Libyan Academy School of Basic Science

Life Science Department

Research Methodology

5- Data

Spring 2024
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 Data

 Data (plural of datum, means to give or something given).

• The lowest unit of information from which other
measurements and analysis can be done.
• Data can be numbers, images, words, figures, facts or ideas.
• Data itself cannot be understood and to get information
from the data one must interpret it into meaningful
information.
• There are various methods of interpreting data.
• Data sources are broadly classified into primary and
secondary data.
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 Data collection
• Importance of data and data collection.
• Most important and vital aspect of any research studies.
• Research is based on data which is analyzed and
interpreted to get information.
• The basic unit in statistical studies.
• Statistical information like census, population variables,
health statistics, and road accidents records are all
developed from data.
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 Quantitative & Qualitative data
❖ Quantitative data collection methods.
• Dealing with something that can be counted.
• Questionnaires, surveys, documents and records.
• Some of the primary purposes of quantitative analysis:
 Measure, Make comparisons, Examine relationships Make
forecasts, Test hypotheses, Construct concepts and theories,
Explore Control explain.
 Consider factors other than numerical values.
 Interviews, focus groups, observations, and oral histories.
• Crossover between the two methods ?. 4
 Sources of data
❖ There are two sources of data

 Primary data collection

⧫ Uses surveys, experiments or direct observations.

 Secondary data collection

⧫ Collecting information from a diverse source of

documents or electronically stored information,

census and market studies.

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 Data collection

I- Primary data
 Means original data that has been collected specially for the

purpose in mind.

 It means someone collected the data from the original source

first hand.

 Has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and

objective.

 Has not been changed or altered by human beings; therefore its

validity is greater than secondary data.

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Advantages of primary data :

• Data interpretation is better.

• Targeted Issues are addressed.

• Efficient Spending for Information.

• Decency of Data.

• Greater Control.

• Proprietary Issues.
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Disadvantages of primary data

 High Cost . Time Consuming

 More number of resources is required

Collecting Primary Data

Asking questions
• Conducting interviews
• Observing without getting involved
• Immersing oneself in a situation
• Doing experiments
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 Asking questions
 Questionnaire
• Suitable tool for gaining quantitative data but
can also be used for qualitative data.
•This method of data collection is usually
called a survey.

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 Advantages of Questionnaires
• Enables you to organize the questions and receive replies
without actually having to talk to every respondent.
• Easy and convenient for respondents, having a structured
format,
• Cheap and quick to administer to a large number of cases
covering large geographical areas.
• No personal influence of the researcher
• Can be asked with a fair chance of getting a true reply
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 Disadvantages of Questionnaire
• Require a lot of time and skill to design and develop.
• Need to be short and simple to follow, so complex
question structures are not possible.
• Not everyone is able to complete questionnaires.

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 Three methods of delivering questionnaires :

 Personally
• Respondents can be helped to overcome
difficulties with the questions, in order to ensure
a high response rate.
• Problems both in time and geographical location
that limit the scope and extent to which this
method of delivery can be used.
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 By post
• large number of responses are sought
• Different locations.
• The correct address for each respondent is required
• Postal cost must also be taken into account.
• The rate of response for postal questionnaires is difficult
to predict or control.

 Through the Internet

• cheapest and least time consuming method of delivery.
• Response rates tend to be very low
• Difficult to know how representative the sample will be.

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Two question types

a) Closed format questions.

 The respondent must choose from a set of given answers.

 Quick to answer, easy to code and require no special writing

skills from the respondent.

 limit the range of possible answers.

Example: Here are important qualities a prime minister should
possess. Number them 1–5 in order of importance – 1 being the
most important.

Honesty Humour Intelligence Consistency Experience

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b) Open format questions.
 The respondent is free to answer in their own content
and style.
 Permit freedom of expression and allow the
respondents to qualify their responses ,( leads to a lack
of bias)
 Answers are more open to researcher interpretation
 Time consuming for respondent and more difficult to
code.
• Example : What are the most important qualities a
prime minister should possess
Pilot study, common practice to pre-test the
questionnaire on a small number of people before it is
used in earnest.
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 Conducting interviews

 Interviews are useful when qualitative data are required.

 Interviews can be used for subjects, both general or

specific in nature .

 The interviewer is in a good position to judge the quality

of the responses, to notice if a question has not been

properly understood

 Encourage the respondent to be full in his/her answers

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• Three types of interview

 Structured interview
➢ Standardized questions read out by the interviewer
according to an interview schedule.
➢ Answers may be closed format.

 Semi-structured interview

➢ Contains structured and unstructured sections with

standardized and open type questions.

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 Unstructured interview

➢ a flexible format, usually based on a question

guide

➢ Format remains the choice of the interviewer,

➢ Allow the interview to ‘ramble’ in order to get

insights into the attitudes of the interviewee.

➢ No closed format questions.

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 Observation
➢ Gathering data through observation.

➢ Observation is a basic data collecting activity for many branches

of research.

➢ Natural and technical sciences.

Example, Observing the results of experiments, the appearance of

materials, plants and animals.

➢ Useful in the social sciences where people and their activities are
studied.
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➢ Observation is not limited to the visual sense.
 Any sense – e.g. smell, touch, hearing.

➢ Instruments have been developed in every discipline to extend the

observational limits of the human senses,

A microscope or telescope can be used to extend the capacity of

the eye.
 For example: A researcher studying primary education methods
records every hour how the space is being used in an infants’ open
plan classroom.

 This is done by describing and sketching the location of the

activities on a drawing of the room, listing the equipment used and
the number of children engaged in each activity.
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➢ Observations of objects can be a quick and efficient method of
gaining preliminary knowledge or making a preliminary
assessment of its state or condition.
 For example, after an earthquake, a quick visual assessment of
the amount and type of damage to buildings can be made before
a detailed survey is undertaken.

➢ Observation can be very time consuming and difficult when

the activity observed is not constant
• (i.e. much time can be wasted waiting for things to happen, or so
much happens at once that it is impossible to observe it all and
record it).

➢ Instrumentation can sometimes be devised to overcome the

problem of infrequent e.g. automatic cameras and other
sensors
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 Experiments

➢ Experimental research designs examine whether there is a

causal relationship between independent and dependent

variables.

➢ The independent variable is the variable of influence and the

dependent variable is the variable that is being influenced .

➢ The independent variable is expected to bring about some

variation or change in the dependent variable.

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Characterization of True experiments

➢ Involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables,

and the dependent variables are carefully measured, typically in the
form of pre-and post-testing.

➢ Include a control group and an experimental group.

➢ The control only takes part in the pre- and post-testing.

➢ The experimental group receives the experimental treatment in

addition to completing the pre-and post-testing.

➢ characterized by random assignment (participants are randomly

placed into the control and the experimental condition following
a chance procedure). 23
 Types of experiments
 True experimental designs
➢ Characterized by careful random selection of all the cases to
be tested, and the use of a control group parallel to the
experimental group, which is used to compare outcomes.

➢ Groups are tested before the experiment to determine their

properties.

➢ Variables are carefully controlled.

➢ Data gathered can be relied on to make generalizations.

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 Quasi-experimental designs
➢ Used when random selection of groups cannot be
achieved.

➢ Control group and the experimental group are matched

as nearly as possible.

➢ If a control group is not used, then parallel groups are

experimented on to compare the consistency of the
outcomes.

➢ The results of these designs are not as reliable as true

experimental designs.
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 Pre-experimental designs

➢ Do not have control groups to compare with those that

have been experimented on, and some do not even test the
experimental group before the experiment.

➢ No Random selection of the samples.

➢ These designs are used when it is not possible to fulfill

the conditions of true experimental designs but the lack of
control of the variables can seriously affect the outcomes.

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 Ex post facto

➢ Not really an experimental approach

⬧ Investigation begins after the event has occurred so no
control over the event is possible.
➢ The search for the cause of the event,
⬧ e.g. a plane crash or the outbreak of an unknown disease,
relies on the search for, and analysis of, relevant data.
➢ The most likely cause has to be discovered from amongst
all possible causes, so there are many opportunities to search
in the wrong area. 27
 II- Secondary data
➢ Data that has been already collected by and available from other
sources.

➢ When we use Statistical Method with Primary Data from another

purpose for our purpose we refer to it as Secondary Data.

➢ Data that is being reused.

➢ Quickly obtainable than the primary data.

➢ Obtained from many sources, including literature, industry

surveys, and information systems, and computerized or
mathematical models of environmental processes.
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 Published Printed Sources
➢ There are varieties of published printed sources.
➢ Their credibility depends on many factors. For example, on the
writer, publishing company and time and date when published.
➢ New sources are preferred and old sources should be avoided
as new technology and researches bring new facts into light.

 Books .
➢ Available on any topic that you want to research.
➢ The uses of books start before even you have selected the topic.
➢ After selection of topics books provide insight on how much
work has already been done on the same topic and you can
prepare your literature review.

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 Published Electronic Sources
➢ As internet is becoming more advance, fast , much
information that is not available in printed form is
available on internet.

 E-journals:
➢ e-journals are more commonly available than printed
journals.

 Magazines/Newspapers
➢ Effective but not very reliable.
 Newspaper more reliable and in some cases the
information can only be obtained from newspapers as in
the case of some political studies.
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 Journals/periodicals .
➢ More important as far as data collection is concerned
journals provide up-to-date information
➢ Journals can give information on the very specific
topic on which you are researching rather talking
about more general topics.

 General Websites
➢ Do not contain very reliable information so their
content should be checked for.

 Weblogs: diaries written by different people. These

diaries are as reliable to use as personal written diaries.
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 Advantages of secondary data

• Inexpensive

• Easily accessible

• Immediately available

• Provide essential background and help to clarify or

refine research problem – essential for literature review

• Provide research method alternatives.

• Alert the researcher to any potential difficulties.

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 Thank you
For your Attention

Any questions

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