Portuguese null subject. Mozambican education system has introduced English from grade 7
to 12, while Portuguese is learnt since grade 1 and it is not only used at school, it is also an
official language. In some cases, learning English tends to be more challenging because the
pupils have already acquired and developed Portuguese, which is spoken around Mozambican
communities. Consequently, Portuguese influences English sentence construction in different
 13

aspects such as subject placement, word order in interrogative sentences and affirmative
sentences.
The problem in this study was found during Final Teaching Practice (FTP) in 2022, at
Sangariveira Secondary School, when observing lessons and practicing teaching, where the
researcher noticed that most of the students tended to drop the subject when formulating
English language sentences. Then, it was thought that this problem occurs due to the influence
of Portuguese null subject. From the assertions above, it was raised the question: What factors
lead grade 12 students at Coalane secondary school to drop the subject in English language
sentence construction?
Many authors have conducted similar studies concerning to “Null subject on English
sentence construction as the result of the impact of Portuguese”, with different purposes. For
example, Tati (2021), conducted a study on “The Influence of Portuguese Syntax on the
Learning of English as a Foreign Language: The Case of Null Subject” aiming at identifying
the necessary evidence in order to confirm that Portuguese null subject influences the
learners’ construction of English sentences. Another study was conducted by Yue (2022), on
“The Null Subject Parameter in Portuguese and Mandarin Chinese” aiming at comparing
Portuguese and Mandarin Chinese sentence construction.
However, none of the authors cited above addressed the problem of the current
research and concerned at describing the factors that lead the students to drop the subject in
English language sentence construction. Though there might be other authors who addressed,
the study may have been conducted elsewhere, not in Mozambican context at Coalane
secondary school- Quelimane.

1.5 Rationale of the Study

The approximation of two languages can be the major factor that confuses learners and
lead them to produce ill formed sentences between the two languages (linguistic transference).
Thus, this study described the peculiarities that exist in both Portuguese and English
languages, and it may help the learners to keep the languages apart.
Additionally, this study carries a significant relevance for the target population, future
researchers and the society in general. It may be helpful for both teachers and pupils because
it proposed strategies that may be applied in the lessons, probably the learning process can be
efficient as there are strategies that may make English language learning intact (without
interferences of Portuguese). Understanding how Portuguese language patterns affect English
sentence construction among grade 12 students holds pedagogical significance. It can inform
 14

language teachers and curriculum designers about the challenges faced by students in
constructing English sentences accurately.
Moreover, the specific impact of Portuguese on the null subject phenomenon in
English sentence construction among Grade 12 students in Quelimane remains unexplored.
This research aimed to address this gap by providing insights into this distinct linguistic
influence. The findings of this research may inform language teachers in Quelimane about
linguistic problems faced by Grade 12 students. By understanding the common areas of
linguistic interference, teachers of English language can adapt many strategies to enhance
language proficiency. Lastly, this study helped the researcher to attain the degree, and it
functioned as a way of experiencing academic writings. On the other hand, the grade 12
students may be aware of this transference and take care whenever they use English language,
through this, by the time they may become fluent users of English language.

1.6 Objective

1.6.1 General objective

The objective of this study is to explore factors that lead the grade 12 students to drop
the subject in English language sentence construction.

1.7 Research Questions

The current research was intended to answer the following research questions:

 What factors lead the students to drop the subject in English language sentence
construction?

 How does Portuguese null subject influence English sentence construction?

 What strategies should be applied for an effective use of subject in English sentence
construction?

1.8 Hypotheses
 Hp1: The extensive use of null subjects in Portuguese language construction
influences the tendency to omit subjects in English sentences among grade 12
students, particularly in contexts where subject pronouns are not obligatory,
potentially leading to grammatical errors and reduced clarity in their English language
expression;
 15

 Hp2: The impact of the Portuguese language on null subject usage in English may
vary depending on the students’ proficiency level;
 Hp3: English language teachers do not raise grade 12 students’ awareness concerning
the differences between English and Portuguese sentence construction, especially the
use of subjects;
 Hp4: Students are only exposed to Portuguese language;
 Hp5: Teachers of English language at Coalane secondary school do not promote
English sentence structure.

1.9 Research methodology

This part presents the methodological aspects, which were used during the production of
the study, such as: type of the research, procedures, instruments for data collection and the
participants. Thus, in this part the researcher tells how the study was conducted and what was
done before starting collecting data.

1.9.1 Research Design

The research was based on both qualitative and quantitative design, or mixed methods
research which is an approach to research that combines both qualitative and quantitative
research methods within a single study or research. To sustains, Creswell (2009, p. 119) states
that “a mixed methods purpose statement contains the overall intent of the study, information
about both the quantitative and qualitative strands of the study, and a rationale of
incorporating both strands to study the research problem”.
Mixed methods design according to Creswell (2009, p. 189) are used “to broaden
understanding by incorporating both qualitative and quantitative research, or to use one
approach to better understand”. Therefore, mixed methods research for this study was relevant
in the research context because it offered several chance to present both quantitative and
qualitative data for the addressed problem.

1.9.1. 1 Qualitative research

Qualitative research is used to understand subjects’ experiences concerning certain
problem and present data in qualitative way, that is, without involving numbers. Dawson
(2002, p.15) claims that “qualitative research explores attitudes, behaviour and experiences
through such methods as interviews or focus groups. It attempts to get an in-depth opinion
from participants. As it is attitudes, behaviour and experiences, which are important, fewer
 16

people take part in the research. However, the contact with these people tends to last a lot
longer”.
Taherdoost (2022, p. 11), states that “this type of data answers to "how and why"
questions in a research study and mostly covers data regarding feelings, perceptions, and
emotions using unstructured approaches such as interviews for data collection”.
Thus, the researcher used this method in order to analyse deeply all the problems faced
by the students in English sentence construction and propose the possible approaches that can
be used to minimize the grade 12 students’ problems in constructing English language
sentences at Coalane secondary school. Therefore, using qualitative method enabled the
researcher to get in-depth insights about the students understanding regarding null-subject
phenomena in English sentence construction.

1.9.1.2 Quantitative Research

On the other hand, the study also employed quantitative research type. It is a method
which concerns with collecting and making sense of members that can enable them to provide
sort of response to the research focus. It also concentrates on finding explanations and proving
or disproving prediction based on hypotheses and research question. Additionally, it involves
numeral data and its results are analysed through statistics means Kervin (2006, p. 160).
Indeed, some data of the research were presented in statistical model in order to relate the rate
of participants and their responses.

1.9.2 Target population

The target population is known as group of subjects to be studied. Kothari (2004, p.

55) claims that all items in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or population. A
complete enumeration of all items in the population is known as a census inquiry or target
population. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry, when all items are covered, no element
of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. When the field of inquiry is large, this
method becomes difficult to adopt because of the resources involved. Thus, there is a need of
sampling a certain group at Coalane Secondary School for the inquiry.
The current study was intended to describe factors that lead the grade 12 students to
drop the subject in English language sentence construction. The target population of the
current research were grade 12 students and teachers of English language from Coalane
secondary school. So, it was believed that working with both teachers and students could
provide a solid information, since there was an opportunity to ensure the source of the
 17

problem under investigation. At Coalane secondary school there are 5 grade 12 streams, and
each stream has a proximity of 90 students and one teacher of English language teaching this
grade in dayshift, therefore, the target population for this study constitute of 451 subjects.

1.9.3 Sample

As stated in the previous subtopic, the target population were teachers of English
language and grade 12 students from Coalane Secondary School. Thus, it is thought that
working with the entire school may be time consuming and it may create financial constraints.
So, there was a need of selecting or specifying a correspondent sample that represented the
target population. In this way, the study specifically involved teachers of English Language
from Coalane Secondary School. Where was selected one teacher of English language and
also, there was randomly selected 20 grade 12 students to participate in the study. Kothari
(2004), states that “the selected respondents constitute what is technically called a sample and
the selection process is called sampling technique”. (p. 55)
Taking into consideration the number of the selected population, it is believed that there
was a correspondent information which on the one hand created a generalizable results
regarding the phenomenon under investigation among grade 12 students at Coalane secondary
school. Therefore, the sample constituted of 21 participants.

1.9.4 Techniques and tools for data collection

To conduct a research, it is essential to state the techniques and tools for data
collection, For Kothari (2004, p.10) techniques for data collection are ways to solve the
research problem, they may be understood as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in
studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. The importance of knowing
research methodology and research techniques is obvious since the same constitute the tools
of his trade. The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the new
research worker and enables him to do better research.
For data collection, there was an involvement of some techniques and instruments.
Techniques for data collection are the process through which the researcher gather the
information. Thus, this study applied tests for the grade 12 students and interview for the
teachers of English language at Coalane secondary school as techniques to gather useful data
regarding the impact of Portuguese null subject in English sentence construction. In the
perspective of Khabir (2016), data collection is one of the most crucial stages when
 18

conducting a study, as it allows the researcher to gather and analyze information, in order to
fulfill the stated objectives. Moreover, there were be used interview guide sheet and
questionnaire guide as tools for data collection.

1.9.4.1 Tests

A test is a technique used in quantitative or mixed methods, in Stage 2: Choosing

Data-Gathering Methods for Your Project (n.d), is stated that “tests are designed to measure
knowledge, skills, or attitudes that participants possess about a particular topic” (p. 38). In this
technique, it was used exercise guide as a tool for data collection. The data from exercise
guide were presented statistically, as the technique prompts to present quantitative data.
For data collection, there was designed exercise guide which is a research tool
consisting of a set of questions that were designed to collect data or responses from grade 12
students at Coalane secondary school. Thus, there were randomly selected 30 students to be
assigned the questions, where 15 were males and 15 females. In random selection according
to Creswell (2009) each individual in the population has an equal probability of being selected
(a systematic or probabilistic sample).

1.9.4.2 Interview

Interview is often face to face process where there is interviewer and interviewee, one
person asks questions and the other/s answer to them. According to George (2022, p.1), an
interview is a qualitative research method that relies on asking questions in order to collect
data. Interviews involve two or more people, one of whom is the interviewer asking the
questions. In this procedure, the interviewers have a general plan for what they want to ask,
the questions do not have to follow a particular phrasing or order. They are often open ended,
allowing for flexibility, but follow a predetermined thematic framework, giving a sense of
order.” (George, 2022, p.2)
So, the purpose of this technique was to know from the teachers the reasons
underlying the misplacement of subject in English sentences construction. Thus, the
participants in this method were one (01) teacher of English language from Coalane
Secondary School. Thus, for the collection of data, the researcher used interview guide sheet.

a) Interview guide sheet

Interview guide sheet is a tool or a physical paper in which the researcher writes
questions to assign to the participants in the field. In Research Tools-11: Interview,
 19

Observation and Documents (n.d, p. 123), is said that “interview guide sheet is a device
consisting of a set of questions, which are asked and filled in by an interviewer in a face-to-
face situation with the interviewee. Since it is administered personally, it provides the
researcher an opportunity to establish a rapport with the respondents”.

1.10 Ethical Issues

“As a researcher you must remember that the research process intrudes on people’s
lives. Some of the people who take part in your research may be vulnerable because of their
age, social status or position of powerlessness. If participants are young, you need to make
sure a parent or guardian is present. If participants are ill or reaching old age you might need
to use a proxy and care should be taken to make sure that you do not affect the relationship
between the proxy and the participant.” (Dawson, 2002, p. 146)
Before starting with data collection process, there was considered some ethical issues
which enabled the researcher to gather reasonable and measurable data. Ethical issues, include
the morality and good behavior of the researcher in the field. Dawson (2002, p. 104), states
that before going to the field the researcher should ask such questions: do I intend to be
completely honest about who am I and what I’m doing? Am I prepared to lie if it means you
can gain access? How would I deal with any problems which may arise as a consequence of
your deception?
To guarantee the freedom of expression, and gain true and reasonable data, the
researcher considered some ethical issues such as: going to the field with credential that tells
where he/she is coming from (the institution), the purpose of the study, and ask permission to
conduct the study; after being accepted by the school, the researcher introduced himself to
teachers of English and guarantee that in the study no participants’ was written.
 20

1.11 Chapter summary

English being a language with poor verb morphology, does not allow the occurrence
of null subject in sentences. During Final Teaching Practice, at Sangariveira Secondary
School, when observing lessons and practicing teaching, it was noticed that most of the
students tend TO drop the subject when formulating English language sentences. Thus, the
researcher decided to conduct a study on the topic “Null Subject on English Sentence
Construction as a result of the Impact of Portuguese Language: A Case of grade 12 at Coalane
Secondary School” aiming at describing factors that lead the grade 12 students to drop the
subject in English language sentence construction.
Notably, the current study focused exclusively on Grade 12 students at Coalane
Secondary School in Quelimane. The data were collected through tests, structured interviews,
and analysis of written works such as books, articles and dissertations. Therefore,
understanding how Portuguese language patterns affect English sentence construction among
Grade 12 students holds pedagogical significance. The target population of the current
research were grade 12 students, teachers of English language from Coalane secondary school
and English documents discussing “Null subject on English Sentence Construction as a result
of the Impact of Portuguese”. There were selected one teacher of English language and also
were randomly selected 20 grade 12 students from Coalane secondary school. The procedures
for data collection were tests and interviews.
 21

CHAPTER II: LITEARATURE REVIEW

Literature review is a chapter of a research that is concerned with the theoretical

aspects about certain topic. So, there is a discussion among different scholars regarding the
foreign language, the influence of Portuguese subject in English as foreign language and other
aspects. Thus, the concepts of subject and its classification are presented based on previous
studies.

2.1 First, second and foreign language learning

To contextualize the discussion, it is essential to understand the differences among

some concepts presented in the introduction such as first, second and foreign language. The
English language is learnt as foreign and second language by grade 12 students at Coalane
secondary school. Castello (2015, p. 5), explains that the initial state of first language (L1)
learning reflects an innate capacity and desire for language acquisition. In contrast to second
language (L2) learners, those acquiring L1 possess no real-world knowledge or proven skills,
and hence have no pre-existing awareness of many language functions. For example, how to
request, demand or command. Additionally, a second language learning is a conscious choice
of a person, and it can be selected according to his/her needs. According to Surayyo (2022):

The first language acquisition commences when we are toddlers, the ability to
speak our mother tongue shapes naturally without much effort. Therefore, not
enough significance is attached to this process. Being one of the most complex
cognitive skills, a language is mastered by children astonishingly quickly who,
in turn, learn it on a subconscious level by observing and repeating after the
ones around them (p. 100).

L1, also known as the native language or mother tongue, is the language that a person
acquires naturally as their first language from birth or during early childhood. On the other
hand, L2 is a language that a person learns after acquiring their L1. It is a language that is not
the person’s native language. Surayyo (2022), sustains that “second language
acquisition/learning, on the other hand, is a conscious process and is sometimes erroneously
confused with bilingualism” (p. 100). On the other hand, foreign language is a language that
is not the native or primary language of a particular individual, community, or region. It is a
language that is spoken and used in a different country or culture from one’s own. “The term
foreign language is employed to refer to an L2 which does not play a social role in the
community of the learner. That is, when there is little, or no opportunity to use it, since there
is no social need to do so in the community where it is learned” (Anonymous). Moreover,
 22

Moeller (2015), explains that “foreign language learning and teaching refer to the teaching or
learning of a nonnative language outside of the environment where it is commonly spoken”
(p. 327).
For example, if someone whose native language is Echuabo learns and speaks English,
then English is considered a foreign language to that individual. In sum, the L2 and foreign
language are often associated with a non-native language that grade 12 students at Coalane
secondary school may learn for various purposes, such as communication, work, education,
travel, or cultural enrichment. However, the English language in this context is considered as
foreign/L2 because is a non-native language to these students, whereas, the Portuguese is
native for some students and it is commonly spoken in the Mozambican societies
(Quelimane), though there might be other languages such as Echuabo, Elomwe, and others,
with these explanation, taking into consideration Portuguese and English, Portuguese is L1
and English is L2. Therefore, grade 12 students from Coalane secondary school most of the
times transfer the Portuguese language rules to English, as this language (Portuguese) is
commonly spoken in the societies, differently from English.

2.2 Subject

Subject is the doer of the action or a noun the statement is made to. For Aarts (1997, p.
8), subject is “the constituent that on the one hand tells us who performs the action denoted by
the verb, and on the other hand tells us who or what the sentence is about.” In the same
perspective, Carter and McCarthy (2012) point out that subject is a term used to refer “the
noun phrase which precedes the verb, and which indicates the ‘doer’ or agent of an action, or
the participant that an event or state happens to or refers to”.
It can be noticed that the two authors quoted above understand a subject as what
performs the action. For example, in the sentence “Jenny cooks the meal”, the subject is
Jenney, because is who performs the action of cooking.
Notably, the subject of a sentence is one of the fundamental components of a
sentence's structure. It is a key element that typically performs the action described by the
verb or is the main focus of the sentence. The subject is an essential part of constructing a
sentence correctly. Understanding the subject of a sentence by grade 12 students at Coalane
secondary school is fundamental to grasping its meaning and constructing grammatically
correct sentences.
 23

2.3 Null Subject

Before tackling the concept of null subject, it was relevant to discuss about subject. In
general, the term subject is defined as the performer or doer of the action in a given sentence,
besides that, subject is an indispensable element of a sentence.
In the perspective of Arts (1997, p. 8), subject is the part of the sentence, which shows
who performs the action denoted by the verb, and tells us who or what the sentence is about.
In the same line of ideas, Carter and McCarthy (2012) assert that subject is a term used to
refer the noun phrase which precedes the verb, and which indicates the ‘doer’ or agent of an
action or participant that an event or state happens to or refers to.
In fact, subject is the nucleus of the sentence and it determines the performer of the
action in a given sentence. However, there are cases, in which the subject does not perform
any action, this occurs when the subject precedes a stative predicate. In addition to what has
been said about subject, it is possible in some languages to find sentences without an
expressed subject, the case of Portuguese, this type of subject is called null subject. Thus, the
term null subject is traditionally attributed to a sentence in which the subject is unexpressed
(omitted).
Roberta (2014) asserts that null subject languages are those, which leave the subject of
the sentence unexpressed (hidden). In these languages, it is acceptable to build a sentence
without subject. In the same perspective, Kempchinsky (1984) defines null subject languages
as those, which allow subject position to be filled by phonetically null element.
On the other hand, Aarts (2011, p.20) points that in null subject languages, the subject
may be conveyed by the inflection of the verb. Furthermore, the subject is omitted if the verb
provides enough morphological information about it.
Thus, a null subject in a sentence refers to a sentence construction in which the subject
is not explicitly stated. Instead of a specific noun or pronoun serving as the subject of the
sentence, the subject is implied by the context or the verb conjugation. Null subjects are more
common in some languages than in others, and they can have various grammatical and
stylistic functions. In contrast, languages like English typically require an explicit subject in
most sentences. Omitting the subject in English can lead to ambiguity or confusion. For
instance, “Ate breakfast” lacks a subject and doesn't clearly indicate who ate breakfast.
Understanding the use of null subjects in a language by grade 12 students at Coalane
secondary school is essential for proper communication and comprehension, especially when
working with languages where this construction is common.
 24

2.3.1 Types of Portuguese Null subjects

a. Argument subjects

Yue (2022, p. 92) states that argument subjects assume thematic roles in a sentence. In
the case of argument subjects, rich verbal morphology plays the central role in allowing the
subject position to be null. In this type, the subject position is not even projected, because it is
the verbal agreement morphology that works as a pronoun.
Examples: Vais ao cinema. (tu) Vs. Go to the market*
The other example, in the sentence “She eats an apple” “She” is the subject, and it is
also an argument because it is required by the verb “eats” to complete the meaning of the
sentence. Without the subject, the sentence would lack clarity and completeness.

b. Generic/arbitrary subjects

Here the omitted subject is based on individual description; different subjects can be
presented by different people to the same sentence in which the subject was dropped. Yue
(2022, p. 93) affirms that generic/arbitrary subjects are an interesting topic in the study of the
Null Subject Parameter, because they are usually substituted by the pronoun and a null
pronoun with a 3rd person plural verb morphology, receiving an existential interpretation,
similar to ‘someone’ or ‘some people’.
Exemples: Dizem que vai chover amanhã. Vs. Say that it will rain tomorrow.
Undoubtedly, these types interfere in English language sentence construction when
learning it as foreign or second language. These interferences lead the grade 12 students at
Coalane secondary school to build wrong sentences in their speeches or writings in English
language. In addition, generic subjects or arbitrary subjects refer to a specific type of subject
in a sentence. These subjects are used to make general statements or convey ideas that are not
tied to any particular or specific individual or entity. Instead, they represent a category, class,
or concept in a broad or general sense. Generic and arbitrary subjects are often used to discuss
universal truths, generalizations, or typical behaviours.
The use of generic and arbitrary subjects allows speakers and writers to discuss
concepts and ideas in a general and abstract manner, without specifying particular instances.
These constructions are common in academic writing, philosophical discussions, and when
making general observations about the world. The choice of whether to use a generic or
arbitrary subject often depends on the context and the nature of the statement being made.
 25

2.4 The impact of Portuguese null subject in English sentences

The learning of foreign language such as English is mostly supported by first

language. Thus, learners of English at Coalane secondary school construct sentences
following the rules of Portuguese as they have been learning it since grade 1. This factor is so
called negative transfer.
According to Yule (2014, p.191), negative language transfer occurs when a learner's
first language causes target language errors. It occurs when the grammatical structure is
different from one language to the other and the outcome breaks the linguistic laws in the
target language. This factor affects linguistic components such as lexis, orthography,
morphology, syntax and others. However, the concern of this writing is on the syntax
specifically the subject.
In addition to that, Odlin (1989, p. 27) points that, negative impact results from
similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been
previously acquired. Further, the author claims that the influence arises from a learner’s
conscious or unconscious judgment that something in the native language and something in
the target language are similar, if not the same.
In fact, negative impact may result from the approximation between two languages
(L1 and target language). Portuguese and English sentences follow the SVO structure;
however, Portuguese sentences sometimes leave the subject unexpressed, while in English
sentences, the subject is obligatory.
The examples of the Portuguese null subject in English sentences are presented below:
Examples:
1. Went to school*
2. Ate an apple*
The examples above are source of the negative impact of Portuguese subject. This
problem occurs because Portuguese is a null subject language, unlike English whose subject
an indispensable constituent of the sentence.
Examples:
1. I went to school.
2. She ate an apple.
Thus, the impact of the Portuguese null subject on English sentences primarily relates
to differences in sentence structure and the requirement for explicit subjects in English.
Translating between the two languages can be a nuanced process, and maintaining clarity and
 26

completeness in English sentences often requires adding subject pronouns that are not present
in the original Portuguese sentences.

2.5 Factors that lead students to drop subject in English sentences

It is of paramount relevance to discuss about the insights from languages, since each
language carries its components. Moreover, subject is one of the interesting issues that require
a deep discussion because there are languages, which leave the subject of the sentences
unexpressed, and the others do not do so, hence Portuguese is one of the languages in which
the subject is unexpressed, so it is understood through the context. In Portuguese, it is normal
to see a sentence starting with a verb, but it does not mean there is no subject in such
sentence, it does exist but it is not directly expressed, so Portuguese is a null subject language.
By contrast, in English sentences, the subject is always necessary; this means that
English verbs cannot fill the subject gap. On the other hand, English verbs fail to express the
subject in sentences. Consequently, when speakers of Portuguese get into contact with
English language, they may produce ungrammatical sentences due to the influence of
Portuguese.

2.5.1 Overgeneralization of Portuguese language rules

Overgeneralization is the process of overgeneralizing some principles or rules. In

language, grade 12 students at Coalane secondary school may overgeneralize the rules of the
same language, the example of using the rules of past simple regular verbs in past simple
irregular verbs, or in different languages. The example of using Portuguese sentence structure
in English sentence structure.
According to Al-Baldawi, & Saidat (2011, p. 86) “Overgeneralization is the
phenomenon when one overextends one rule to cover instances to which that rule does not
apply. This phenomenon may appear in different aspects such as semantic, syntactic,
morphological, or behavioural.”
From this view, it can be understood that one of factors that leads the grade 12
students to drop the subject in English sentence construction can be overgeneralization factor.
In which the students transfer the rules of Portuguese language to English language, as they
are exposed to this language since their childhood, or first age school.
Thus, language overgeneralization is a common occurrence when students are learning
a new language. It happens because learners often try to apply the rules and patterns, they are
familiar with from their native language to the new language they are acquiring. However,
 27

since every language has its own unique set of rules and structures, these overgeneralizations
can result in incorrect grammar, vocabulary usage, pronunciation, and sentence structure.
Overgeneralization can be a natural part of the language learning process as learners try to
make sense of the new language by relating it to their existing knowledge. However, with
continued practice and exposure to the correct language patterns, learners typically reduce
these overgeneralization errors over time.

2.5.2 Language exposure

Language exposure refers to the amount of time and opportunities an individual has to
hear, speak, read, and interact in a particular language. It plays a crucial role in language
acquisition and proficiency, especially for individuals learning a new language. For Zoubi
(2018) cited in Bing, Mustofa & Anam (2022, p. 2), language exposure is “the contact that the
learners have with the target language that they are attempting to learn”. Thus, someone is
exposed to the language when that language is spoken by his surroundings in their everyday
life.
One of the examples of language exposure is when someone from England, who does
not speak Portuguese comes to Quelimane district, where Portuguese language is almost
spoken by all the people. So, that person will be exposed to Portuguese language, and may
easily learn it. However, as in our country students do not have this exposition to English
language, they tend to transfer the rules of the language that they are exposed to (Portuguese),
to English language rules.
On the other hand, Bing et al, (2022, p. 2) sustains that “outside the classroom,
exposure is in more varied forms of activities, such as watching movies, playing online
games, listening to the radio, or chatting with friends on social media.” Nevertheless, most of
the students are exposed to this activities, films, games and radio in Portuguese language.
In language learning, the more exposure one has to a language, the more proficient
they are likely to become. However, it is important to note that the quality of exposure matters
to avoid the overgeneralization of rules. Engaging in meaningful conversations, actively
practicing, and using diverse resources can enhance the effectiveness of language exposure.

2.6 Approaches for promoting an effective use of the subject in English sentences

Discussing strategies for an effective use of subject in sentences is the same as

discussing about different ways for teaching the placement of subject in English sentence
construction. Chamot (1987), cited in Mandlhazi (2011, p. 18) defines learning strategies as
 28

“techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the
learning and recall of both linguistic and content area formation.”
According to Hewings (1999), “normal sentences in English such as affirmative and
negative present the subject as the first constituent, followed by a conjugated verb then the
complement (Subject + verb + complement). By contrast, Interrogative sentences are
inversion of the normal sentences order.” In formulation of English sentence, it is crucial to
take into account the English structure (SVO) that enables the right placement of the
constituents. Additionally, it is necessary to think of the form of sentence, as there are
declarative and interrogative sentences. Mandlhazi (2011) states that:

There are specific strategies teachers can use for successful grammar teaching,
for example, Metacognitive strategies: self-management, planning, monitoring;
Cognitive strategies: deduction/induction, elaboration, transfer strategies;
Social/ Affective strategies: cooperation, question for clarification, and self-
talk. (p. 35)

Cohen (1990, p. 125) stipulates that teachers of English as a second language need to
employ strategies flexibly by selecting those strategies that are appropriate for their learners to
perform a particular grammar task. In the other side, Harmer (2007, p. 81), sustains that
“many people have contrasted two approaches (called, rather unhelpfully, deductive and
inductive) for introducing students to specific aspects of language.”
Strategies for the effective use of subjects in English sentences are highly relevant
because the subject is a fundamental component of English grammar and sentence structure.
Properly using subjects by grade 12 students at Coalane secondary school in English
sentences construction is essential for clear and coherent communication in both spoken and
written English.

2.6.1 The deductive approach

The other strategy that can be used to enhance the effective use of subject in English
sentence construction by grade 12 students at Coalane secondary school is deductive
approach. For Harmer (2007, p. 81), “in a deductive approach, students are given explanations
or grammar rules, for example, and then, based on these explanations or rules, they make
phrases and sentences using the new language.”
From this perspective, it can be understood that deductive approach is based on
inferences from general principles. However, for students to avoid omitting the subject when
constructing English language sentences, the teachers have to teach them English grammar
 29

rules. In this method, the teachers focus on the rules of a certain grammar topic first,
explaining it. After that the students practice the given rules. For example, if the teacher wants
to teach the present simple, first he has to highlight its use and structure. After that provides
examples and get students to practice.
To sustain, Harmer (2007, p. 81), says that “it can be seen that this explain and
practice approach to teaching aspects of the language system looks very much like a straight
arrows sequence in which the order of elements is engage, study and activate. It suits some
students and language points very well.” For Borrego (2018):

A deductive approach is rule-driven learning; it starts presenting a rule

followed by examples in which that rule is applied. This teaching goes from an
explicit presentation of metalinguistic information, the planning of a set of
generalizations, isolated language rules at autonomous levels of description
consequently accompanied by model sentences, to its application into the
second language and by practicing it in tasks once the clarification has already
been studied and assimilated. This technique already provides the learners the
grammatical rule, describing how to form the new structure, its components
and when to use it. Learners are supposed to understand and memorize it and to
be able to put it into practice. (p. 411)

Notably, the deductive teaching approach is a method of instruction where the teacher
first presents a general concept or rule to students and then follows it with specific examples
or exercises to illustrate and apply the concept. The deductive approach is characterized by
starting with a clear explanation of the grammatical concept (the general rule) and then
providing practice to reinforce and apply that rule. It is a teacher-centered method that is
useful for introducing new concepts and ensuring students have a solid understanding of the
fundamental rules before moving on to more complex language usage.

2.6.2 The inductive approach

By contrast to deductive approach, inductive approach starts from the activities or

examples to rules of a specific grammar. Harmer (2007, p. 82), affirms that “in a so-called
inductive approach, things happen the other way round. In other words, instead of going from
the rules to the examples, students see examples of language and try to work out the rules.
In this method, the language instructions happen contrarily from deductive method.
Here the teacher starts with activities or examples and get students to find out the grammar in
charge and its rules trough the given examples or activities. Another way that can be used by
the teachers in language instruction, for an effective placement of subject in English sentence
 30

construction can be the different activities related to sentence construction. For example, the
teacher may write, or
spell a sentence and ask the students to identify the speaker or doer of the action.
According to Borrego (2018, p. 412), “an inductive approach is discovery learning; it
starts with some examples from which a rule is reached. In the inductive way the student
studies the examples without knowing the rule and from those examples he/she makes and
understands the rule”.
The inductive teaching approach is a method of instruction where the teacher provides
students with specific examples or experiences first, and from these examples, students are
guided to discover and generalize principles, concepts, or rules. The inductive approach
encourages active engagement and critical thinking as students draw conclusions from their
own observations and experiences. It allows students to construct their understanding of a
topic and promotes a deeper understanding of concepts by involving them in the learning
process.
So, these strategies may bring to the grade 12 students at Coalane secondary school
the awareness of English sentences structures and avoid omitting the subject when it is not
necessary. By the result they will be avoiding transferring Portuguese language rules to
English language rules, as it is believed that English being a language with a poor verb
morphology, does not allow the occurrence of null subject.
 31

2.7 Chapter summary

This chapter, discussed various aspects related to the topic “Null Subject on English
Sentence Construction as a result of the Impact of Portuguese Language”. L1, also known as
the native language or mother tongue, is the language that a person acquires naturally as their
first language from birth or during early childhood. On the other hand, L2 is a language that a
person learns after acquiring their L1.
Subject is a term used to refer the noun phrase which precedes the verb, and which
indicates the ‘doer’ or agent of an action, or the participant that an event or state happens to or
refers to. A null subject in a sentence refers to a sentence construction in which the subject is
not explicitly stated. There are various types of Portuguese null subjects, some of them are
argument subjects and generic/arbitrary subjects. In fact, negative impact may result from the
approximation between two languages (L1 and target language). Portuguese and English
sentences follow the SVO structure; however, Portuguese sentences sometimes leave the
subject unexpressed, while in English sentences, the subject is obligatory.
The factors that may lead students to drop subject in English sentences may be:
overgeneralization of Portuguese language rules, lack of language exposure. Therefore, there
are approaches for an effective use of the subject in English sentences such as deductive
approach and inductive approach.
 32

CHAPTER III: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

In this chapter, it is presented the data collected at Coalane secondary school.

According to Khotari (2004, p. 122) “the data, after collection, has to be processed and
analyzed in accordance with the outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing
the research plan. This is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all
relevant data for making contemplated comparisons and analysis.” Thus, the researcher
presented the data collected in the field through teacher’s interview guide and students
exercise guide, then, the data were analyzed in order to bring up the results of the study.
However, the findings are compared with the earlier findings of the previous scholars who
researched on the similar topics of this study.

3.1 Data presentation from teachers’ interview guide

In this sequence, it is presented and analyzed the data collected from the teachers. The
teachers’ interview guide constituted of five (05) questions which were assigned to the teacher
of English language at Coalane Secondary school.
Regarding the Q1: As teacher of English language, what factors do you think can lead
students to misplace the subject in English sentences construction? The researcher wanted to
identify the factors that lead the grade 12 students to misplace the subject in English sentences
construction.
Answer: “the factors that lead students to misplace the subject in English sentences
construction include problems on how to construct sentences in English, few time to learn
English and occasional contact with the English language”.
Q2: How does Portuguese language sentence construction influences English language
sentence construction in placing the subject? This question, was assigned to teachers of
English language in order to know how Portuguese language sentence construction influences
English language sentence construction in placing the subject on grade 12 students at Coalane
secondary school.
Answer: “Portuguese language sentence construction influences English language
sentence construction in placing the subject in the sense that the students tend to translate
directly Portuguese sentences to English, that is, they translate word by word”.
In order to identify the reasons underlying the Portuguese language sentences
construction influences on English language sentence construction in placing the subject it
 33

was raised the Q3: Why does Portuguese language sentences construction influences English
language sentence construction in placing the subject?
Answer: Portuguese language sentences construction influences English language
sentence construction in placing the subject because the students have Portuguese as their
first language, then, they this language and not English, they do not usual practice
constructing sentences, and are not exposed to English”.
Q4: What strategies do you think should be adopted to help students not misplace the
subject in English sentences construction? The purpose of this question was assigned to
identify the strategies that can be adopted to help grade 12 students at Coalane secondary
school not misplace the subject in English sentences construction.
Answer: “the strategies that can be used in order to help students not misplace the
subject in English sentences construction are the following: reading, through reading the
students discover how sentences are constructed, provide copies about sentence construction
in different tenses and provide homework for students to practice English sentences
construction”.
Q5: What activities do you think should be given to students to promote an effective
awareness of English sentences construction? This question aimed at identifying the activities
that can be given to students to promote an effective awareness of English sentences
construction.
Answer: “the activities that can be given to students to promote an effective
awareness of English sentences construction are: writing composition, group activities in
which the students can be given sentences to identify the subject, gap filling activities,
through these, the students can be aware about how to construct sentences in English
language as practice makes perfection”.

3.1.1 Data analysis

In this step, the researcher analyses qualitatively the teachers’ information gathered
through interview guide sheet. Creswell (2009), data analysis should be inductively built from
particulars to general themes, and the researcher makes interpretations of the meaning of the
data. The final written report should have a flexible structure. So, there were five (05)
questions assigned for the teachers of English language, answered, and finally analysed as can
be seen below:
The process of learning any L2 is always influenced by the L1, these fact has been
confirmed by Tati (2021); Mujcinovic (2020) and Tomasello & Carol Herron (1988) in their
 34

studies. In this perspective, the data collected at Coalane secondary school, from the teachers
of English language revealed that the factors leading the grade 12 students to omit the subject
in the construction of English language sentences include the lack of enough time to learn the
English language, occasional contact with the English language and lack of interest.
Clearly, the factors mentioned a multifaceted issue, involving both linguistic
challenges and external constraints such as time and exposure. Additionally, Tati (2021, p.
757), in his study entitled “The Influence of Portuguese Syntax on the Learning of English as
a Foreign Language: The Case of Null Subject”, has concluded that the learners’ insufficient
grammatical competence and the paucity of their exposure to the target language” lead them
to omit the subject when constructing sentences in English language.
In the same perspective Saville-Troike (2012), cited in Castello (2015, p. 4), adds that
“the initial state of L1 learning reflects an innate capacity and desire for language acquisition,
but the prior knowledge of L1 cannot be negated when considering the ‘initial state’ for L2
learning”. Subsequently, from the results, it is clear that the students misplace the subject
because they usually translate directly Portuguese sentences to English language as it makes
part of their prior knowledge. In the research of Tati (2021), it was observed that the
participants carried over the Portuguese influence to English. One example of this observation
was the frequent omission of the English subject. Such omission is not typical of English,
where the subject is obligatory. This state of affairs prompted the pupils to produce such
sentences as:
*Am good student, instead of I am a good student.
Direct translation, or translating word by word a Portuguese language statement to
English can lead to incorrect statement, this usually occurs because the two languages
(Portuguese and English) get in contact in teaching and learning process at Coalane secondary
school. However, Mujcinovic (2020, p. 103), stated that “in language contact situations with
an L2 being acquired after the L1 and in an institutional context, L2 learners typically rely on
their L1. The more similarities the learners are able to identify between the two languages (i.e.
their L1 and the L2), the more grammatical and adequate their L2 production will be”.
To address this issue, there are different strategies that the teachers of English
language at Colane secondary school can use to address this problem, which focus on
teaching grammar. However, Michael Tomasello and Carol Herron (1988), cited in Garcia &
Pina (n.d, p. 7), conducted a study in which they found that “students tended to learn more
when the teacher commented on their language transfer errors than when instruction focused
only on examples of correct usage. So it seems to be a good idea to pay attention to students’
 35

language transfer errors, and to use these errors as a basis for teaching”. This process can be
employed as a strategy for an effective awareness of English sentences construction at
Coalane secondary school
On the other hand, the teachers of English language at Coalane secondary school
believe that students can be taught how to construct adequately the sentences in English
language through reading, by reading the students discover how sentences are constructed,
provide copies about sentence construction in different tenses and provide homework for
students to practice English sentences construction, and get them practice trough
compositions and sentence construction in different tenses.
All in all, the data collected from the teachers of English language at Coalane
secondary school indicate a need for general language instruction that addresses both
linguistic challenges and external factors such as language exposition and language
competency. On the other hand, the strategies and activities proposed by teachers emphasize
practical engagement, indicating a shift from passive learning to active participation for
effective learning outcomes. Subsequently, the understanding of the influence of the students’
first language provides a foundation for targeted interventions in language transfer aspects.

3.2 Data presentation from students’ exercise guide

In this step, the researcher presents the data gathered though exercise guide sheet. The
exercise guide was assigned to grade 12 students in order to collect information related to
“Null Subject on English Sentence Construction as a result of the Impact of Portuguese
Language”. The students’ results are presented statistically, Creswell (2009, p. 142), suggests
that “report information about the number of members of the sample who did and did not
return the survey. A table with numbers and percentages describing respondents and non-
respondents is a useful tool to present this information”.

Table 1: language spoken at home

Options Number of students Percentage

Portuguese 20 100%
English 0 0%
Both languages 0 0%
Source: the author, 2023
 36

The table above, statically identifies the language that the students speak at home or
community. Thus, in order to identify the grade 12 students home language, it was raised the
Q1: What language do you speak at home or in your community?
The results collected from the grade 12 students at Coalane secondary school revealed
that the students speak Portuguese language in their communities or at home, all the 100%
assigned the exercises affirmed so, which means they are exposed to this language rather than
English language which they only have a contact with it at school.

Table 2: students’ frequency with null subject sentences

Options Number of students Percentage

Frequently 3 15%
Rarely 6 30%
Never 11 55%
Source: the author, 2023

Q2: In your English studies at Coalane High School, how often do you come across
sentences with subject absence? The objective of this question was to scrutinize how
frequently the grade 12 students come across sentences with subject absence, and the results
are presented in the table above.
During the learning of a L2, such as English in the context of Coalane secondary
school, which does not allow the occurrence of null subjects in the sentences it is possible to
notice this occurrence if the L1, or the language that the pupils use most allow the occurrence
of this rule, which means, the L1 can impact the L2 in learning process. Therefore, regarding
this question, 3 students corresponding to 15% affirmed that they frequently come across with
null subject sentences in the learning of English language, the 30% percent chose rarely. On
the other hand, the majority number of the students, corresponding to 55% said have never
come across with null subject sentences in their learning.
With the Q3: Translate the following sentences into English: a. Vais ao cinema; b.
Dizem que vai chover amanhã; c. Vou a escola, the researcher wanted to know how does
Portuguese language sentence construction influences English language sentence construction
in placing the subject.
Regarding this question, most of the students failed to translate correctly all the
sentences, and almost all translated as the St2. However, the St1 translated as: “go to cinema;
say will rain tomorrow; I go to school”. The St2 and others translated as: “you go to cinema;
 37

say that you go rain; I go to school”. And the St3 translation was: “you go to cinema; go to
rain tomorrow; I go to school”.

Table 3: correct sentences

Options Number of students Percentage

Said that will arrive tomorrow 13 65%
They said that will arrive tomorrow 4 20%
Said that will arrive tomorrow they 3 15%
Source: the author, 2023

This table highlights the results gathered through the Q4: Mark the grammatically
correct sentence, which aimed at examining the factors leading the grade 12 students at
Coalane secondary school to misplace the subject when constructing sentences in English
language.
For this question, as shown in the “table 3” 13 students corresponding to 65% select
the sentence “said that will arrive tomorrow as the correct sentence”, the 20% believed that
the correct sentence is “they said that will arrive tomorrow” and the few number of the
students corresponding to 15%, chose the option “said that will arrive tomorrow they”.

Graphic 1: Portuguese language influence

16%
Yes
No

84%

Source: the author, 2023

The above graphic, highlights the yes or no results gathered through the Q5: Does
your understanding of the Portuguese language influence your understanding of English
sentence construction, including the use of subject absence? Explain your choice. Which
aimed at examining whether the grade 12 students understanding of the Portuguese language
influence the understanding of English sentence construction, including the use of subject
absence.
 38

Regarding this question, 16%, corresponding to 3 students affirmed that their

understanding of the Portuguese language does not influence the understanding of English
sentence construction, including the use of subject absence. Whereas, the 17 students,
corresponding to 84%, said that their understanding of the Portuguese language does not
influence the understanding of English sentence construction, including the use of subject
absence.
Thus, regarding the reasons almost 15 students said “whenever I try to write or speak
English I have to think in Portuguese”. The St16 said: “yes, because I only know Portuguese
and speak it anywhere”. In the same line the St17 said: “yes, because in even in the classroom
the teacher uses to explain in Portuguese”. On the other hand, the other three (03) affirmed to
know how to differentiate Portuguese language sentences construction and English sentences
construction, mainly on the placing the subject.

Table 4: students’ challenges due to the influence of the Portuguese language

Options Number of students Percentage

Word order 6 30%
Verb tenses 12 60%
Pronouns 2 10%
Source: the author, 2023

In order to identify the aspects of English grammar or sentence structure that the grade
12 students at Coalane secondary school find more challenging due to the influence of the
Portuguese language, it was raised the Q6: Are there specific aspects of English grammar or
sentence structure that you find more challenging due to the influence of the Portuguese
language? Provide examples if possible, and the results are presented in the table above.
For this question, the 6 grade 12 students, corresponding to 30% affirmed to face
challenges due to the influence of the Portuguese language in word order. Most of the
students assigned to the exercise guide said they face challenges in verb tenses. And the other
10% affirmed to have problems in English pronouns.

Table 5: strategies to improve understanding of English sentence construction

Options Number of students percentage

Regular practice in writing and conversation 13 65%
Grammar study 6 30%
 39

Other 1 5%
Source: the author, 2023

The table above identifies some strategies to improve understanding of English

sentence construction. However, in order to identify these strategies, it was raised the Q7:
What would help improve your understanding of English sentence construction?
Lastly, with this question it was possible to identify strategies to improve
understanding of English sentence construction. Thus, 13 grade 12 students corresponding to
65% believe that they can improve their sentence construction through regular practice in
writing and conversation. On the other hand, the 30% believe that can improve through
grammar study. And only one student (the St7), corresponding to 5% said other. For the St7:
“group presentations, listening to English songs, reading books and dictionaries are good
strategies to improve understanding of English sentence construction”.

3.2.1 Data analysis

This instrument, exercise guide sheet, was assigned to twenty (20) grade 12 students
from Coalane secondary school. So, there were seven (07) questions assigned for the students,
answered, and finally analysed as can be seen below:
Null subject on English sentence construction at Coalane secondary school result
through the impact of Portuguese language, as 100% of the selected sample affirmed to have
Portuguese as their home language, this was proved by the question n° 1. Likewise,
Mujcinovic (2020), in his study, stated that “the general theory behind L1 transfer in this case
is that when a [+null subject] language and a [-null subject] language are in contact, a
difference in the distribution of subject types is found. If the L1 is a [-null subject] language,
overproduction of overt subjects in the L2 is expected, but if the L1 is a [+null subject]
language, subjects are expected to be dropped in the L2 as a result from L1 transfer” (p. 51).
On the other hand, the results collected from the students show that most of the
students have never come across with null subject sentences in their learning, through this, it
was clear that teachers of English language at Coalane secondary school teach the proper rule
of sentence construction, nevertheless, the students are influenced by the L1 (Portuguese) to
drop the subject when constructing sentences in English language as they usually directly
translate Portuguese to English. In this perspective, IPEK (p. 160), sustains that “in L2
acquisition, however, the process is more complicated as learners already have knowledge of
their L1”.
 40

Therefore, the graphic reinforces the idea that students rely on Portuguese mental
structures, affecting their English sentence construction. In this extent, the grade 12 students
were also assigned to question in which they had to translate Portuguese sentences to English.
Thus, the results are:
1. Vais ao cinema (Portuguese);
1.1. *go to cinema
1.2. *you go to cinema
2. Dizem que vai chover amanhã (Portuguese);
2.1. *say will rain tomorrow
2.2. *say that you go rain
2.3. *go to rain tomorrow
These findings reveal the fact that the grade 12 students most of times omit subject in
their English sentence construction because as they have Portuguese knowledge, they use this
knowledge to construct sentences in English, this was proved through the sentences they were
asked to translate, the results also reveal the fact that they usually translate word by word as
the teacher stated in the interview, and students lack of knowledge. So in almost all the
sentences they omitted the subject, resulting an error. These, was also examined with the
question n° 4, in which most of the students chose “*Said that will arrive tomorrow”, rather
than “They said that will arrive tomorrow”.
Thus, the choice of the majority of the students aligns with the influence of
Portuguese sentence construction, indicating a tendency to omit the subject due to the
influence of Portuguese language. Quite similarly, in the study conducted by Tati (2021), it
was found that all the eleventh-graders to whom the test was subjected omitted the subject in
their formulation of the English sentences. Moreover, the results of the last sentences are
presented as the following;
3. Vou a escola (Portuguese)
3.1. I go to school
Notably, for the sentence n° 3 all the students translated correctly. This, highlights the
need of exposing the students to the language they are learning, because this sentence they are
familiar with, they usually hear it anywhere, and even in the classes the teachers mostly use it
as example. Thus, they are exposed to it. If are not exposed, they may face challenges such as
word order, verb tenses and the use of pronouns. Therefore, the results reveal that the grade
12 students at Coalane secondary school mostly face challenges in verb tenses, as 60%
affirmed so. Moreover, IPEK (p. 160), adds that the students can face challenges if “the target
 41

language is taught as a subject only and is not commonly used as a medium of communication
outside the classroom”.
According to APDI (2020), in order to achieve language performance, it is important
that students need to use learning strategies that work the most to improve their abilities. They
will eventually master their English with appropriate learning strategies. Although most of
grade 12 students believe that they can improve their sentence construction through regular
practice in writing and conversation, it is essential to incorporate various strategies which will
make them practice the English sentences construction, the teachers can get the students
listening to English songs, reading books and dictionaries as stated the St7. In this
perspective, Tati (2021, p. 758), states that the “student should be efficient participant and
practice the real-world English for a purpose that is interesting to him. To put it differently,
the learner needs to be engaged in the learning process”. Therefore, Gibran (2023), also
explains that many activity types have to be used to help the students relate their real-life
experiences and improve their language performance.
Additionally, Garcia & Pina (n.d, p. 5), affirms that “as students learn more about the
new language, they will begin to notice that not everything in it that appears to have an
equivalent form in the language or languages they already know is in fact the same”.
The findings from the students reveal that the Portuguese language dominance at home
contributes to the limited exposure to English outside the classroom. Thus, the frequent
construction of null subject sentences in English may indicate the lack of sufficient exposure
to this linguistic feature. Subsequently, grade 12 students’ challenges from Coalane secondary
school in translation and sentence selection reveal the influence of Portuguese syntax on
English sentence construction.
Ultimately, regarding the raised hypothesis, almost all of them describe the reality
found through the data collected at Coalane secondary school except the “Hp3- English
language teachers do not raise grade 12 students’ awareness concerning the differences
between English and Portuguese sentence construction, especially the use of subjects”.
Through the findings, it was concluded that the teachers only focus on teaching the English
language, neglecting the fact that students also need to be aware of the differences between
English and Portuguese sentence construction, especially the use of subjects.
 42

3.3 Chapter summary

In this chapter, it was presented and discussed findings collected through interview
guide sheet for the teachers of English language and students exercise guide sheets. Thus, the
data collected from the teachers of English language at Coalane secondary school indicated a
need for general language instruction that addresses both linguistic challenges and external
factors such as language exposition and language competency. On the other hand, the
strategies and activities proposed by teachers emphasize practical engagement, indicating a
shift from passive learning to active participation for effective learning outcomes.
Subsequently, the understanding of the influence of the students’ first language provides a
foundation for targeted interventions in language transfer aspects.
On the other hand, the findings from the students, revealed that the Portuguese
language dominance at home contributes to the limited exposure to English outside the
classroom. Thus, the infrequent construction of null subject sentences in English may indicate
the lack of sufficient exposure to this linguistic feature. Subsequently, grade 12 students’
challenges from Coalane secondary school in translation and sentence selection reveal the
influence of Portuguese syntax on English sentence construction.
 43

CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSION, SUGGESTIONS AND LIMITATIONS

The current chapter is intended at presenting a conclusion of the different aspects

discussed along the study, suggestions for the teachers of English language and for the
students in order to minimize the students’ problems regarding the null subject on English
sentence construction as a result of the impact of Portuguese language. Lastly, it is presented
some limitations of the researcher during the production of the research.

4.1 Conclusion

The process of learning the second language rules such as English in the context of
Coalane secondary school is influenced by the rules of first language (Portuguese). the
investigation into the impact of Portuguese language on English sentence construction among
grade 12 students at Coalane Secondary School in Quelimane has unveiled noteworthy
findings. The study aimed to exploring factors that lead the grade 12 students to drop the
subject in English language sentence construction, particularly how the influence of
Portuguese, contributes to this linguistic challenge.
Thus, regarding the factors leading the students to drop the subject in English language
sentence construction, it was concluded that the students tend to omit the subject due to the
limited exposure to English language, lack of knowledge and interest to learn and transference
of Portuguese language rules to English. Moreover, the findings permitted the researcher to
conclude that all grade 12 students from Coalane secondary school speak Portuguese at home
or in their community.
The translation exercise and the selection of correct sentences showcased the struggles
students face in accurately translating Portuguese sentence structures into English. The
majority of students demonstrated a preference for applying Portuguese rules and translating
word by word. Additionally, the majority of students (84%) acknowledged that their
understanding of Portuguese influences their comprehension of English sentence construction.
Some students expressed the need to think in Portuguese when dealing with English, further
underscoring the impact of their first language.
There are many strategies that can be applied for an effective use of subject in English
sentence construction. Thus, the students identified regular practice in writing and
conversation (65%) as the most preferred strategy to enhance their understanding of English
sentence construction, emphasizing the importance of interactive and communicative
 44

language learning experiences. However, the teachers of English language can also employ
activities such Gap filling, and give some exercises for students to identify the subject and use
it to form other sentences as a way for promoting an effective use of subject in English
sentence construction
Through the findings of this study it is evident that the influence of the Portuguese
language significantly influences the way grade 12 students at Coalane Secondary School
construct English language sentence. Therefore, understanding the relationship between the
students’ first language and their acquisition of English sentence construction is relevant for
the teachers of English language at to think and employ effective teaching strategies to
minimize this problem at Coalane Secondary School in Quelimane.

4.2 Suggestions

After all, the researcher proposes some suggestions for the teachers of English
language and for the students on the topic “Null Subject on English Sentence Construction as
a Result of the Impact of Portuguese Language: A Case of Grade 12 at Coalane Secondary
School-Quelimane”.

4.2.1 Suggestions for the teachers of English language

Based on the findings of the study on the impact of Portuguese language on null subjects
in English sentence construction among grade 12 students at Coalane Secondary School in
Quelimane, the researcher proposes the following to minimize students’ problems in omitting
the subject when constructing sentences in English language:
 To provide students with a variety of reading materials, including texts for them to be
aware with the English language structure;
 To assign writing tasks, and speaking activities that require students to construct
sentences independently, fostering a deeper understanding of sentence construction;
 To encourage students to engage with English outside the classroom by recommend
English-language books, movies, or online resources, these will expose them to the
English language;
 Clearly explain the rules of English sentence structure, including the placement of
subjects.
 45

4.2.2 Suggestions for the students

For grade 12 students at Coalane Secondary School in Quelimane, facing challenges in

English sentence construction influenced by the Portuguese language, the researcher proposes
the following suggestions:
 To read English books, or online content in order to get exposed into various sentence
structures. This will help the students to become more familiar with different ways
English sentences are constructed;
 To practice writing English sentences, start with simple sentences and gradually
progress to more complex structures. This consistent practice will improve the
sentence construction skills over time;
 To request feedback from the teacher of English language or colleagues. Constructive
feedback can be helpful in identifying the specific areas for improvement and provide
guidance on how to enhance the English sentence construction;
 To collaborate with colleagues to form study group. Discussing English sentence
construction in groups can provide diverse perspectives and create a supportive
learning environment.

4.3 Limitations of the study

In any research study, there are limitations that may impact the exploration and
validity of the findings. Thus, the following are some limitations of the researcher in the study
on the impact of Portuguese language on null subjects in English sentence construction among
grade 12 students at Coalane Secondary School in Quelimane:
 Students lack of English language proficiency, this led the researcher to translate the
questions into Portuguese language, as it is the language they understand;
 The study relies on self-reported data from grade 12 students, including their language
preferences, exposure, and challenges. So, the students did not accurately represent
their English language practices, leading to potential bias in the data;
 Lack of resources, there are few researches on the impact of Portuguese language on
null subjects in English sentence construction, specifically in Mozambican context in
Quelimane;
 Limited sample size, the plan was to work with two (02) teachers of English language,
nevertheless, it was not possible as at Coalane secondary school there is only one (01)
teacher of English language working with grade 12 students.
 46

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 48

Appendices

Appendix I: Teacher’s interview guide sheet

Null subject on English sentence construction as the result of the impact of Portuguese:
A case of grade 12 at Coalane Secondary School-Quelimane

The purpose of this interview is to collect data concerning to the Null subject on
English sentence construction as the result of the impact of Portuguese. The data to be
collected will only be used, exclusively, for the accomplishment of English Language
Teaching Course at Universidade Licungo.

I. Personal data

1. Age: ______________________

2. Gender: Female (___), Male (___)

II. Identification of problems underlying the null subject on English sentence construction
as the result of the impact of Portuguese.

1. As teacher of English language, what factors do you think can lead students to
misplace the subject in English sentences construction?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________.

2. How does Portuguese language sentence construction influences English language

sentence construction in placing the subject?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

3. Why does Portuguese language sentences construction influences English language

sentence construction in placing the subject?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
 49

4. What strategies do you think should be adopted to help students not misplace the
subject in English sentences construction?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.

5. What activities do you think should be given to students to promote an effective

awareness of English sentences construction?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.
 50

Appendix II: students’ exercise guide

Null Subject on English Sentence Construction Questionnaire: A Case of Grade 12

Students at Coalane Secondary School

Dear Student, thank you for participating in our research study. Your responses will help us
better understand the impact of the Portuguese language on English sentence construction.
Please answer the following questions to the best of your knowledge and experiences.
Personal Information

Name: _______________________

Gender: Male ( ) Female ( )

1. What language do you speak at home or in your community?

a. Portuguese ( )

b. English ( )

c. Both languages

2. In your English studies at Coalane High School, how often do you come across
sentences with subject absence?

a. Frequently ( )

b. Rarely ( )

c. Never ( )

3. Translate the following sentences into English:

a. Vais ao cinema: __________________________________________________________.

b. Dizem que vai chover amanhã: ______________________________________________.

c. Vou a escola:___________________________________________________________.

4. Mark the grammatically correct sentence among the following:

a. Said that will arrive tomorrow ( );

b. They said that will arrive tomorrow ( );

c. Said that will arrive tomorrow they ( )

 51

5. Does your understanding of the Portuguese language influence your understanding of

English sentence construction, including the use of subject absence? Explain your
choice.

a. Yes ( )

b. No ( )

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.

6. Are there specific aspects of English grammar or sentence structure that you find more
challenging due to the influence of the Portuguese language? Provide examples if
possible.

a. Word order ( )

b. Verb tenses ( )

c. Pronouns ( )

7. What would help improve your understanding of English sentence construction?

a. Regular practice in writing and conversation

b. Grammar study

c. Other

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 52

Apêndice II.I: Guia de exercícios para alunos (traduzido)

Tema: A Ausência de Sujeito na Construção de Frases em Inglês: Um Caso de alunos da 12ª

classe na Escola Secundária de Coalane

Caro aluno, agradecemos por participar do nosso estudo de pesquisa. Suas respostas nos
ajudarão a compreender melhor o impacto da língua portuguesa na construção de frases em
inglês. Por favor, responda às seguintes perguntas com base em seu conhecimento e
experiências.
Informações Pessoais

Nome: _______________________

Gênero: Masculino ( ) Feminino ( )

Leia atentamente as perguntas do exercício. Para cada pergunta, selecione a opção que melhor
representa sua resposta. Para algumas questões, responde de acordo com o pedido ou
instrução descrita.

1. Qual língua fala em casa ou em sua comunidade?

a. Português ( )
b. Inglês ( )
c. As duas línguas
2. Em seus estudos de inglês na Escola Secundária de Coalane, com que frequência se
depara com frases com ausência de sujeito?

a. Frequentemente ( )
b. Raramente ( )
c. Nunca ( )
3. Traduz as seguintes frases para o idioma inglês:
a. Vais ao cinema: _______________________________________________
b. Dizem que vai chover amanhã: _____________________________________
c. Vou a escola: _________________________________________________
4. Marque a frase que está gramaticalmente correta entre as seguintes:
a. Said that will arrive tomorrow ( );
b. They said that will arrive tomorrow ( ).
c. Said that will arrive tomorrow they ( )
 53

5. Sua compreensão da língua portuguesa influencia sua compreensão da construção de

frases em inglês, incluindo o uso de ausência de sujeito? Explique sua escolha.

a. Sim ( )
b. Não ( )
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

6. Existem aspectos específicos da gramática inglesa ou da estrutura de frases que acha

mais desafiadores devido à influência da língua portuguesa? Forneça exemplos, se
possível.

a. Ordem das palavras ( )

b. Tempos verbais ( )
c. Pronomes ( )
7. O que ajudaria a melhorar sua compreensão da construção de frases em inglês?

a. Prática regular de escrita e conversação

b. Estudo de gramática
c. Outro
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________