+ Engineering Materials II Note Chapter - 1 Updated

Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 1
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
CHAPTER – 1: Production of Iron and Steel
1.1 Production of Pig-iron
Iron Ores
_ Iron is extracted from iron ores found in the earth crust.
_ Iron ores are relatively concentrated deposits and the extracting process is relatively cheap.
_ The economic advantage of iron extraction together with excellent combination of the products’
properties makes them the most widely used metals. Iron and steel products account more than 60%
of the metal use. Iron ores may present in forms of oxides, sulphide, or carbonate.
Ore preparation
Prior to entering the extraction process, the iron ores are prepared by the following processes to
increase the iron content:
_ Mechanically remove impurities, such as rock, sand and stone
_ Crush into smaller sizes
_ Separate by magnetic separator or flotation
_ Chemically change non-oxide ores to a form of oxide ores
_ After separated from impurities, oxide-typed ores are usually mixed with clay and formed into
pallets, which are then hardened by sintering. (Pallet must be heavy and strong enough not to be
blown away or break by blasting air).
_ These processes together are sometimes called palletizing.
Iron Smelting
 Iron is usually smelted (extraction of metal from ore) in a blast furnace, which is a shaft-typed
furnace with a height of 60 m or more.
 Production takes place on a continuous basis; once the furnace is running it is usually not
economical to shut down so frequently.
 Although, blast furnace is the mainstream method of extracting iron, it is also possible to
extract iron by other smelting methods such as
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
i) Direct reduction
ii) Electric smelting
iii) Reducing by hydrogen
Blast Furnace
In the blast furnace the iron ore is extracted into the molten pig iron. A furnace is a device used for
heating. A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce metals,
generally iron. In a blast furnace, fuel and ore are continuously supplied through the top of the
furnace, while air (sometimes with oxygen enrichment) is blown into the bottom of the chamber, so
that the chemical reactions take place throughout the furnace as the material moves downward. The
end products are usually molten metal and slag phases tapped from the bottom, and flue gases exiting
from the top of the furnace.
Configuration / Component details
The furnace body is composed of:
 The shaft, which tapers outward from the top
 The belly, which is a straight cylinder
 The bosh, which tapers inward toward its bottom and is located immediately under the belly,
and
 The hearth, at the bottom of the furnace.
The shaft, belly, and bosh are usually lined with brick and silicon-carbide brick, while the hearth is
lined with carbon brick. Depending on the size of the furnace, the side wall of the hearth is radially
fitted with some 20 to 40 water-cooled copper nozzles called tuyeres, which are used to inject the hot
blast (Air) into the furnace from the hot stoves through the hot-blast main and bustle pipes. Tap holes
for discharging hot metal and cinder notches for discharging slag are also installed in the hearth
section.
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1.2 Steelmaking plants
Two basic types of steelmaking plants are

_ Integrated steelworks: large and complex operations consisting of all the necessary
production units to manufacture a wide range of product forms in carbon steels and alloy steels.
Integrated steelworks offer economy of scale and a diversity of finished steel product forms.
_ Merchant mills: are smaller operations which produce a limited range of steel grades and forms.
1.2.1 The mainstream steelmaking processes include:
_ Bessemer Process
_ Open Hearth Furnace
_ Basic oxygen steelmaking process or Linz-Donnawitz (L-D) process
 Bessemer Process
The Bessemer process uses a cylindrical vessel (converter) as shown in Figure. The converter was
originally lined with siliceous refractories that could withstand attack from acidic oxides. The entire
vessel could be turned from the vertical to a horizontal position, as it was mounted on trunions.
Liquid iron (i.e. hot metal) from blast furnaces would first be poured into the converter keeping it in
the horizontal position. Blowing of air through the bottom tuyeres would then be started keeping the
converter vertical. Oxygen in the air blown would react with Si, C and Mn present in hot metal to
form oxides like SiO2, MnO, etc. These oxides along with some FeO would form an acidic slag.
Carbon would be oxidised into CO and CO2, which would escape into the atmosphere directly from
the mouth of the converter. Since the oxidation reactions are exothermic, the liquid bath temperature
would rise automatically, without the need for using any extraneous fuel. This gave economic
advantages, and since the process was very fast (refining took hardly 20 minutes), it became ideally
suitable for the mass production of steel at a relatively low cost. Once refining was completed, the
liquid metal and slag were tapped out separately and the liquid steel cast as ingots. The ingots would
be subsequently hot forged/rolled into various shapes. A major limitation of the process, however,
was that it could not remove sulphur and phosphorus present in hot metal. These harmful impurities
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often caused fractures during hot working of the products (known as hot shortness). The oxygen
content of Bessemer steel was also inordinately high.
Figure: Schematic of Bessemer converter steelmaking process.
 OPEN HEARTH FURNACE
In open hearth furnace, pig iron, steel scrap etc. are melted to obtain steel. This furnace is widely used
in American foundries for steel production. The hearth is surrounded by roof and walls of refractory
bricks as shown in Fig. The charge is fed through a charging door and is heated to 1650°C mainly by
radiation of heat from the burning of gaseous fuels above it. This heat is obtained by the burning of
sufficiently pre-heated air and gas. Such pre-heated air of gas is obtained by passing them though arc
shaped hot regenerators at a lower level. This contains fire bricks which are arranged to extract heat
from exhaust gases. In the furnace air and fuel are passed through a honeycomb of hot firebrick,
called checkers. It preheats the air and fuel so that they are ready for combustion when they enter the
hearth. The products of combustion at the same time pass through the checkers at the other end of the
furnace. The hot gases heat the checkers. The process then reverses itself, and the newly heated
checkers now are used to heat the air and the fuel. It is said as a regenerative process. The products
of combustion after giving up their heat to the checkers pass up through the stack. On firing of coke,
the charge is heated. Part of the heat necessary, results from radiation from the low hot roof of the
chamber. The furnace is raised bricked in with the charging platform, at the rear, also raised so that
the charge may be put into the furnace. The melt is tapped off the front into large ladles. The chemical
composition of the end product depends upon the lining, the charge, and the control impurities added
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during the melt, after the melt has been tapped off into the ladle. The lining plays a major role in the
control of impurities. For magnesite lined furnace, the charge consists of pig iron, limestone, and
scrap iron. The limestone forms a slag. This slag and the oxygen in the air combine to remove
impurities. The slag reacts with the sulfur and the phosphorus in the metal, while the bubbling air
causes oxidation of the carbon and silicon. If too much carbon is present in the melt, iron ore is added.
The oxygen from the iron oxide burns out the excess carbon. If the carbon content is too low, pig iron
is added. This replenishes the carbon. Other alloying elements like Cr, Ni. Co, W, Mo, V etc. are
added as needed. Ferromanganese may be added to the crucible after tapping. For acid lining furnace,
the charge should be scrap iron and low-phosphorus pig iron. Limestone is required to keep the slag
fluid. As described above, the basic lining burns phosphorus, silicon, and carbon. The slag is tapped
off by the molten metals being allowed to overflow the sides of the crucible into a slag pot. Oxygen
is one of the most important elements used in the reduction of the molten metal. Rust, scale, slag, and
limestone are some of the sources of oxygen. Oxygen is introduced into the furnace with oxygen
lances through the roof of the furnace. Twice the oxygen inputs will double the carbon reduction.
This increases the steel production of the furnace.
 Basic Oxygen Process (BOP) or Linz and Donawitz (LD) Process
The Basic Oxygen Process is the most powerful and effective method of steel manufacturing
developed in 1952. The purpose of the Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) process is to refine the hot
metal produced in the blast furnace into raw liquid steel, which may be subsequently refined in the
secondary steelmaking shop. The main functions of the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) are to
decarburize and remove phosphorus from the hot metal, and to optimize the steel temperature so that
any further treatments prior to casting can be performed with minimal reheating or cooling of the
steel. The exothermic oxidation reactions (i.e., no external heat source is necessary to melt the scrap
and to raise the temperature of the metal to the desired range for tapping) that occur during BOS
generate a lot of heat energy - more than what is necessary to attain the target steel temperature. This
extra heat is used to melt scrap and/or iron ore additions. Typical compositions and temperatures of
the hot metal charge and tapped steel are as follows: The major development was the replacement of
air by pure oxygen. This was developed in 1952-53 at Linz and Donawitz in Austria, and involved
the top-blowing of oxygen through a vertical lance, as the bottom refractories could not withstand
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pure oxygen. The corresponding process is known as LD, or BOP, and represents most of the installed
capacities today.
The steel making process in the oxygen converter
 Charging steel scrap.
 Pouring liquid pig iron into the furnace.
 Charging fluxes.
 Oxygen blowing.
 Sampling and temperature measurement
 Tapping the steel to a ladle.
 De-slagging.
ELECTRIC STEELMAKING
When, with increasing sophistication in the electric power industry towards the end of the 19th
century, it became possible to generate power at a relatively low cost, use of electricity in steelmaking
began to be considered.
 Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
Graphite electrodes are employed to supply the power and arcing takes place between the metal bath
and the electrodes in the case of a modern direct current EAF. However, all traditional furnaces
operate on alternating current, where arcing is between the electrodes. By 1900, small EAFs capable
of melting about one tonne of steel became available and were operated either with a direct or with
an indirect electric arc. A modern EAF (Figure) can be classified as high power or ultra-high power
(UHP) using AC or DC technology.
(a) Alternating current (AC) furnace (b) Direct current (DC) furnace
Figure: Electric arc furnaces.
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The main advantage of EAFs lies in their ability to accept scrap, DRI, and molten hot metal in various
proportions since whatever external energy is required, can always be provided by controlling the
electrical power supplied. Furnace efficiency can be improved by the combined injection of carbon
and oxygen through water-cooled supersonic lances at rates as high as 45 Nm3/t. While earlier, 600–
700 kWh of electrical power was used per tonne of liquid steel, modern-day furnaces with injection
facilities, ultra-high power transformers, hot metal in the charge, etc. consume 300–400 kWh per
tonne.
Electric Induction Furnaces
Instead of electricity being used for arcing, it can also be used for melting a solid charge through
induction as is done in induction furnaces. The electric induction furnace normally plays an important
role in steel plants producing high-quality steels, particularly stainless steels from stainless steel
scrap. The chemistry of the melt in induction furnaces is adjusted by adding mill scale to oxides
carbon in the bath after high-quality steel scrap is melted. The use of sponge iron (particularly fines
between 1 and 3 mm in size) in such furnaces has also made it possible to make pencil ingots with no
tramp elements. As much as 40% sponge iron is often used to make high-quality steels.
1.3 Effect of alloying element in steel
Overview of Steel
Steel is one of the world’s most essential materials. It is fundamental to every aspect of our lives,
from infrastructure and transport to the humble tinplated steel can that preserves food. With steel, we
can create huge buildings or tiny parts for precision instruments. It is strong, versatile and infinitely
recyclable. By the early 20th century, steel was king, the metal at the heart of the modern world.
Now, consistently good quality steel was available in high volume and consistent shapes and sizes,
perfect for the vast majority of large-scale, heavy-duty applications. Steel quickly replaced iron in
the emerging railways, and all kinds of construction from bridges to buildings. It also enabled the
manufacture of large, powerful turbines and generators, harnessing the power of water and steam to
drive further industrialization and usher in the age of electric power. The steel age. A British
‘gentleman scientist’ named Henry Clifton Sorby created a sensation by putting metal samples under
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a microscope. His pioneering work revealed steel’s secret – it gained its strength from the small,
precise quantities of carbon locked within the iron crystals.
In the mid-20th century, steelmaking advanced on many fronts. Basic oxygen steelmaking and electric
arc furnaces transformed the main production processes, making them faster and more energy
efficient. They even allowed manufacturers to reuse scrap as input material. But in the 1960s, scrap
from vehicles, household appliances and industrial waste became a significant, and cheap, resource.
Electric arc furnaces (EAFs) had first appeared at the end of the 19th century. EAFs were suited for
larger-scale production. Finally, the steel may be coated to protect it from rust and corrosion – this is
especially important in applications such as shipbuilding, bridges and railways where the metal can
be exposed to heat, cold, salty seawater and rain. Hot dip galvanizing is widely used to coat steel with
a layer of protective pure zinc or a zinc-aluminum mix.
Classification of Steel:
1. Plain Carbon Steel (Fe + C)
2. Alloy Steel (Fe + other alloying elements)

Classification of Plain Carbon Steel:
i. Low Carbon steel - less than 0.2% Carbon
ii. Medium carbon Steel - 0.25% to 0.6% Carbon
iii. High Carbon Steel – more than 0.6 % Carbon

Classification of Alloy Steel:
i. Low Alloy Steel - contain up to 3 to 4% of alloying element
Types of low alloy steel:
1. AISI Steel (American iron and steel institute).
2. HSLA Steel (High strength low alloy).
ii. High Alloy Steel - contain more than 5% of alloying element.
Types of high alloy steel:
1. Stainless steel.
2. Tool of high alloy steel.
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Steel is essentially iron and carbon alloyed with certain additional elements.
The process of alloying is used to change the chemical composition of steel and improve its properties
over carbon steel or adjust them to meet the requirements of a particular application.
Different alloying elements each have their own effect on the properties of steel. Some of the
properties that can be improved through alloying include:
Stabilizing austenite: Elements such as nickel, manganese, cobalt and copper increase the
temperatures range in which austenite exists.
Stabilizing ferrite: Chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, aluminum and silicon can have
the effect of lowering carbon's solubility in austenite. This results in an increase in the amount of
carbides in the steel and decreases the temperature range in which austenite exists.
Carbide forming: Many minor metals, including chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, titanium,
niobium, tantalum and zirconium, form strong carbides that - in steel - increase hardness and strength.
Such steels are often used to make high speed steel and hot work tool steel.
Graphitizing: Silicon, nickel, cobalt and aluminum can decrease the stability of carbides in steel,
promoting their breakdown and the formation of free graphite.
Decrease of eutectoid concentration: Titanium, molybdenum, tungsten, silicon, chromium and
nickel all lower the eutectoid concentration of carbon.
Increase corrosion resistance: Aluminum, silicon and chromium form protective oxide layers on
the surface of steel, thereby protecting the metal from further deterioration in certain environments.
Below is a list of commonly used alloying elements and their effect on steel (standard content in
brackets):
Aluminum – Al (0.95-1.30%): A deoxidizer. Al is used to limit growth of austenite grains.
Boron – B (0.001-0.003%): A hardenability agent that improves deformability and machinability.
Boron is added to fully killed steel and only needs to be added in very small quantities to have a
hardening affect. Small amounts of Titanium + Aluminum help boron additions resist nitriding or
oxidation to increase the yield from boron’s hardenability effect. Additions of boron are most
effective in low carbon steels.
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Chromium – Cr (0.5-18%): A key component of stainless steels. At over 12 percent content,

chromium significantly improves corrosion resistance. The metal also improves hardenability,
strength, response to heat treatment and wear resistance.
Cobalt – Co: Improves strength at high temperatures and magnetic permeability.
Copper – Cu (0.1-0.4%): Most often found as a residual agent in steels, copper is also added to
produce precipitation hardening properties and increase corrosion resistance.
Lead – L: Although virtually insoluble in liquid or solid steel, lead is sometimes added to carbon
steels via mechanical dispersion during pouring in order to improve machinability.
Manganese – Mn (0.25-13%): Increases strength at high temperatures by eliminating the formation
of iron sulfides. Manganese also improves hardenability, ductility and wear resistance. Like nickel,
manganese is an austenite forming element and can be used in the AISI 200 Series of Austenitic
stainless steels as a substitute for nickel.
Molybdenum – Mo (0.2-5.0%): Found in small quantities in stainless steels, molybdenum increases
hardenability and strength, particular at high temperatures. Often used in chromium-nickel austenitic
steels, molybdenum protects against pitting corrosion caused by chlorides and sulfur chemicals.
Nickel – Ni (2-20%): Another alloying element critical to stainless steels, nickel is added at over 8%
content to high chromium stainless steel. Nickel increases strength, impact strength and toughness,
while also improving resistance to oxidization and corrosion. It also increases toughness at low
temperatures when added in small amounts.
Niobium – Nb: Has the benefit of stabilizing carbon by forming hard carbides and, so, is often found
in high temperature steels. In small amounts, niobium can significantly increase the yield strength
and, to a lesser degree, the tensile strength of steels, as well as have a moderate precipitation
strengthening affect.
Nitrogen – N: Increases the austenitic stability of stainless steels and improves yield strength in such
steels.
Phosphorus – P: Phosphorus is often added with sulphur to improve machinability in low alloy
steels. It also adds strength and increases corrosion resistance.
Selenium – Se: Increases machinability.
Silicon – Si (0.2-2.0%): This metalloid improves strength, elasticity, acid resistance and results in
larger grain sizes, thereby, leading to greater magnetic permeability. Because silicon is used in a
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deoxidizing agent in the production of steel, it is almost always found in some percentage in all grades
of steel.
Sulfur (“Sulphur” - British) – S (0.08-0.15%): Added in small amounts, sulphur improves
machinability without resulting in hot shortness. With the addition of manganese hot shortness is
further reduced due to the fact that manganese sulphide has a higher melting point than iron sulphide.
Titanium – Ti: Improves both strength and corrosion resistance while limiting austenite grain size.
At 0.25-0.60 percent titanium content, carbon combines with the titanium, allowing chromium to
remain at grain boundaries and resist oxidization. Also used to maintain boron content additions in
low carbon boron steels (10b35).
Tungsten – W: Produces stable carbides and refines grain size so as to increase hardness, particularly
at high temperatures. Used to make high speed tool steels for drills + cutters that do not loose their
hardness sharpness at high temperatures.
Vanadium – V (0.15%): Like titanium and niobium, vanadium can produce stable carbides that
increase strength at high temperatures. By promoting a fine grain structure, ductility can be retained.
Zirconium – Zr (0.1%): Increases strength and limits grains sizes. Strength can be notably increased
at very low temperatures (below freezing). Steel's that include zirconium up to about 0.1% content
will have smaller grains sizes and resist fracture.
Steel is essentially iron and carbon alloyed with certain additional elements. The process of alloying
is used to change the chemical composition of steel and improve its properties over carbon steel or
adjust them to meet the requirements of a particular application.
1.4 Compositional factor on Physical and Mechanical Property
Important physical and mechanical properties of steel?
What are its main characteristics?

 Physical properties relate to the dimensions, shape, specific gravity, and weight of the
metal.
 It has an average density of about 7,850 kg/m3.
 Its melting point depends on the type of alloy.
 Its boiling point is around 3000°C.
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 It is ductile and malleable.

 There are certain types of steel that have a greater shape memory and can be deformed more easily.
 It is easy to weld.
Factors that affect physical properties of steel?
Key modifier: Carbon content significantly impacts steel properties like. Strength: Higher carbon
content increases hardness and strength but reduces ductility.
Durability: Carbon influences wear resistance and hardness.
Flexibility: Lower carbon content results in increased flexibility and weld ability.
What are mechanical properties of steel?
The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of the material
to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical properties of the metal include strength,
stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience, creep and
hardness.
Strength of steel can be classified as follows:
 Tensile strength is the ability of a metal to resist being pulled apart.

 Compressive strength is the ability of a metal to resist deformation by forces pushing it
together.
 Shear strength is the ability of a metal to resist forces acting in opposite directions.
 Fatigue strength is the ability of a metal to take repeated loads without deforming.
 Impact strength is the ability of a metal to resist shock.
 Flexure strength is the ability of a metal to bend without deforming or breaking.
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The main composition of steel and their compositional factors?
Steel is an alloy of iron mixed with a small amount of carbon (about 0.05%) to make it harder and
stronger. It is less corrosive than pure iron. Chromium is added to steel to make it resistant to rust.
Nickel is added to enhance corrosion resistance properties in case of aggressive usage.
 Steel is an alloy of iron, carbon, and usually other metals.
 Hundreds of different steels exist, ranging in composition:
 From 99% iron and small amounts of carbon
 To steels containing less than 55% iron and a large percentage of other metals.
 Two general types of steel are carbon and alloy.
 Approximately 80 – 90% of steel produced is carbon steel, which contains 0.05 to 1
percent carbon and less than 1.5 percent of the other elements.
 There are hundreds of alloy steels, and the effects of additives vary.
 The strength of the steel increases as the carbon content increases.
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 The hardness, brittleness, and difficulty of fabrication also increase.

 Chromium makes the alloy hard and increases the wear and corrosion-resistance of steel.
 Steels containing more than 4 percent chromium are stainless steels.
 Sulfur is added to aid in machinability.
 Silicon is added to improve the electrical, mechanical, and thermal characteristics.
 Nickel is added to increase the toughness and strength.
 Vanadium is added to increase the strength.
 Tungsten is used to produce tool steels that will maintain a cutting edge at high heat.
 Aluminum provides a hardened surface.
 Molybdenum tends to increase the hardness and the endurance limits of steel.
 Oxygen forms iron oxide, which is not desirable.
 Phosphorus is found in all steels. When present in high percentages, it is considered an
impurity. At low percentages, it improves machinability.
 If carbon is added to iron, it changes the physical properties. The amount of change is directly
proportional to the amount of carbon added.
 Ferrous alloys are metals made up largely of ferrous materials with other elements in sufficient
quantities to change the ferrous characteristics.
 Manganese steel
 Chromium steel
 Nickel steel
 Stainless steel
 Tungsten steel
Generally, alloying elements each have their own compositional factor on the properties of steel. A
more general and most common properties that can be improved through alloying include:
Silicon (Si):
 It is a ferrite solid solution.
 It reduces losses.
 It increases toughness.
 It increases strength and hardness.
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Manganese (Mn):
 It improves Machinability.
 It improves strength and toughness.
 It dissolves in Ferrite.
Nickel (Ni):
 It is a ferrite solid solution.
 It increases tensile strength and hardness.
 It increases corrosion resistance.
 It reduces co- efficient of thermal expansion.
Chromium (Cr):
 It increases hardenability.
 It increases wear resistance.
 It increases corrosion resistance.
Titanium (Ti)
 It is strong carbide former.
Molybdenum (Mo):
 It makes grain finer.
 It forms carbides.
 Grain growth.
Tungsten (W):
 It forms carbides.
 Improves hot hardness.
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Vanadium (V):
 It has fine grain structure.
 Forms stable carbides.
Some alloying elements, called alpha stabilizers, raise the alpha-to-beta transition temperature.
Aluminium, gallium, germanium, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen are alpha stabilizers. Beta
stabilizers lower the transition temperature. Fe, V, Cr, Si, Mo, Nb, Re, Ta are beta stabilizers.
alpha-stabilizing alloying elements extend the hexagonal alpha phase field to elevated
temperatures, while beta-stabilizing elements shift the beta phase field to lower temperatures.
1.5 Corrosion and oxidation resistance of stainless steel, tool steels, HSLA,
Maraging steels
 Corrosion and Oxidation resistance of stainless steel
Stainless steel contains chromium together with nickel as alloy and rest is iron. It has been defined as
that steel which when correctly heat treated and finished, resists oxidation and corrosive attack from
most corrosive media. Stainless steel surface is responsible for corrosion resistance. Minimum
chromium content of 12% is required for the film’s formation, and 18% is sufficient to resist the most
severe atmospheric corrosive conditions. Their principal alloying element is chromium while some
other elements like nickel, manganese etc. can also be present in small amounts. Addition of nickel
improves ductility and imparts strength. Corrosion resistance to stainless steels increases with
increase in nickel content against neutral chloride solution and weakly oxidizing acids. Addition of
molybdenum improves its resistance to sulphuric, sulphurous and organic acids. Addition of
manganese increases hot workability of these steels. Steels having 15 to 20% Ni and about 0.1 %
carbon possesses great strength and toughness and extremely good resistance to corrosion. Such steels
are called stainless steels. Another type of stainless steel containing 11 to 14% chromium and about
0.35% carbon is used for cutlery, surgical and dental instruments and other purposes where hard
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edges are required. Maximum resistance to corrosion is obtained when this steel is ground and
polished after heat-treating.
General Properties of Stainless Steels
It possesses wide range of strength and hardness, high ductility, formability, high corrosion
resistance, good creep resistance, good thermal conductivity, good machinability, good weldability,
high hot, cold workability, high resistance to scaling and oxidation at elevated temperatures, excellent
surface appearance and finish. Stainless steel is highly resistance to corrosion and oxidation. It can
be classified into three major categories according to the type of micro structures.
Classification of Stainless Steel
i) Martensitic Stainless Steels
These steels contain 12 to 16% chromium and 0.1 to 1.2 per cent carbon. The structure consists of
hard martensite phase after hardening. The general utility chromium stainless steel with 12%
chromium and 0.15% carbon are ferromagnetic and air hardening. It is very hard and possesses high
strain and high corrosion resistance properties.
Applications
Stainless steels containing 12 to 14% chromium and 0.3% carbon are extensively used for table
cutlery, tools and equipments etc. Stainless steels containing 16- 18% chromium and 0.2% carbon
are used as springs, ball bearing, valves, knife blades and instruments under high temperature and
corrosive conditions. These steels are generally used for making utensils, surgical and dental
instruments, and springs of high temperature operations, ball valves and toilet seats.
ii) Ferritic Stainless Steels
Ferritic stainless steels are non-hard enable and contain 16 to 30% chromium and 0.08 to 0.2 per cent
carbon. Structure of these steel consists of ferrite phase which cannot be hardened by heat treatment.
They have very low carbon and possess considerable ductility, ability to be worked hot or cold,
excellent corrosion resistance and are relatively in expensive. They are always magnetic and retain
their basic microstructure up to the melting point.
Applications
These are extensively used for kitchen equipment, diary machinery interior decorative work,
automobile trimmings, chemical engineering industry, stainless steel sinks, food containers,
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refrigerator parts, beer barrels, automobile trimming etc. These are also used as high temperature
furnace parts when chromium content is high.
iii) Austenitic Stainless Steel
Addition of substantial quantities of Ni to high Cr alloys gives rise to, austenitic steel. It has good
resistance to many acids (even hot or cold nitric acid). Slight amount of W and Mo are added in such
steels to increase its strength at elevated temperatures. This steel contains 16 to 24% Cr, 8 to 22% Ni,
Mn 2 to 8%, Si 1 to 2%, and less than 0.25% C. Addition of nickel stabilizes austenite, and hence the
structure of these steels consists of austenite at room temperature. A steel containing 18% Cr and 8%
Ni is very widely used and is commonly referred to as 18/8 stainless steel. These steels do not harden
by heat treatment but can be rolled hard. These steels possess a brilliant luster (shine) when polished.
These are highly resistant to many acids even nitric acids. The heat conductivity of steel is low, about
5% that of copper. Tungsten and molybdenum are added to increase the strength at elevated
temperatures; silicon and aluminum to improve the resistance to scaling and sulphur are added to
improve machinability. This steel is easily weld able. After welding, it is susceptible to corrosive
attack in the area adjacent to the weld.
Applications
It is used for making heat exchangers, conveyors chains, furnaces, spokes, brewery, dairy and
chemical industrial components, cutlery parts, surgical and dental instruments, household appliances
such as kitchen utensils, sinks and saucepans. These are also used in making components in power
stations, especially in nuclear power stations, steam pipes, boiler tubes, radiator and super heater
tubes.
When the selection of the stainless steel grade has not been properly made, corrosion may occur.
…no material is perfect!
Types of corrosion on stainless steels
a) Uniform
b) Pitting
c) Crevice
d) Galvanic
e) Intergranular
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f) Stress corrosion cracking

Uniform: can occur in acids and hot alkaline solution
Pitting: Major factors that influence pitting corrosion:
Temperature: Increasing the temperature reduces drastically the resistance to pitting.
The pitting resistance decreases at the chloride (Cl) -concentration increases
The pitting resistance increases strongly with some alloying elements: N,Mo,Cr
Crevice: Crevice corrosion refers to corrosion occurring in confined spaces to which the access of
the working fluid from the environment is limited. These spaces are generally called crevices.
Examples of crevices are gaps and contact are as between parts, under gaskets or seals, inside cracks
and seams, spaces filled with deposits and under sludge piles.
How to avoid crevice corrosion: Optimize design: Use welded parts.
Design vessels for complete drainage.
Clean to remove deposits (whenever possible) Select a suitably corrosion resistant stainless-steel
Galvanic: Corrosion that can occur when 2 metals with very different galvanic potentials are in
contact. The most anodic metal is attacked
Example on the picture on the left: The stainless steel plate was secured to a stainless steel
vessel, using mild steel bolts–resulting in galvanic corrosion of the bolts in presence of
humidity, (=electrolyte)
Page 19 of 27
Basic rules on how to avoid galvanic corrosion

Avoid situations of dissimilar metals
When dissimilar metals are in contact make sure that the less noble metal(anode) has a much larger
surface area than the more noble metal(cathode).
Examples: Use Stainless steel fasteners for Aluminum products (and never Aluminum fasteners for
stainless)
Same between stainless steel and carbon steel.
Intergranular
Intergranular attack is caused by the formation of chromium carbides (Fe,Cr) 23C6 at grain
boundaries, reducing the chromium content and the stability of the passive layer.
How to avoid Intergranular Corrosion
Use low carbon grades, below 0,03% for austenitics or use stabilized grades for ferritics and
austenitics or on austenitics, carry out a solution annealing treatment (at1050°Call the carbides are
dissolved) followed by quenching. (This is usually impractical, however).
Stress corrosion cracking
Sudden cracking and failure of a component without deformation.
This may occur when The part is stressed (by an applied load or by a residual stress ) The environment
is aggressive (high chloride level, temperature above 50°C) The stainless steel his not sufficiently
SCC resistant Proper selection of the right stainless steel grade for the application and the
environment deserves attention. When this is done, stainless steel will provide un limited service life
without maintenance.
 Corrosion and Oxidation resistance of tool steel
Tool steel- Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited
to be made into tools. Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion,
their ability to hold a cutting edge, and/or their resistance to deformation at elevated temperatures.
Tool steel is generally used in a heat-treated state. Many high carbon tool steels are also more resistant
to corrosion due to their higher ratios of elements such as vanadium. With a carbon content between
Page 20 of 27
0.7% and 1.5%, tool steels are manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to produce the
required quality.
Properties of Tool steel:
i) Slight change of form during hardening.
ii) Little risk of cracking during hardening.
iii) Good toughness
iv) Good wear resistance
v) Very good machinability
vi) A definite cooling rate during hardening
vii) A definite hardening temperature
viii) Resistance to de-carburization
ix) Resistance to softening on heating
Classification of Tool steel:
The Joint Industry Conference, U.S.A. has classified tool steel as follows:
Symbol Meaning
T W-High speed steel
M Mo-High speed steel
D High C, high Cr steel
A Air hardening steel
O Oil hardening steel
W Water hardening steel
H Hot work steel
S Shock resistance steel
 Corrosion and Oxidation resistance of HSLA Steels
High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels: specially developed to improve mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance while benefitting from weight saving too.
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The classification of HSLA steels?
There are six different classifications of HSLA steels, each tailored to meet specific application and
mechanical property requirements. They're known as: inclusion-shape-controlled steel, micro-
alloyed ferrite-pearlite steel, acicular ferrite steel, pearlitic steel, and weathering steel.
The properties of HSLA steels?
The HSLA steels, often referred to as micro alloyed steels, are low-carbon steels with the strength
increased by small amounts of alloying elements such as niobium, vanadium, titanium, molybdenum
or boron, singly or in combinations. Their tensile strength may reach 450 MPa and their ductility may
be as high as 30%.
Which element contained in HSLA steels will improve resistance to atmospheric corrosion?
Increased corrosion resistance is given to high strength low alloy steel by the addition of silicon,
copper, chromium, and phosphorus. Formability is improved with the inclusion of zirconium,
calcium, and other rare earth elements as they provide sulfide-inclusion shape control.1
The disadvantages of HSLA steel?
Conventional structural HSLA steel has good strength at ambient temperature, but softens severely
when exposed to elevated temperature. For this reason, these alloys are not specified for temperatures
much higher than ambient temperature.
 Corrosion and Oxidation resistance of Maraging Steels
General Characteristics and Properties

_ Maraging steels are a class of ultra-high strength structural steels that are characterised by very low
carbon contents and the use of substitutional elements to produce age hardening in iron-nickel
martensite.
_ Maraging steels containing 18% nickel and 0.01 or 0.03% carbon, along with 0.1% aluminium, 8
to 12% cobalt, 3.2 to 5.0% molybdenum, and 0.2 to 1.8% titanium.
_ The strength and hardness increases rapidly upon aging and strength level are maintained up to a
temperature of 350 °C. The nominal yield strengths of these steels in the fully age-hardened condition
are 1380, 1725, 2070 and 2415 MPa respectively.
Page 22 of 27
_ Half of the strength is contributed to the iron-nickel martensitic matrix, and the other half to the
subsequent precipitation hardening.
Applications
Maraging steels can be made into shapes by most hot and cold working processes. They are also very
suitable for nitriding. Maraging are used for aerospace applications such as rocket motor cases and
parts for the suspension system in the lunar rover vehicle. General engineering applications include
flexible drive shafts for helicopters, pressure vessels, barrels for rapid firing guns, extrusion rams,
cold forming dies and die-casting dies.
1.6 Heat Treatment of Steels
Heat Treatment of Steels All heat-treating operatures consist of subjecting a metal to a definite time-
temperature cycle, which may be divided into three parts: (1) Heating, (2) holding at temperature
(soaking), and (3) cooling. Individual cases vary, but certain fundamental objectives may be stated.
The rate of heating is not particularly important unless a steel is in a highly stressed condition, such
as is imparted by severe cold working or prior hardening. In such instances the rate of heating should
be slow. Frequently this is impracticable, since furnaces may be at operating temperatures, but placing
the cold steel in the hot furnace may cause distortion or even cracking. This danger can be minimized
by the use of a preheating furnace maintained at a temperature below the A1. The steel, preheated for
a sufficient period, then can be transferred to the furnace at operating temperature. This procedure is
also advantageous when treating steels having considerable variations in section thickness or very
low thermal conductivity. The object of holding a steel at heat-treating temperature is to assure
uniformity of temperature throughout its entire volume. Obviously, thin sections need not be soaked
as long as thick sections, but if different thicknesses exist in the same piece, the period required to
heat the thickest section uniformly governs the time at temperature. A rule frequently used is to soak
1/2 hr/in. of thickness. The structure and properties of a steel depend upon its rate of cooling and this,
in turn, is governed by such factors as mass, quenching media, etc. It must be realized that the thicker
the section, the slower will be the rate of cooling regardless of the method of cooling used except in
such operations as induction hardening.
Page 23 of 27
Annealing
Annealing is a process involving heating and cooling, usually applied to produce softening. The term
also refers to treatments intended to alter mechanical or physical properties, produce a definite
microstructure, or remove gases. The temperature of the operation and the rate of cooling depend
upon the material being annealed and the purpose of the treatment.
a. Full Annealing
Full annealing is a softening process in which a steel is heated to a temperature above the trans-
formation range (Ac3) and, after being held for a sufficient time at this temperature, is cooled slowly
to a temperature below the transformation range (Ar1). The steel is ordinarily allowed to cool slowly
in the furnace, although it may be removed and cooled in some medium such as mica, lime, or ashes,
that insures a slow rate of cooling. Since the transformation temperatures are affected by the carbon
content, it is apparent that the higher carbon steels can be fully annealed at lower temperatures than
the lower carbon steels.
b. Process Annealing
Process annealing, frequently termed stress relief annealing, is usually applied to cold-worked low
carbon steels (up to about 0.25% of carbon) to soften the steel sufficiently to allow further cold
working. The steel is usually heated close to, but below, the Ac1 temperature. If the steel is not to be
further cold-worked, but relief of internal stresses is desired, a lower range of temperature will suffice
(about 1,000° F). Rate of cooling is immaterial. This type of anneal will cause recrystallization and
softening of the cold-worked ferrite grains, but usually will not affect the relatively small amounts of
cold-worked pearlite.
c. Spheroidizing
Spheroidizing is a process of heating and cooling steel that produces a rounded or globular form of
carbide m a matrix of ferrite. It is usually accomplished by prolonged heating at temperatures just
below the Ac1, but may be facilitated by alternately heating to temperatures just above the Ac1 and
cooling to just below the Ar1. The final step, however, should consist of holding at a temperature just
below the critical (Ar1). The rate of cooling is immaterial after slowly cooling to about 1,000°F. The
Page 24 of 27
rate of spheroidization is affected by the initial structure. The finer the pearlite, the more readily
spheroidization is accomplished. A martensitic structure is very amenable to spheroidization. This
treatment is usually applied to the high carbon steels (0.60% of carbon and higher). The purpose of
the treatment is to improve machinability and it is also used to condition high-carbon steel for cold-
drawing into wire.
Normalizing
Normalizing is a process in which a steel is heated, to a temperature above the Ac 3 or the Acm and
then cooled in still air. The purpose of the treatment is to obliterate the effects of any previous heat
treatment (including the coarse- grained structure sometimes resulting from high forging
temperatures) or cold-working and to insure a homogeneous austenite on reheating for hardening or
full annealing. The resultant structures are pearlite or pearlite with excess ferrite or cementite,
depending upon the composition of the steel. They are different from the structures resulting after
annealing in that, for steels of the same carbon content in the hypo- or hypereutectoid ranges, there
is less excess ferrite or cementite and the pearlite is finer. These are the results of the more rapid
cooling.
Hardening
Steels can be hardened by the simple expedient of heating to above the Ac 3 transformation, holding
long enough to insure the attainment of uniform temperature and solution of carbon in the austenite,
and then cooling rapidly (quenching). Complete hardening depends on cooling so rapidly that the
austenite, which otherwise would decompose on cooling through the Ar 1, is maintained to relatively
low temperatures. When this is accomplished, the austenite transforms to martensite on cooling
through the Ms, M1 range. Rapid cooling is necessary only to the extent of lowering the temperature
of the steel to well below the nose of the S-curve. Once this has been accomplished, slow cooling
from then on, either in oil or in air, is beneficial in avoiding distortion and cracking. Special
treatments, such as time quenching and martempering, are designed to bring about these conditions.
As martensite is quite brittle, steel is rarely used in the as-quenched condition, that is, without
tempering. The maximum hardness that can be obtained in completely hardened low-alloy and plain
carbon structural steels depends primarily on the carbon content.
Page 25 of 27
Tempering
Tempering (sometimes called drawing) is the process of reheating hardened (martensitic) or

normalized steels to some temperature below the lower critical (Ac 1). The rate of cooling is
immaterial except for some steels that are susceptible to temper brittleness. As the tempering
temperature is increased, the martensite of hardened steel passes through stages of tempered
martensite and is gradually changed into a structure consisting of spheroids of cementite in a matrix
of ferrite, formerly termed sorbite. These| changes are accompanied by a decreasing hardness and
increasing toughness. The tempering temperature depends upon the desired properties and the
purpose for which the steel is to be used.
Case Hardening
Case hardening is a process of hardening a ferrous alloy so that the surface layer or case is made
substantially harder than the interior or core. The chemical composition of the surface layer is altered
during the treatment by the addition of carbon, nitrogen, or both. The most frequently used case-
hardening processes are carburizing, cyaniding, carbonitriding, and nitriding.
Surface Hardening
It is frequently desirable to harden only the surface of steels without altering the chemical
composition of the surface layers. If a steel contains sufficient carbon to respond to hardening, it is
possible to harden the surface layers only by very rapid heating for a short period, thus conditioning
the surface for hardening by quenching.
Special Treatments
a. Austempering
Austempering is a trade name for a patented heat treating process. Essentially, it consists of heating
steel to above the Ac3 transformation temperature and then quenching into a hot bath held at a
temperature below that at which fine pearlite would form (the nose of the S-curve), but above the Ms
temperature. The product of isothermal decomposition of austenite in this temperature region is
bainite. This constituent combines relatively high toughness and hardness.
Page 26 of 27
b. Martempering
Martempering consists of heating a steel to above its Ac3 transformation and then quenching into a
bath held at a temperature approximately equal to that of its Ms. The steel is maintained in the hot
bath until its temperature is essentially uniform and then is cooled in air.
c. Cold Treatment
The Mf temperature of many alloy steels is so low that complete transformation of austenite to
martensite does not occur on quenching to room temperature or on cooling after tempering. This
retained austenite may be partially or completely transformed by cooling below atmospheric
temperatures and such treatment is called "cold treatment."
Hardenability
Hardenability is the property that determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced in steel
by quenching. It is increased by increasing carbon and by the addition of all the common alloying
elements (except cobalt), provided that these elements are completely dissolved in the austenite at
quenching temperatures. The elements most frequently used for this purpose are manganese,
chromium, and molybdenum. Hardenability is also enhanced by increased grain size and
homogeneity of the austenite. However, a coarse- grained austenite increases the tendency of a steel
to distort and crack during heat treatment. Coarse-grained steels also are less tough than fine- grained
steels. A clear distinction must be drawn between the maximum hardness obtainable in a steel and its
hardenability. In straight carbon and low-alloy steels, the maximum hardness is a function of carbon
content only, whereas hardenability is concerned primarily with the depth of hardening. Numerous
methods have been proposed and used for determining the hardenability of steel. The selection of a
method depends largely upon the information desired and the range in hardenability of the steels.
Page 27 of 27

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Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 1

by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.

CHAPTER – 1: Production of Iron and Steel

1.1 Production of Pig-iron

1.2 Steelmaking plants

Two basic types of steelmaking plants are

1.2.1 The mainstream steelmaking processes include:

Figure: Schematic of Bessemer converter steelmaking process.

 OPEN HEARTH FURNACE

 Basic Oxygen Process (BOP) or Linz and Donawitz (LD) Process

 Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)

Electric Induction Furnaces

1.3 Effect of alloying element in steel

1. Plain Carbon Steel (Fe + C)

2. Alloy Steel (Fe + other alloying elements)

ii. Medium carbon Steel - 0.25% to 0.6% Carbon

iii. High Carbon Steel – more than 0.6 % Carbon

2. Tool of high alloy steel.

Chromium – Cr (0.5-18%): A key component of stainless steels. At over 12 percent content,

1.4 Compositional factor on Physical and Mechanical Property

Important physical and mechanical properties of steel?

What are its main characteristics?

 It is ductile and malleable.

Factors that affect physical properties of steel?

What are mechanical properties of steel?

Strength of steel can be classified as follows:

 Tensile strength is the ability of a metal to resist being pulled apart.

The main composition of steel and their compositional factors?

 The hardness, brittleness, and difficulty of fabrication also increase.

 Corrosion and Oxidation resistance of stainless steel

General Properties of Stainless Steels

Types of corrosion on stainless steels

f) Stress corrosion cracking

Basic rules on how to avoid galvanic corrosion

 Corrosion and Oxidation resistance of tool steel

 Corrosion and Oxidation resistance of HSLA Steels

The classification of HSLA steels?

 Corrosion and Oxidation resistance of Maraging Steels

General Characteristics and Properties

1.6 Heat Treatment of Steels

Tempering (sometimes called drawing) is the process of reheating hardened (martensitic) or

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