INGLESE 2

Britain in the first decades of the 20th century

The Edwardian Age
After Queen Victoria's passing in 1901, her son, Edward VII, adopted the Germanic surname of his
father, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. His reign infused fresh vitality into the monarchy. With
ties to numerous European royal families, he played an engaged role in foreign policy matters.
Notably, he contributed to the Anglo-French Entente Cordiale in 1904, a pivotal agreement that
effectively resolved colonial disputes between these two nations. Edward VII's involvement marked
a significant diplomatic achievement in European relations during his era.
Suffragettes
In the early 20th century, suffrage was a privilege reserved solely for men. However, the
movement for women's voting rights had been gaining momentum since the 1860s, championed
particularly by educated women. A crucial turning point came in 1903 when Mrs. Emmeline
Pankhurst established the WSPU (Women's Social and Political Union). Commonly known as the
Suffragettes, this passionate group protested against the marginalization of women, fervently
supporting for their right to vote. Their courageous and persistent activism became a crucial force
in the quest for gender equality in the political participation.
The WSPU initiated an campaign of vandalism in their pursuit of visibility for their cause: They
resorted to dramatic measures such as restraining themselves to the railings outside Downing
Street and Buckingham Palace. Additionally, they orchestrated arson attacks on public buildings
to draw attention to their demand for women's suffrage.
However, the government responded sternly to these protests, employing severe measures against
the Suffragettes. Many were arrested and sent to prison as a consequence of their actions. Inside
the prisons, some of these brave women resorted to hunger strikes as a form of protest. In
response, the prison authorities resorted to force-feeding these individuals.
Edwardian Britain
In 1906, the Labour Party was established, marking a new era in British politics. The Liberal Party,
victorious in the general elections of the same year, began the foundation for what would become
the Welfare State. They implemented vital reforms that brought about significant changes: They
introduced measures for old-age pensions, providing support for elderly citizens. Sickness and
unemployment benefits were also initiated, offering crucial aid to those facing health issues or
joblessness.
Despite the significant strides in social reforms during the Edwardian period, it was also marked
by:--Industrial unrest characterized by strikes. --Violent protests against the disparity between
high prices and low wages.
David Lloyd George, a key figure in the New Liberal movement, served as Chancellor of the
Exchequer. In 1909, he proposed the People's Budget aiming to fund social reforms through a land-
tax and higher income tax. However, the House of Lords rejected this budget, due to a
constitutional crisis. In response, an Act was passed to reform the House of Lords, addressing the
clash between the Houses of Parliament and reshaping the balance of power within the
government.
The outbreak of World War I
In 1914, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in
Sarajevo triggered a chain of events leading to World War I. The conflict unfolded between: The
Central European Powers comprising Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Triple Entente
composed of Britain, the British Empire, France, Russia, and their allies.
Germany's attack on France via Belgium caused Britain to enter the war, as it had pledged to
protect Belgium's neutrality. Consequently, Britain declared war on Germany on August 4, 1914.
For Britain, the war held significance as a battle for democracy and freedom. Ireland and the
dominions rallied behind Britain in support of this cause, contributing to the conflict on the side of
the Allies.
Britain at war
In World War I, technology overshadowed traditional tactics: Machine guns countered human
charges. Poison gas, tanks, airplanes, and submarines emerged as new, powerful technologies.
The conflict witnessed staggering death tolls: At the Battle of the Somme, 600,000 Allies and
500,000 Germans perished for a mere 125 miles of land. Battles weren't solely about strategic
gains or resources; they aimed to kill soldiers and exhaust the enemy's strength.
The inability to achieve a swift win led both sides into a grueling war of attrition, entrenched in
lines of trenches.
Life within these trenches was marked by: ---Endless mud and rat-infested conditions.
---Severe lack of hygiene. ---Overwhelming boredom and constant fear, particularly of gas
attacks.
The relentless shell explosions took a toll on soldiers' mental health, leading to shell shock—a
psychological disorder born from the trauma of these explosions and the harrowing conditions of
warfare.
-In 1917, America's entry into the war alongside the Allies hastened the German defeat.
-By 1918, Germany conceded, signing an armistice on November 11th at 11 o'clock.
-In 1919, the Versailles Peace Treaty was signed by key leaders including British Prime Minister
Lloyd George, France's Georges Clemenceau, American President Woodrow Wilson, and Italy's
Vittorio Orlando.
League of Nations
President Woodrow Wilson put forward the Fourteen Points to shape the peace treaty and avoid
future conflicts. Additionally, he suggested establishing a League of Nations, although the
American Senate ultimately declined to support this proposal.
Armistice Day
At the eleventh hour on the eleventh day of the eleventh month, the guns stopped, marking
Armistice Day. It's also known as 'Remembrance Day' or 'Poppy Day' because the poppy, the only
flower that grew in the battlefields, became a symbol for fallen soldiers. Every year, this day is
commemorated to honor and remember the many who lost their lives in war.
The struggle for Irish Independence
The Irish Revolution, also known as the Irish War of Independence, spanned from 1919 to 1921
and marked a pivotal period in Irish history. It was a complex series of events that ultimately led to
the establishment of the Irish Free State.
Background: The Irish Revolution finds its origins in centuries of British rule in Ireland,
characterized by religious and cultural tensions between the largely Catholic Irish population and
the Protestant English rulers. Throughout the 19th century, movements advocating for Irish Home
Rule aimed to secure self-governance for Ireland within the United Kingdom, yet these endeavors
faced consistent opposition and obstruction.
Easter Rising (1916): The revolution gained momentum with the Easter Rising of 1916, a rebellion
led by the Irish Republican Brotherhood and the Irish Volunteers against British rule. Although the
rising was initially unsuccessful and its leaders were executed, it galvanized public support for the
cause of Irish independence.
War of Independence (1919-1921): The conflict intensified in 1919 when the Irish Republican Army
(IRA) was formed to resist British forces. Guerrilla warfare, ambushes, and attacks on British
institutions became common tactics employed by the IRA. The Soloheadbeg ambush in January
1919 marked the beginning of a more aggressive phase. The Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed in
December 1921, brought an end to the armed conflict. The treaty, however, led to a bitter division
among Irish nationalists. While it granted partial independence to the Irish Free State, it also
required an oath of allegiance to the British Crown, causing a split between those who accepted
the treaty (pro-Treaty forces) and those who rejected it (anti-Treaty forces).
Irish Civil War (1922-1923): The division over the treaty led to the Irish Civil War. Pro-Treaty forces,
led by figures like Michael Collins, sought to establish the Irish Free State, while anti-Treaty forces,
including prominent republicans like Éamon de Valera, opposed the treaty's terms. The conflict
was marked by internal strife, with both sides committing atrocities. The Civil War ended in May
1923, with the pro-Treaty forces emerging victorious. Michael Collins was assassinated during the
conflict, adding a tragic dimension to the already divisive struggle.
Legacy: The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 led to the creation of the Irish Free State, marking a step
towards independence. However, it also sparked lasting divisions between pro-Treaty and anti-
Treaty factions, shaping Irish politics for decades. In the 1970s, the term 'Irish rebellion' came to
symbolize 'The Troubles,' a prolonged conflict in Northern Ireland rooted in political, social, and
religious divisions between nationalist Catholics seeking reunification with Ireland and unionist
Protestants desiring to remain part of the United Kingdom. This conflict persisted until the Good
Friday Agreement in 1998.
-Introduction of British Troops: In 1969, as violence escalated, British troops were deployed to
Northern Ireland to restore order. However, their presence further fueled resentment and became
a catalyst for more intense conflict.
-1970s: Escalation of Violence
-Paramilitary Groups: Various paramilitary groups emerged on both sides. The Provisional Irish
Republican Army (IRA), a nationalist paramilitary organization, intensified its campaign against
British security forces and loyalist paramilitaries.
-Loyalist Paramilitaries: Loyalist paramilitary groups, such as the Ulster Defence Association (UDA)
and the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), also became active. They targeted Catholic civilians and
Republican activists in response to IRA actions.
Bloody Sunday (1972): One of the most significant events was the Bloody Sunday massacre in
January 1972, where British soldiers shot and killed unarmed civil rights protesters in Derry. This
event further fueled anti-British sentiment and increased support for the IRA.
Peace Efforts: Sunningdale Agreement (1973): The Sunningdale Agreement, an attempt to
establish power-sharing between nationalists and unionists, collapsed in 1974 due to opposition
from hardline unionists and loyalist paramilitaries. Ceasefires and Talks: Throughout the 1970s,
there were intermittent ceasefires and attempts at political negotiations, but a lasting resolution
remained elusive.
Hunger Strikes: The early 1980s saw intense hunger strikes by republican prisoners, notably Bobby
Sands in 1981. While galvanizing nationalist support, these strikes didn't swiftly resolve the conflict.
The Troubles persisted for years, marked by sporadic violence and peace talks until the 1998 Good
Friday Agreement, which laid the groundwork for lasting peace in Northern Ireland.
Britain in the Twenties
Amidst the war, certain groups prospered in Britain. Manufacturers and war-related goods
producers amassed wealth, capitalizing on the conflict. Women, who had assumed men's roles,
gained newfound economic independence. This shift in women's roles was mirrored in more
masculine fashion choices and behavior changes.
In the mid-twenties, post-war prosperity declined. High interest rates made exports costly. Regions
like the north of England, South Wales, and central Scotland suffered severe unemployment. In
1926, a General Strike ensued. Then, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 significantly impacted global
markets, leading to a widespread depression.

AESTHETICISM
The Aesthetic Movement emerged in the late 19th century within intellectual circles. Originating in
France with poet Théophile Gautier, it reflected artists' frustration with societal materialism and
moral constraints, prompting a redefinition of art's role. This movement advocated "Art for Art's
Sake," prompting French artists to retreat from social and political involvement into aesthetic
isolation. The bohemian lifestyle embodied their rebellion against bourgeois monotony, embracing
sensation, excess, and the pursuit of art and beauty.
THE ENGLISH AESTHETIC MOVEMENT
The English Aesthetic Movement finds its origins in figures like John Keats, Dante Gabriel Rossetti,
and John Ruskin, who sought beauty while emphasizing moral values.
Walter Pater, considered the main theorist, was influenced by Ruskin and gained acclaim for works
like "Studies in the History of the Renaissance" and "Marius the Epicurean." Pater's ideas,
embraced by the youth for their subversive nature, challenged traditional beliefs by emphasizing
art as life's essence, rejecting religious faith, and promoting intense experiences. His view regarded
artists as transcribers of their perception rather than mere reality, separating art from moral
teachings and emphasizing its detachment from life's references.
WALTER PATER’S INFLUENCE
Pater's impact extended to 1890s poets, notably Oscar Wilde, and artists affiliated with the
Rhymers' Club, contributing to The Yellow Book (1894-1897). This publication showcased
'decadent' themes, reflecting a decline in established values. Over time, 'decadent' evolved into an
aesthetic term widely adopted across Europe by the century's end.
THE FEATURES OF AESTHETIC WORKS
A number of features can be distinguished in the works of Aesthetic artists: excessive attention
to the self; hedonistic and sensuous attitude; perversity in subject matter;
disenchantment with contemporary society; evocative use of language.
THE EUROPEAN DECADENT MOVEMENT
Decadence emerged as a European movement in the late 1880s, notably through French writers
like Rimbaud, Verlaine, Mallarmé, and Laforgue, influenced by Baudelaire's "Les Fleurs du mal"
(1857). Joris-Karl Huysmans' novel "À rebours" (1884), featuring Des Esseintes' quest for unique
sensations, inspired Wilde's dandy persona. In Italy, Gabriele D’Annunzio's "Il piacere" (1889) and
poets Pascoli and Gozzano represented Decadence. Rainer Maria Rilke's poetry also echoed the
Decadent sensibility in German.
THE DANDY
The term 'dandy' likely originates from the song "Yankee Doodle Dandy" sung by British troops
during the American Revolution, mocking the appearance of American soldiers. It referred to
someone flaunting their style despite wearing odd clothes. George Bryan Brummell (1778-1840)
embodied the dandy, setting fashion trends and befriending the Prince Regent. His exile to France
due to debts marked his decline. Brummell pioneered dandyism, which later influenced artistic
movements like Symbolism and Aestheticism in France and resurged in England with figures like
Oscar Wilde by the century's end.

All about Oscar Wilde

Life
Born in Dublin, he excelled in Classics at Oxford, known for his eccentricity. Embracing Walter
Pater's theory of "Art for Art's Sake," he became a London dandy with exceptional wit and
flamboyant attire. In 1881, he lectured on Pre-Raphaelites and Aesthetes in the U.S. By the 1890s,
his works like "The Picture of Dorian Gray" and "Salomé" faced criticism for immorality, despite
successful social comedies. Convicted for homosexuality, he served time in Reading Gaol. After
release in 1897, he lived in poverty in France until his death in Paris.
All about The Picture of Dorian Gray
Plot: The novel is set in London at the end of the 19th century. Dorian Gray( the protagonist), a
captivating young man, becomes the subject of Basil Hallward's painting due to his beauty. Lord
Henry Wotton's corrupt influence leads Dorian into a life of indulgence. Dorian's wish for eternal
youth is granted as his portrait ages instead. When Basil discovers the corrupted image, Dorian kills
him. Desperate to break the curse, Dorian fatally stabs the portrait, leading to his death. The
painting returns to its pristine state, while Dorian's appearance deteriorates.
Themes:

Characters: Dorian Gray stands for the ideal of youth, beauty and innocence. The last name
Gray suggests he is morally neither black nor white. He leads a life of pleasure but his vanity
and selfishness ruin him. Lord Henry Wotton is an amoral aesthete. He believes youth is the
most important value. Basil Hallward is an artist fascinated by Dorian’s beauty and youth. He
tries to guide Dorian towards good moral conduct.