Chapter 3

34 Single-Camera Video Production
Chapter Three
The Equipment
Equipment Development
The equipment presently used in single-camera video production has a relatively short
history. In the early 1960s, a method of editing 2-inch quadraplex videotape was
developed. It occurred to directors and journalists that some types of productions
could be shot on one camera, recorded on videotape, even out of sequence, and then
edited into a form suitable for airing. By 1969, amateur videotaping became possible
with the invention and sale of a Sony black-and-white handheld camera combined
with an open-reel 1=2 -inch videotape recorder.
In the mid-1970s, editing systems for both formats were developed, but the 2-inch
format was difficult to edit, even with a computer controller, because it could not
be still-framed for the precise location of edit points, and at that time the quality
of 1=2 -inch tape was below the technical level for broadcasting, warranting the further
development of editing systems.
The original small video field cameras were developed for broadcast news operations
to replace the 16-mm film equipment used by most stations and networks. News
operations wanted small, lightweight equipment that could deliver broadcast-quality
picture and sound instantaneously. Because such a system would be entirely elec-
tronic, the picture and sound also could be transmitted over microwave or satellite
links for live coverage. The equipment was bulky and heavy compared to film equip-
ment, but it provided the live picture required by news (see Figure 3.1).
The development during the 1990s of smaller cameras using charge-coupled device
(CCD) or complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chips feeding 1=2 -inch
high-quality digital videotape decks or recording directly onto computer memory, mem-
ory cards, or computer discs has moved the art and science of field recording to a new
level of high quality and lower cost. Editing these new signals can now be accom-
plished with laptop and desktop nonlinear editors, providing shorter turnaround time
between shooting and a completed news clip or making much more creative work
possible on nonlinear editing equipment.
Chapter Three | The Equipment 35
1970s "Creepie-Peepie" 2000s Camcorder

Field Cameras
Flatbed Film NLE Video

Visual Editing
FIG. 3.1 – Equipment designed for electronic field production (EFP) and electronic news gathering
(ENG) together make up the field of single camera video production. Over the years, field
equipment is smaller, lighter, of a higher quality, and HDTV capable. Visual editing moved from
Equipment Development
physically cutting to computer-based editing. (Courtesy JVC, Advanced Broadcast Solutions, and
Grass Valley.)
Cameras
When you first decide on which camera to use for your project, you are faced with
five choices: standard-definition (SD) or high-definition (HD), either 4:3 or 16:9 frame
ratio, interlace or progressive scan system, the frame resolution at 480, 720, or 1080
lines, and the type of camera.
Within each of these categories you will find a variation in terms of image quality and
a distinction between handheld, professional, broadcast, and digital cinema cameras.
Recorded images must be of high quality to be edited and duplicated for broadcast,
and this usually requires more sophisticated and expensive equipment. Most modern
cameras are capable of creating both 4:3 and 16:9 pictures with a flip of a switch.
Because most of the circuits within the camera and camera control units now are
digital, varying between SD and HD signals is easily accomplished. You may make
a choice between frame and line rates also at a touch of a button, but you must
make the choice carefully and be fully aware of the consequences.
You must match the image quality of a video camera with the format and quality of
the recording media being used. It is as pointless to use an expensive three-chip
studio camera to make a miniDV original videotape recording as it is to use a high-
end digital recording system with an inexpensive single-chip consumer video camera
(see Figure 3.2).
Camera Types
The proliferation of different SD, HD, and digital cinema recording formats makes any
neat, clear, and simple classification of digital video cameras into mutually exclusive
categories difficult. Today’s digital cameras come in a wide range of quality and price
categories, from acceptable SD cameras to the highest quality and expensive digital
cinema cameras.
Within this range or continuum, you may separate cameras into four basic types by
their recording systems: (1) HDV camcorders; (2) DV (including SD or DVSP, DVC
Pro, and DVCAM) camcorders; (3) HD cameras (including HDCAM SR, DVC Pro HD,
XDCam, and other full HD formats as well as broadcast HD); and (4) digital cinema
cameras. Each category is vaguely separated by price, quality, and purpose. But there
are no hard and fast divisions between camera types.
CAMERA TYPES
TYPE DV HDV HD BROADCAST DIGITAL CINEMA
SENSOR 3-¼’ -/13” 3-1/3” 3-1/2” 3-2/3” 2/3” TO 35MM
COST LOW LOW TO MEDIUM MEDIUM TO HIGH HIGH EXPENSIVE
PURPOSE CONSUMER TO LOW TO MID-LEVEL MID TO HIGH-LEVEL HEAVY USE LONG FORM
SEMI- PROFESSIONAL PROFESSIONAL BROADCAST- DRAMATIC
PROFESSIONAL FIELD/STUDIO PRODUCTIONS
RECORD miniDV miniDV or P2, SxS, P2, SxS, RAW DIGITAL, HARD
MEDIUM MEMORY MEDIA SD CARDS SD CARDS, DRIVE, EXTERNAL FEED
EXTERNAL FEEDS
Cameras
ASPECT/ 4:3, some 16:9 4:3, 16:9 4:3, 16:9 4:3, 16:9 16:9
LINES 720p 720p, 1080p 720p, 1080i and p 720p, 1080i and p all line rates
FOCAL 3:1, 5:1 5:1 5:1-10:1 10:1-100:1 Fixed FL or 10:1

LENGTH
FIG. 3.2 – The characteristics of the various types of cameras cover a wide range of technical
specifications and output quality.
Handheld Cameras
Small, handheld single- and multiple-sensor cameras designed primarily for home and
semiprofessional applications use 1=6 -inch to 1=2 -inch chips offering a 480 to 720 res-
olution and highly compressed SD signal, usually with interlaced rather than progres-
sive scanning. These cameras generally are designed for you to record on miniDV
tape, flash media, or DVD-R disc. You may easily operate the cameras in a basic
point-and-shoot mode with almost all functions—focus, aperture, exposure rates—
automatically set. They are designed for you to shoot quick, low-cost, fundamentally
sound, but not the highest quality signal output (see Figure 3.3).
As the size of digital cameras decreased, it became apparent that a camera could be
designed that you can hold it in one hand, much as a still camera is held. Such cam-
eras have been designed primarily for the consumer market, but the quality of the out-
put, especially if the camera uses three chips, makes the miniature camcorder useful
for news, television sales, streaming, and some professional productions. They come
equipped with lenses that zoom in a range from 10:1 to 20:1. Some models are
designed to output directly to the Internet for video streaming.
FIG. 3.3 – A basic HDV camcorder may be as small as a consumer point-and-shoot or larger, with
more professional controls and accessories. (Courtesy of Sony.)
HDV Professional Camera
The next most common digital cameras now available to the public and professionals
are HDV cameras. HDV offers a compressed high-definition format as an inexpensive
means of producing HD programs. The convenience and low cost of using standard
miniDV tapes that are similar to or the same as those used in SD recordings will make
HDV attractive to you as a low-budget producer. HDV cameras rely on greater flexibil-
ity in operation, higher quality of signal output, and a wider choice for you to deter-
mine how you want the camera to operate in frame rate, aperture, focus, and either
progressive or interlaced scanning as well as choosing 720 or 1080 resolution in
interlaced scan or progressive scan mode.
Sensors range from 1=4 inch to 1=2 inch and are either single with built-in color filters
direct to lens or triple using a prism. Your output may be either SD or HD at any of the
rates required for that particular production. Built-in storage may be a miniDV, a built-
in or removable hard drive, an optical disc recorder, or any of several flash drives such
as secure digital (SD), Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
(PCMIA) P2, SxS, GFCam, or a compact memory flash card (see Figure 3.4).
Cameras
You may use these cameras in the field as a documentary maker, independent feature
producer, news videographer, or freelancer working in industry or education. As digital
circuits assume responsibility for many previous manual functions, as the size
decreases, as battery life increases, and as flexibility of operation increases, the field
camera takes on a new, higher level of creativity for you, the operator, and director.
The increase in resolution and contrast range in field cameras moves them from handy
production tools to truly high-quality creative tools. The smaller size and weight
allows the camera to be held on a body mount, on the shoulder, or on any number
of portable camera mounts. Increased battery life permits longer shooting sessions
without the need to change batteries and also allows for the use of portable lighting
fixtures powered by the camera battery.
FIG. 3.4 – HDV cameras usually use built-in miniDV tape decks or flash media. The optics are superior
to basic HDV cameras but not as expensive or flexible as those used on DV or broadcast
cameras. (Courtesy of JVC.)
Broadcast Camera
HD field cameras are designed for you to shoot HD sports, high-level documentaries,
high- and low-budget television dramas, and live event coverage. Many of the techni-
cal specifications of HD cameras are similar but considerably higher than they are for
HDV cameras. Special zoom lenses with long ranges of up to 100:1 are needed for
some sporting events and live coverage (see Figure 3.5). Such cameras are capable
of delivering high-quality signals that are superior to the highly compressed HD sig-
nals of HDV cameras, only they have greater flexibility to increase the quality level
by taking advantage of higher-level technical specifications.
FIG. 3.5 – Broadcast camcorders record directly onto a built-in hard drive, removable disk drive, or
large memory flash cards and may be equipped with long-range zoom lenses for sporting events.
Broadcast news cameras must be small, lightweight, and offer as many flexible characteristics as
possible. (Courtesy of Ikegami.)
Cameras
Digital Cinema Camera
Digital cinema (DC) cameras fall in the multipurpose category because you may use
them both in the studio and in the field. But are designed specifically to produce
the highest quality signal for conversion to motion picture film or projection as a digi-
tal signal on a large theater screen. DC cameras use much larger CCD/CMOS chips,
from 2=3 inch to 65-mm format, to create a data stream instead of a video/audio
signal, or you may operate them totally in an uncompressed or minimally compressed
mode. DC cameras generally are not camcorders, because they are designed to feed a
large high-quality tape deck, a hard drive system, or a server rather than a portable
media recording system (see Figure 3.6).
FIG. 3.6 – Cameras may now be equipped with all of the production accessories used in motion
picture camera production. They are called (DC) digital cinematography cameras. (Courtesy of
Panasonic.)
Specialized Digital Cameras
You may use microcameras, also called subminiature cameras, for security, law
enforcement, surveillance, and special shots used to cover sports, documentaries,
and dramas where you want to get shots from hard-to-reach or nearly impossible
positions. Such cameras are small enough for you to mount them on helmets, on race-
cars, on skiers, and on athletes who participate in other fast-moving sports. A micro-
camera has no viewfinder, all automatic operations, and a remote-controlled zoom
lens or a single fixed focal length lens (see Figure 3.7). Despite their small size (as
small as 2 inches by 2 inches by 2 inches, plus a lens not much larger), these digital
cameras create a reasonably acceptable output for professional productions. Few
come equipped with attached recording media; instead, you must hardwire or connect
the camera wirelessly to a recorder at a safe, secure location, or a small transmitter
may be attached to the camera that is similar to a wireless mic transmitter.
Cameras
FIG. 3.7 – Miniature HD cameras may be as small as 2 inches by 2 inches, but they still create a full
HD color picture. Their small size allows them to be used in places a regular-sized camera would
not fit or would be too dangerous or inconvenient to place. (Courtesy of IconixVideo.)
Image Sources and Optics

Tubes
Until the late 1980s, all practical video cameras used an electronic tube to convert light
to an electronic signal. Even though the quality and size of the smaller tube cameras
made them applicable to both news operations and consumer use, the fact that they
used tubes as light conversion transducers presented problems. The critical problem
was their low level of light sensitivity compared to film, their sensitivity to burn and
lag imaging, and the tendency to lose registration between tubes (see Figure 3.8).
Chips
In 1980s, the first video camera was produced that contained no tubes. The light con-
version tubes were replaced with all-electronic charge-coupled devices (CCD). CCDs
(also known as chips) are flat pieces of selenium and other light-sensitive metal crys-
tal pixels. CMOS chips were developed shortly after. Instead of using a beam of elec-
trons to scan the chip, the new technology uses a chip that is electronically read as
light falling across its surface changes voltages. These changes become the electronic
equivalent of the picture at the same frame and line rate as a picture tube. In addi-
tion, you can expose the signal from a chip at a variety of frame rates and equivalent
shutter speeds to produce slow- or fast-motion video, depending on the design of the
camera.
FIG. 3.8 – The evolution of the camera signal light source from tubes to chips was key to the ability of
designers to create smaller, lighter, and more efficient cameras.
All chips require a very small amount of power and, because they are a flat piece of
metal, they may be mounted directly to the surface of the light-splitting prisms inside
the camera. This avoids any changes in registration between the chips, thus making
the camera more rugged. Because the chips are solid-state components just like
transistors, they last as long as any other component in the camera.
Today’s chips vary in size from 1=3 inch to 65 mm. The quality of the signal produced
by the better chips intended for digital cinema (DC) approach that of 35-mm film for
commercial and feature-length motion picture production.
Optics
For your camera to operate, it must be able to concentrate light reflected from the
surface of subjects to the light-sensitive sensor. In today’s cameras, this function is
provided by the lens, a series of optical glass or plastic elements cemented together
and mounted in such a way as to focus light on the surface of the light-conversion
chips.
The lens is mounted permanently on the front of a consumer-quality camera. In equip-

ment used at the professional level, interchangeable lenses may be employed. The
three basic characteristics of a lens are its focal length, its focus range, and its aper-
ture settings.

Focal Length
The focal length of a lens is a measurement of the ratio between the diameter of the
lens and the distance from its optical center to the focal plane (the location of the
chip faces), usually given in millimeters. The important factor to remember about focal
length is that the longer the measurement, the greater the enlargement of your
subject; the shorter the measurement, the smaller your subject will appear.
Conversely, the longer focal length allows space for fewer subjects in your frame,
and the shorter focal length allows more subjects to be included in your frame (see
Figure 3.9).
In addition, the longer the focal length, the more compressed the distance appears
going away from the camera (called the Z axis). Also, movement in front of the camera
(the X axis) appears to be accelerated. The apparent distances on the Z axis using a
short-focal-length lens appear to be increased, and movement on the X axis appears
to be slowed down. The focal length of a lens also determines its ability to focus over
a range from close to farther away from the camera, called depth of field. Other char-
acteristics of lenses determined by the focal length are explained later in this section.
Long Focal Length Short Focal Length
FIG. 3.9 – A long-focal-length shot (on the left) enlarges the subject and compresses the appearance
of distance on the Z axis. A short-focal-length shot (on the right) decreases the size of the subject
and increases the appearance of distance on the Z axis.
Focus
The ability of the lens to concentrate light reflected from a subject to create the
sharpest image is called focus. Focus is a relative term, because a lens is in focus
on an image when that image appears to you as sharply and clearly as possible on
the surface of the chips. You may focus an image in two separate parts of the optic
system: front focus and back focus, both of which must be accurately set in order to
achieve that sharp image.
The most obvious way is called the front focus. You achieve front focus by adjusting
(usually by turning the barrel of the lens) until the image is sharply focused at a point
behind the lens called the focal point. The second way to focus is the back focus. Back
focus involves adjusting either the lens body or the pickup surface until an image
located an infinite distance from the camera is in focus on the surface of the chips.
The back focus is a technician’s adjustment and should not have to be readjusted
unless the camera or lens is jarred or bumped out of adjustment.
Focusing your zoom lens is more complex than focusing a prime or fixed-focal-length
lens. The lens must be zoomed to its maximum focal length, framed and focused on
the intended subject, and then zoomed back to the desired framing. All subjects
located the same distance from the camera as the original subject will be in focus.
Shooting any subject closer or farther away from the camera requires resetting the

focus.
Aperture
The third basic characteristic of your lens is its aperture or iris setting. To better control the
amount of light that strikes the surface of the chips, an iris or variable opening is built into
the lens. In the early days of photography, a numbering system was developed that is still
in use today—not only in photography, but also in cinematography and videography (see
Figure 3.10).
The carefully calibrated sizes of the opening in the aperture are labeled with numbers
called f-stops. Although the numbering system may seem strange to you, each full
f-stop doubles (if opening) or halves (if closing) the amount of light allowed to pass
through the lens. The f-stop number is the ratio of the focal length to the diameter
of the aperture opening. The common full f-stops used in videography are f 1.4, 2,
2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, and 22. One of the confusing aspects of f-stops is that as the
number increases in size, the aperture opening decreases, allowing less light to pass
through the lens. The converse is also true: the smaller the f-stop, the more light that
passes through the lens. In addition, the term stop down means to close the aperture
or increase the f-stop number; to open up means to increase the size of the aperture
opening but lower the f-stop number. An easy way for you to remember the change is
to think of f-stops as fractions: 1/22 is smaller than 1/1.4.
FRONT FOCUS - BACK FOCUS
front focus
back focus
fixed or operator
technician adjustable adjustable
F-STOP OPENINGS
f 1.4 f4 f8
f 11 f 22
FIG. 3.10 – A lens cannot focus from the front of the lens to any point to infinity. Instead a range of
distances that subjects are placed in front of a lens will allow a shot to be as clearly defined
as possible—in focus. The amount of the light that strikes the chips must be controlled precisely
using a numbering system called f-stops.
Depth of Field
A fourth characteristic of lenses, depth of field (DOF), is dependent on the three char-
acteristics already described: focus, focal length, and aperture. Depth of field is the
range from the camera that subjects appear in acceptable focus. This distance depends
on the focal length of the lens, its focus setting, and the aperture opening. The longer
the focal length, the closer the focus point; the more wide open the aperture setting,
the shallower the depth of field. The converse is also true (see Figure 3.11).
Depth of field is critical when you try to focus on close-ups; on rapidly moving
subjects, such as in sports; and when light levels are limited. You also may use
DOF creatively to exclude some subjects by placing them out of focus but within
the frame.

Deep Depth of Field Shallow Depth of Field
FIG. 3.11 – Increased depth of field allows subjects to spread out closer and farther away from the
camera to remain in focus (on left), and it allows the camera operator flexibility when covering
action sports and news. Shallow depth of field (on right) concentrates the audience’s attention to
specific parts of the frame or specific subjects.
Viewfinder and Camera Controls

Viewfinder
For you to see subjects you have included in your picture frame, you need an accurate
viewfinder designed to accompany the camera. The viewfinder is usually mounted to
the camera body so that the camera may be either handheld or tripod mounted.
A viewfinder is simply a small video monitor with an attached eyepiece to protect your
eye while viewing; it is similar to a home television receiver except that it is wired
directly into the camera and does not contain radio frequency (RF) circuits to take
signals from the air. Most cameras have small signal lights mounted inside the view-
finder hood so that you can monitor the operational characteristics of the camera
without taking your eye from the viewfinder. Signal lights may tell you if the light
level is too low, if the tape is about to run out, or if the battery is running low. In
addition, an indicator shows when you have achieved white balance during the
white-balance action (see Figure 3.12).
Most viewfinders are mounted on the left side of your camera, making it difficult if
you use your left eye to operate the camera. If you wear eyeglasses, you also may
experience difficulties looking into the viewfinder. Some viewfinders on professional
cameras can be rotated to the right side of the camera for operators who wish to
use their left eye for viewing. Many viewfinders can be rotated into positions that
are more comfortable for you if the camera is held under the arm or over the head.
Most digital cameras include a flat screen viewfinder that swings out from the side
of the camera, usually the left side, again designed so you may view your subject with
either the right eye or both eyes.
The majority of viewfinders include contrast and brightness controls for adjusting the
monitor in the viewfinder. You must not adjust these controls except when the camera
is either focused on a well-lit test pattern or is generating an internal test pattern
called color bars. If you attempt adjustments while shooting anything other than a test
pattern, the viewfinder may be incorrectly adjusted in an attempt to compensate for a
poorly lit subject. Most viewfinders provide only a black-and-white image for more
accurate focusing, but the newer flat screen monitors are color monitors. Digital
cameras provide a series of menus visible in the viewfinder or as a separate screen
mounted on the side of the camera, enabling you to set camera and lens controls.

Viewfinder Menu Choices
FIG. 3.12 – Depending on the camera manufacturer and model indicator lights viewed inside,
a viewfinder may indicate if the tally light is on, if the light is too low to operate, battery level,
audio level, and length of recording time. A menu may give the operator a choice of auto or
manual iris, white balance, shutter speed, frame rate, aspect ratio, gamma settings, and other
technical controls.
Camera Controls
You will find that each brand and model of camera and recorder may have different
controls and, more than likely, different labels for the same controls. The description
in this section uses the usual labels for the most common controls on digital cameras.
The same controls described here, plus others specific to a particular model of cam-
era, may be accessible through the menus. Always consult your operation manual
before attempting to operate any piece of equipment as complex as a video camera.
Bars/Gain Selector
The first control you set is the bars/gain selector. Generally, the two functions are
combined on one control, but on rare occasions they are separated. When the selector
is set to “bars,” color test bars appear in the viewfinder that originate internally in the
camera. This test signal is necessary for you to set the controls on the monitor accu-
rately. In addition, you should always record the bars for 30 seconds to 1 minute at
the head of each tape, disc, and solid-state recording at the start of each shooting
session. This signal will be invaluable later for troubleshooting if there are problems
with either the camera or recording. The gain selector, which also may be labeled
“sensitivity,” provides a variety of increases in video gain in case you find light levels
are too low for shooting at the normal gain position. The switch usually is marked
with several steps: 6 dB, 9 dB, 18 dB, and so on. Each of these steps provides you
with the equivalent of one more f-stop of amplification. The price paid for the use
of this control is that video noise increases as higher gain is used. Video noise
appears to your eye as a “crawling” on the surface of the picture (see Figure 3.13).
Color Temperature Control/Filter Selector
A color temperature control designed to change the filters placed between the lens
and the pickup chips may be labeled “filter selector.” It is a wheel that holds a variety
of filters. You can access the color temperature control from the side or the front of
the camera. Turn this wheel to select a particular filter or no filter. The no-filter posi-
tion is intended for use indoors under incandescent lighting. For outdoor shooting, the
filter you use is either an 85 (yellow), maybe labeled as a 5,600 K or 85 þ ND (neutral
density) filter designed to add the yellow that is missing from the blue daylight. The
ND filter added to the 85 compensates for bright sunlight, which might provide too
much light for the video camera. In addition to those two positions, you may have
several other choices of different intensities of ND filters. There also may be an
80 (blue), maybe labeled 3,200 K for interior tungsten correction, or an FL-M filter
(magenta) to help compensate for fluorescent lighting. You may find additional camera
controls through menus visible either in the viewfinder or on a panel on the side of
the camera.
Side Panels & Controls
FIG. 3.13 – The location of specific controls situated on the sides of cameras will vary depending on
the model and brand of the camera. Check your operator’s manual before working with any
video equipment. (Courtesy Panasonic.)
White Balance
Once you have chosen the proper color temperature filter to match the lighting under
which the shoot is to take place, you must white balance the camera. Focus the
camera on a pure white source, generally a card or the back of a clean T-shirt, and
then hold down the white balance or auto-white button for several seconds. Many
cameras include a built-in automatic white balance that does not need setting except
under extreme lighting conditions (see Figure 3.14).
On better cameras, the following controls will be found:
You may use a power selector switch to indicate whether the camera has a
battery mounted on it, is powered with its own separate AC power supply,
or derives its power from the recorder’s power supply or battery.
A record start switch may be mounted on the camera body, but more than
likely it is mounted on the lens handgrip close to the thumb for easy use.
This switch allows you to start and stop the recording with your thumb without
leaving the camera or taking your eye from the viewfinder.
The following controls are usually located on the lens or lens mount:
The iris mode control allows you to choose between setting the iris manually or
letting the camera’s automatic iris circuits set the iris.
The iris inst. control is designed so that you can zoom in on the surface that is
reflecting the average amount of light for that scene, such as the face of the
subject. Press the iris inst. control, which locks the iris at that setting, and then
zoom back or pan to whatever framing is needed or to the beginning of that
scene.
The zoom mode control allows you the same option for the zoom lens. You can
either zoom the lens manually or use the lens’s motorized control to zoom
the lens.
The zoom lens control is usually a rocker switch that allows you to press one
end to zoom in and the other end to zoom out. The harder you press, the faster
the lens zooms. A gentle touch produces a slow, smooth zoom. On some
cameras, an additional control allows you to set the speed range of the zoom
control from very slow to very fast. One additional control may be mounted on
either the lens or the camera body. The return video control is a button that,
when pressed, feeds the picture being played back from the record deck into

the viewfinder, allowing you, the videographer to observe the images already
recorded.
Rear Panels & Controls
FIG. 3.14 – Most controls are located in logical positions so that the camera operator can manipulate
them easily without taking his or her eye from the viewfinder during production. (Courtesy
Panasonic.)
Camera Supports
One of the first visual characteristics separating novice and professional videogra-
phers is the stability of the picture. Although you may be able to handhold most
cameras, some digital professional cameras are so small that a tripod seems redun-
dant; a steady, controlled picture is essential for you to produce a quality video
picture.
Tripods and Body Mounts
The standard method for you to support your video camera is on a tripod, also called
sticks. A tripod has three legs that you may collapse and individually adjust in length
to provide a solid, level support for the tripod head. The head of your tripod is
designed to fasten to the tripod and allow you to move the camera back and forth
on a horizontal plane, called a pan, and up and down, called a tilt. In addition, better
tripod heads provide you a method for precisely leveling the head by viewing a
leveling bubble built into the tripod. Most cameras are equipped with a plate that
fastens to the bottom of the camera and allows you to easily snap the camera onto
the top of the head or snap it off for easy removal (see Figure 3.15).
Depending on how expensive and how professional a piece of equipment you want on
your tripod, you will find heads manufactured in a variety of designs. The critical fac-
tor in the design of heads is the method you use to provide enough back pressure or
drag so that you can make smooth steady pans or tilts. The method for creating drag
separates the amateur tripods from the professional tripods. The least expensive and
most common heads for the consumer-model tripods are friction heads that develop
drag by the friction of two metal-surfaced or fabric-surfaced plates rubbing against
each other. It is difficult, if not impossible, for you to pan or tilt smoothly while record-
ing with a friction head.
The next most expensive and higher quality head available to you develops its drag
through a set of springs. In some designs with lighter weight cameras, this system works
well. The most suitable and expensive is the fluid head. The movement of a thick fluid
from one chamber to another creates drag in this type of head. This provides the basis
for you to make the smoothest and most easily controlled pans and tilts.
Body mounts range from a simple shoulder hook and pistol grip to hold the camera to
a complex gyroscope or spring-controlled full-body case that encloses your body. Such
a mount allows you complete flexibility to walk, run, climb stairs, or turn in any direc-
tion without losing framing or disorienting the audience. As cameras became lighter
and easier to handhold, the problem of developing methods and systems of accurately
controlling the positioning and movement of the camera has brought about a variety
of new and flexible mounts to fulfill the needs of whatever shot an operator is called
upon to create.
Camera Supports
Monopod - Tripod Body Mount
FIG. 3.15 – Camera mounts must perform two critical functions for the operator: provide a means for
controlled, steady pans and tilts, and at the same time, if needed, give the operator the freedom to
move the camera in space without being tied to the earth. (Courtesy Sachtler, GlideCam.)
Cranes, Dollies, and Pedestals
In the professional world, many other support systems are used for single-camera
production. Some of them are cranes, dollies, crab dollies, and pedestals. Most of
these systems are expensive, bulky, and physically large. However, they do contribute
a wide variety of potential movements that the director in a production may use when
needed. Some of the same camera movements may be created by exploiting simpler
pieces of equipment such as a wheelchair or grocery cart (see Figure 3.16).
One way for you to move a camera while recording is to add wheels to the tripod, but
this is not a stable or satisfactory method. You could sit in a van to shoot from a side
or rear door as a means of getting movement into a sequence. It helps to let a little
air out of the tires first. Handholding the camera in a moving vehicle—whether it is
an automobile, airplane, helicopter, or boat—absorbs some of the shock and vibra-
tion, but the more you can isolate the camera from the movement of the vehicle,
the better. You might try supporting the camera in a harness made of the heavy nylon
or rubber bungee cords used by motorcyclists and truck drivers, which may provide a
type of flexible but vibration-proof support.
It is possible for you to duplicate a 360-degree crane shot by placing the camera and
tape deck on a slow-moving merry-go-round. A friendly electrician or telephone
installer may allow you to ride in the bucket on the crane truck for a high-rising or
lowering shot. A forklift with a platform large enough for a tripod and you produces
a limited pedestal up or down shot. Even riding up or down in a glass-sided elevator
can provide you with an opportunity to take a long vertical shot. You can use a low
mount without tripod legs, called a high hat, to mount the head near the ground or
on the hood of an automobile or boat. One method of duplicating this effect is to
clamp the head to a heavy board, such as a short length of a 2-by-12. Then you either
set the board on the ground or clamp it to the hood or deck. A safety rope is a neces-
sity for this type of operation.
Camera Supports
FIG. 3.16 – Dollies, cranes, and pedestals are manufactured in a variety of sizes and styles. (Courtesy
Chapman).
Handholding the Camera
You and amateur videographers may feel constrained by mounting the camera on
a tripod or any other support. A much better production is possible with a stable
support, but if you cannot or will not use a tripod, here are some helpful hints on
handholding a camera.
You need to find a substitute for the third leg of the tripod. The first rule is to replace
the tripod with your body, even though the body is only a bipod and a fairly unsteady
one at that. By leaning against a third support to create a tripod, the unsteadiness of
handholding can be minimized. Lean against a wall, a post, an automobile, a building,
or any other stable support to steady yourself as a substitute for the third leg of the
tripod.
Hold the camera firmly on your shoulder, with your elbows held tightly against your rib
cage. For an even steadier platform than you can obtain from holding your camera on
your shoulder, hold the camera under your right arm. This works only if the lower cam-
era angle is proper for the shot, and it is only possible if the camera’s viewfinder is
swiveled up so that you can look down into it. An extended shoulder mount provides
some stability (see Figure 3.17).
If you are attempting a “walking shot,” remember that the professional body mounts
are designed around springs and gyroscopes that keep the camera pointed in one
direction and level at all times. You may partially duplicate this effect by using your
body effectively. Hold the camera on your shoulder or under an arm, watch through
the viewfinder, and move stiff-legged, swinging your body weight from one leg to
the other. You must compensate the swinging motion by swinging the camera an
equal amount in the opposite direction so that it is always pointed at the subject.
If the shot is supposed to be the point of view (POV) of someone walking, then the
slight weaving and bobbing is acceptable. If not, much practice will be necessary
for you to make a smooth “dolly” while handholding the camera.
When panning with a handheld camera, place your feet in a comfortable position at
the finish of the pan. Then twist your body into the starting position. This unwinding
effect allows your body to relax as it approaches the end of the pan, instead of
building tension and the shakes that go with such tension. This same technique works
somewhat the same in a lengthy tilt. Position your body in a comfortable position at
the end of the tilt, not at the beginning.
Remember, your body was never meant to handhold a camera, and only through much
practice, some additional equipment, and physical conditioning can you reasonably
achieve a satisfactory shot by handholding.
Camera Supports
Handheld Shoulder Mount
FIG. 3.17 – Handholding a camera is not only an art, but it requires a certain level of physical
strength and body awareness. Breath control is critical when handholding a camera. Slow, steady
breathing, rather than taking in large gulps of air, causes smaller changes in the position of the
camera. (Courtesy WristShot and AntonBauer Stasis.)
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Digital Recording
Recording
The fourth segment of your camera body is the recording section. This may be a tape
deck, a CD or DVD laser burner, a solid-state chip, various types of flash media, a vari-
ety of floppy discs, or a digital hard drive. Each of these drives may be either remov-
able or permanently mounted within the body of your camera. The design of each
camera is somewhat dependent on the recording medium, and this area of camera
design is rapidly changing.
SOLID-STATE MEMORY
Digital Recording
Compact
P2 SxS USB
Flash
FIG. 3.18 – Many means of recording digital data may be used to record the output of a digital camera.
The recorder may be built internally or an externally as a memory system using any of several
different solid-state memory recording devices. (Courtesy Panasonic, Sony, SanDisk, and Toshiba.)
Your digital recorder may record as a separate unit from the camera or attached to the
camera, making a complete unit or camcorder. The function of the recorder is to store
the digital pulses that represent the sound and picture created by your camera and
microphone in the form of ones and zeros, rather than as a continuously varying
stream of electrons. The storage for a digital signal is not that much different than
storage for an analog signal, but in many ways it is a much simpler signal to record.
Despite its simplicity, the digital signal must be recorded in such a manner that you
may retrieve the digital impulses easily in as close to their original form as possible.
Digital recorders, whether they are recording an audio or a video signal, produce
checking and compensating signals designed to correct any errors that may inadver-
tently have been recorded.
The audio signal is fed either as a separate signal, or the signal is recorded with the
video signal by embedding the audio within the video signal. The audio signal then
becomes a segment of the video signal.
If your recorder is tape based, the tape is wrapped around a drum containing one or
more video recording heads that rotate inside the drum in the opposite direction from
that taken by the tape as it is moving around the drum. The video heads touch the
tape just enough to record the video and audio signals in a series of segmented,
slanted tracks across the tape. A digital tape in the pause mode shows you a single
field of each frame.
If your recorder is disc based, the audio and video signals are recorded as impressions
on the front or back side of the disc, depending on the individual system. The disc may
be a standard DVD-R or CD-R, a Sony XDCAM optical disc, or a small 8-inch DVD-R
disc. The signals must be encoded specifically for each type of disc.
If your camera records signals on solid-state flash media or specialized media such as
Panasonic’s P2 or Sony’s 2x2, the cards must each be encoded for that particular
media. The amount of programming allowed on each medium varies from a few min-
utes to hours, again depending on the specific medium (see Figure 3.18).
Hard drives are designed and operate the same as the hard drive on your computer,
whether the drive is designed to be internal or external to the body of the camera.
Because a digital signal is more easily manipulated in both the editing and special
effects operations, there may be a variety of built-in special effects in a digital camera
that are not available on an analog camera. Some cameras allow editing dissolves
and wipes within the camera, adding pixilation or other special effects while shooting.
Most digital cameras are smaller, because the digital circuits are smaller and digital
tape formats tend to be narrower, requiring smaller recorders.
Digital Recording
Recorder Operation
Today’s digital recorders are relatively easy to operate because their controls parallel
those of the universal audiocassette recorder. Once you insert the tape or disc
correctly into the machine and you apply power, either from batteries or from an
AC power adapter source, operations take place via the familiar functions of record,
play, fast forward, rewind, and stop.
All decks contain some means of measuring the amount of programming that has
been played or recorded. If you set the counter at zero when a new tape is loaded
into the deck, it is possible to keep approximate track of where shots have been
recorded on the cassette, thus enabling you or the editor to find that same shot at
a later time. Professional and better consumer decks measure usage by reading time
code (TC), a signal recorded on the media at the time of the original recording. TC
indicates the amount of time in hours, minutes, seconds, and frames that has elapsed
from the moment you zeroed it (see Figure 3.19).
Most recorders include a multipurpose meter and a switch that you can set to read
the video level, audio level, or state of the battery charge. You can find a switch that
allows manual or automatic gain control of the audio located near this meter. Several
warning lamps may also be a part of the control panel of the deck. These indicate
when the machine is recording or is paused, when the battery is running low, or when
the stock is about to end. On more advanced machines, there may be lamps that indi-
cate high humidity, lack of servo lock, or other malfunctions of your machine.
DVD and CD decks may offer additional controls: skip, program, repeat, or pause.
Some DVD controls appear on screen, and you can access them by scrolling through
menus and choosing an operation. Solid-state readers also provide indications of shot
location, timing, TC, levels, and operational controls.
FIG. 3.19 – Although the simplest means of downloading digital signals from original recordings is
directly to a computer, there are situations when a computer may not be available or when
monitoring or logging without a computer is needed. In that case, a multiformat player/recorder
may be used to play back any format for monitoring or for dubbing one format to another without
losing quality in the signal. (Courtesy Panasonic.)
Digital Recording
Connecting Equipment
Before you consider connecting equipment, you need to understand the somewhat
confusing world of cables and connectors. Unless a cable is permanently wired into
a piece of equipment—such as a microphone, recorder, camera, monitor, or power
source—the specific type of cable and specific cable connectors must be assembled
and properly connected. The connector at either end of a cable is called a plug; the
connector mounted on the wall or on the side of a piece of equipment is called a jack.
There are both female and male plugs and jacks, and it takes one of each to make a
connection. The contacts on a female plug are contained within the plug; the contacts
project out of the male plug. There are four major types of plugs/jacks: power, audio,
video, and specialized digital connectors.
Cable Coiling
Before handling the cables with plugs on each end, you need to learn to coil a cable
professionally after it is used. The professional method prevents damage to both the
cable and the plugs on each end and provides an efficient means of quickly gathering
a cable for proper storage and moving (see Figure 3.20).
Place one plug in your right hand with the cable strung out on the floor ahead of you.
Slide your left hand down the cable for about 15 inches (depending on how large the
loop in the coil will be), grasp that point on the cable, lift it, and lay the cable across
your open right hand, handholding the plug and creating a loop that hangs straight
without any snags or twists. Then slide your left hand down the cable, grasp the next
section of cable and as you bring the length of cable up, and twist it so that the loop
now runs in the opposite direction. Alternate creating what are called over and under
loops. If you follow these directions properly, you will end up with cable coiled in a
solid set of loops that when opened for the next use will lay out without kinks, twists,
or tangles.
FIG. 3.20 – Professionally coiling a cable seems to be confusing and difficult, but once mastered
flows easily and quickly. Just remember to alternate the coils of cable in the loops held in your
hand. The size of the loops depends on the weight of the cable. Heavy power cables need larger
loops; lighter audio cables need smaller loops.
Power Connectors and Plugs
Power connectors for your equipment carry either 110/220-volt AC or 12-volt DC

power. Connectors for AC power are the same as the connectors on home appliances
and are mounted on the walls of homes and offices. It is important for you to maintain
polarity and proper grounding on all cables and plugs. Connect DC power using either
DIN (a German connector), a special multipin XLR connector, or, for most digital equip-
ment, a special microplug used only for 6-, 9-, 12-, or 15-volt DC. Each piece of equip-
ment may require its own specific microplug, so check to make certain the correct
voltage is applied to the equipment (see Figure 3.21).
Various 6 to 12-Volt
Adapters
12-Volt Auto Adapter
A/C Power Female
A/C Power Male
FIG. 3.21 – Power connectors vary from micro or mini low-voltage plugs, to DIN, BNC, or standard
110-volt or 220-volt connectors.
Audio Connectors
As with video cables and connectors, you will find no universal standard for audio
connectors. Some differences exist because of the origins of the equipment, the level
of production professionalism, and the physical size of the equipment.
Professional microphone audio connectors are called XLRs. XLRs have a clip on the
female plug or jack that either locks the plug to the jack or locks two plugs together.
You must release the clip in order to separate the plug from the jack. XLRs are the
best audio connectors to use because they cannot be unplugged accidentally and they
contain three conductors, in addition to a shield for the best audio transmission.
Many manufacturers use a miniplug (sometimes called a 1=8 -inch phone plug) or an
RCA plug (sometimes called a phono plug). You may use both of these connectors
for microphone and high-level audio connectors, but they can be easily mistaken for
each other. However, they are not compatible, and damage can occur if you force
an RCA plug into a minijack or vice versa. You can easily accidentally disconnect
either of these plugs, mini or RCA, because they are held in place only by friction
(see Figure 3.22).
You will discover that some professional equipment utilizes RCA (phono) plugs for
line-level input and output audio connectors. This implies that the cable is a single
conductor with a shield and is designed to operate with an unbalanced circuit. With
line-level signals, the higher signal is less affected by outside signals. You may find
that an unbalanced line may pick up FM signals from nearby radio transmitters and
noise generated by any equipment operating in either the audio or radio frequency
(RF) ranges. You should not use an unbalanced mic line longer than 5 to 10 feet to
minimize picking up such noise and interfering signals. Some other audio circuits, such
as headphones, may use a miniplug as a connector.
An older audio plug is the 1=4 -inch (sometimes called phone) plug, probably because
the early telephone companies commonly used it. Because it is easy to confuse the
terms phono and phone, it is preferable to differentiate audio plugs by the alternate
terms listed previously.
21-mm Micro Female

XLR Female
21-mm Micro Male
XLR Male
35-mm Mini Female
1/4” Female
35-mm Mini Stereo
1/4” Stereo
35-mm Mini Male
1/4” Male
RCA Female
Banana
RCA Male
Small Audio Plugs Large Audio plugs
FIG. 3.22 – Audio connectors may be RCA, mini, XLR, or, in older equipment, 1=4 -inch phone or a
banana plug.
Video Connectors
There are six basic video plugs in common usage today. The RCA connector, unfortu-
nately, has become standard for consumer and some small video equipment. Because
it is a friction plug, you can unplug it unintentionally and easily, and because it is a
common audio connector, you may misconnect cables by accident.
Professionals use a connector called a BNC, a name for which no two video specia-
lists can agree upon the derivation. The BNC is designed so that it twists and locks
into place, making a sure connection, but it is still easy to connect or disconnect with
one hand.
BNC connectors are designed to carry only the video signal and are all male connec-
tors. If BNC cables need to be connected together, you must use a female adapter
called a barrel between the cables (see Figure 3.23).
You may use two methods of transmitting both audio and video information through
the same cable. The first uses separate conductors inside the cable for audio and
video. The multipin camera and 8-pin monitor cables and plugs are examples of mul-
ticonductor cables. You may use the second special cable and connectors called RF or
F. To use an RF cable, you must combine the audio and video signals into one signal
using a circuit called a modulator. On the other end of the line, you must use a
demodulator to separate the audio and video signals again. Cable companies use
the RF connector to connect their signal to a home receiver, and antennas are often
connected with RF cables and plugs. The German DIN plug also is used on some Euro-
pean-manufactured equipment to carry both audio and video or only video or power
voltage signals.
You may use an S-VHS cable to carry video signals; it is split into two separate
signals, Y and C, for higher-quality transmission of video.
FIG. 3.23 – Video connectors may be BNC, UHF, RF, RCA, SVH-S, or multipin camera or monitor
connectors.
Digital Connectors
Because digital signals are different from analog signals, you will need to learn an
entirely new set of plugs, jacks, and cables designed and accepted by the industry.
Also, since the digital world is still in a state of constant flux, periodically new con-
nectors and cables are designed and placed in use, usually for new and specific uses.
The S-VHS plug listed previously also may be used for digital VHS (D-VHS) circuits.
You use DIN plugs for connecting computer peripherals to the main central processing
unit (CPU) of a computer (see Figure 3.24).
Ethernet systems were designed in the 1970s and are still in use for local area net-
works (LANs). The Ethernet plug looks much like a standard telephone plug but is
wider and carries more signals. You will find it useful for connecting equipment at
greater distances than other cables without loss of signals. The standard telephone
plug in use today also is capable of carrying digital signals when used in a digital sub-
scriber line (DSL) to feed broadband data down a telephone line. You may also use
F and RF cables to carry digital signals if the modulators and demodulators are
designed for digital transmission.
A leading standard digital connector is the universal serial bus (USB). Each end is
shaped differently, even though both are modified female connectors. You connect
the smaller end to the peripheral, the larger end to the computer. Extension cables
and breakout boxes are designed to allow more than one cable to be connected to a
single computer outlet for a flexible and faster means of moving data from printers
or keyboards than you would attain from serial connectors and cables. You may use a
faster system of cables and connectors labeled Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, IEEE 1394 (its official name) but also known as iLink and FireWire. Firewire
can support up to 63 devices at distances of up to 14 fed on one cable and has 30 times
more bandwidth than USB. There are two types of FireWire connectors: a four-pin you
use on camcorders and a six-pin you will find connected to computers and hard drives.
MINI
Telephone
USB
Connectors
Ethernet
4-Pin USB
FireWire
6-Pin USB
4-Pin
PS/2
Female USB
6-Pin
Male USB
USB Ethernet & FireWire

Digital Connectors
FIG. 3.24 – As new equipment and types of services are designed and placed into operation, there will
be new connectors and cable systems. Pay close attention each time you connect or disconnect
a cable to make certain you are matching the plugs and jacks properly. They are the weakest link
in any system and most prone to damage at critical stages of a production.
Audio
Audio, in the past, has been the forgotten half of the audio-video production world.
With the arrival of digital audio and increased audience awareness of the value of
quality sound, audio production now has become more important than in years past.
Two developments in audio have contributed to your ability to improve the quality
of your audio: digital audio and the condenser microphone. Both have reduced the size
of audio equipment and measurably increased its sensitivity and frequency response.
But with HD and other digital productions, audio now becomes that much more impor-
tant. Audio provides the clean, clear sound to match digital video, but at the same
time, any noise, poor equalization, or other deficiencies you create in the audio
become that more obvious to the audience.
Microphone Types
Microphones are categorized in three ways: by their electronic impedance, by their

element construction, and by their pickup pattern. Microphone choices are also made
on the basis of their specific purpose or the type of audio pickup required.
Electronic Impedance
Microphones are classified as either low impedance or high impedance. Impedance is

a complex measurement of resistance that also includes inductance and capacitance.
All professional mics are low impedance. You need to connect a low-impedance mic
to a two-conductor-plus-shield cable and XLR connector. This allows you to connect to
a balanced circuit, which provides you the best audio pickup. You may connect high-
impedance mics to a single-conductor cable and either an RCA or miniplug, but these
mics should not be used more than 5 to 10 feet away from an amplifier.
Audio
Element Construction
The microphone element (transducer) types today are the dynamic (moving coil), the
ribbon, or the condenser. The dynamic mic is the most common, most rugged, and,
for fast-moving coverage such as news or documentaries, the best frequency response
for the least cost. The pickup coil converts sound-wave energy to electric energy
without an outside power source or amplification. These mics can be designed to
be relatively small and are available in any pickup pattern (see Figure 3.25).
You should use the ribbon mic for studio or booth use only, as it is heavy, large, and
sensitive to movement, shock, or wind. It creates a fine vocal quality, especially for
the male voice. Its transducing element is a thin corrugated ribbon suspended
between the two poles of a heavy magnet. You may use a ribbon mic on electronic
field production (EFP) shoots if the environment is controlled and the mic is kept
out of inclement weather. The condenser microphone is gradually replacing most
other mics. Originally it was expensive, heavy, large, and required amplifiers and
power supplies located adjacent to the mic. With solid-state circuits and mini-pream-
plifiers powered by small batteries or by current supplied from the amplifier (phantom
power), the condenser mic has become more practical. With its built-in preamplifier,
it is sensitive, has a fine frequency response, and is small and lightweight. The
condenser mic can be designed in any pickup pattern and is manufactured in a variety
of forms and price ranges.
MICROPHONE ELEMENTS
N
Coils
Coils moving
in a magnetic Diaphragm S
field attached
to the diaphragm
Coils
Dynamic (Moving Coil) Element Output
Gold of aluminum ribbon
N S
The ribbon
moves in the
magnetic field
Ribbon Element
Output
Diaphragm Backplate
The diaphragm moves toward and
away from the back plate
Output
Audio
Polarizing voltage
Condenser Element
FIG. 3.25 – Microphone elements are constructed of three types of transducers: dynamic (moving coil),
ribbon, or condenser.
Pickup Pattern
There are three basic pickup patterns: omnidirectional, unidirectional, and bidirec-
tional. You will find little use for bidirectional mics in field productions, and you
should reserve them for studio productions. If you stage the shoot in a controlled envi-
ronment or interior location, a bidirectional mic may be used for interviews. Its name
is derived from its ability to pick up sound from two sides equally while suppressing
sound from the other two sides (see Figure 3.26).
Omnidirectional mics pick up sound from all directions, 360 degrees around the mic,
with nearly equal sensitivity in all directions. Your EFP audio kit should contain at
least one good omnidirectional mic for crowd pickup and ambient noise recording.
The general background ambient noise of a location is called either wild sound or nat
(short for “natural”) sound. You will find wild or nat sound is valuable material to
record for use in editing to provide an audio transition between scenes and to create
the atmosphere of the original location for later voiceover narration.
The most useful mics are unidirectional mics. A true unidirectional mic picks up sound
only from the end of the mic. An extreme example of a unidirectional mic is a shotgun
mic. It is designed to have a narrow (as narrow as 5 degrees) pickup pattern. Its sen-
sitive area is predominately straight out from the mic, but there are nodes or areas to
the side and behind within which you also may pick up sound. This cannot be avoided,
even with the best and most expensive shotgun mics. Your EFP audio kit should
contain several shotgun mics of various lengths and pickup patterns.
The cardioid mic is a special type of unidirectional mic designed to combine the pickup
pattern of the unidirectional and omnidirectional mics to create a heart-shaped pat-
tern in front of the mic. This provides the ideal pattern for you or an interviewer to
handhold a mic between two people, to describe an event without picking up too
much background noise, and to use as a shotgun with a close mic. If you carry only
a single mic, then a cardioid mic is your best choice.
Some professional microphones are designed with variable directional settings. There
will be a switch on the case that you can use to change the pickup pattern from omni-
directional, to unidirectional, to cardioid, for example. As with all equipment, multipur-
pose electronic equipment seldom performs as satisfactorily as equipment designed to
perform a specific function.
Remember, the output of all microphones is an analog signal. You will need to convert
the analog audio signal to a digital signal either in the preamplifier or in a digital-
to-analog (D-A) converter located later in your camera or signal stream.
MICROPHONE PICKUP PATTERNS
Omnidirectional
Bidirectional
Unidirectional
Audio
Cardioid
Supercardioid
(Shotgun)
FIG. 3.26 – Even though there are only three basic pickup patterns, combining patterns create
specialized patterns such as cardioid and supercardioid.
Mounting Devices
Besides the electronic design of a microphone, mics also are designed to fulfill a
specific purpose. The purpose or how you mount the mic for a particular shot in a pro-
duction may determine partially the shape of the body of the mic as well as how it is
physically mounted. Four basic body styles and mounting methods fulfill most pur-
poses: lavalier (lapel), handheld, stand mount, and shotgun (see Figure 3.27).
You place a lavalier unidirectional mic on the body of the subject. You may attach the
mic in plain view, hanging from the neck as a lavalier, or as a smaller peanut mic
attached under the talent’s necktie, shirt, or blouse, or to a jacket lapel. A more
specialized lavalier is worn on a headband, placing the mic near or to one side of
the subject’s mouth. You will use such a mic for vocalists and on-stage performers.
You may use a handheld mic on a table or as a stand mic. You may mount a micro-
phone at the end of a small handheld boom called a fish pole or on a small, movable,
tripod-mounted boom called a giraffe, or, if space allows, on a large-wheeled boom
that the operator rides called a perambulator. You usually use a cardioid or short shot-
gun mic mounted on booms. You can hang the same type of mic from a gaffer hook
from the ceiling; from a hanging light fixture, door, or window frame; or from any
other stable piece of tall furniture in the room. Another method of mic placement is
to hide it behind objects between the talent and the camera: floral arrangements
on a table, books, telephones, or any other set piece large enough to hide the mic
and its stand. You may handhold a shotgun mic, but more often you should mount
it on a stable stand mount to avoid inducing unwanted noise from handling (see
Figure 3.28).
You may wire your mic directly to the camera, or it may be a wireless mic feeding a
small transmitter hidden on the talent’s body and picked up by a small receiver wired
to the camera. Wireless mics are becoming more popular as the price and their sen-
sitivity to other RF signals in the area are reduced. Today’s transmitters are designed
to be smaller and more powerful, correcting many of the past problems of
interference.
For some field productions—sporting events, game shows, and live coverage of non-
video events—you do not need to hide the microphone. Those situations allow you to
place the mic or mics in the best position for maximum quality or sensitivity of audio
pickup. Make certain you place the mic in direct line with the performer’s mouth,
below the face, and depending on the type of microphone, approximately 12 to 15
inches from the mouth. The microphone should be close enough for clear pickup
and the exclusion of unwanted sounds, but it should be far enough away to avoid
picking up the popping of Ps and other plosive sounds.
In addition, you should place the mic so that its pickup matches the approximate
perspective of the picture. If it is an extremely wide shot, then the audio should sound
off mic; if it is a tight close-up, then the pickup should be intimate and the mic should
be close. Often the type of environment—closed-in small room; out in the open; or a
large, echo-filled auditorium—partially determines the best choice of microphone.
Audio
Top - Shotgun
Bottom - Handheld & Lavalier
FIG. 3.27 – Microphones are designed for specific purposes or frequency requirements and may
include lavalier, handheld, or shotgun types. (Courtesy Sennheiser, and AudioTechnica.)
FIG. 3.28 – The mounting hardware for microphones depends on the need to reach the audio source
and may include boom, stand, or desk mounting. (Courtesy AudioTechnica.)
Nonmicrophone Audio Sources
In addition to recording audio from microphones, you may find it necessary to record
nonmicrophone audio sources without using any mics. Such sources may be the out-
put of amplifiers, public address systems, or tape or disc decks. Each of these pro-
duces high-level output, and you must feed the signal into a high-level, high-
impedance input on the recorder. You must match impedance and level for a satisfac-
tory recording. Check the output specifications of the high-level source and match it to
the specifications of the recorder being used. If they do not match, then you must
insert a matching transformer or amplifier into the circuit to guarantee a proper
match. If not closely matched, either the audio will be badly distorted or the level will
be too low for any practical use (see Figure 3.29).
COMPARISON BETWEEN AUDIO LEVELS
10.0 (ten volts)
1.0 (one volt)
.1 (tenth volt)
.01 (centi volt)
.001 (milli volt)

Audio
0 volts
MICROPHONE LINE SPEAKER
FIG. 3.29 – The three primary audio levels vary in voltage, from the very weak signal directly from
a microphone, pickup head of turntable, disc, or tape deck, to the middle level of the output of
a preamplifier signal called line level, and finally to the high level of the output of an amplifier
intended to power a speaker or speaker system.
Which Audio Track to Use
Another consideration is your choice of which audio channel to feed to a camera or

record deck. All professional cameras and record decks offer at least two tracks for
audio recording.
Midlevel cameras using such formats DVCam also have audio tracks recorded in
different positions on the tape stock. These formats record the audio digitally within
the video signal as a pulse code modulation (PCM) integrated signal as well as longi-
tudinal tracks. The digital tracks are stereo and are very high quality.
Audio pickup, whether it is analog or digital, is often ignored or thought of last, when
in reality, audio often carries more than half the critical information in a story. It is
important, then, for you to plan seriously for and spend time properly setting up micro-
phones, mixers, and cables, and choosing audio channels for the best possible audio
recording along with the video recording.
Lighting
The function of lighting at its simplest is to provide enough illumination so that the
camera can reproduce an image. You draw the complexity of lighting and lighting
techniques from the need for the instruments to serve the aesthetic needs of the
medium: to set mood, time, and location, and to draw attention to the critical portions
of the frame.
Lighting instruments have evolved from both the stage and motion picture industries,
just as most audio equipment evolved from the radio and motion picture industries.
Digital production has only increased the need for your careful and thoughtful consid-
eration of lighting designs and techniques. The high quality of digital signals allows a
greater creative range because of its increased sensitivity and dynamic contrast range,
but the digital systems reveal errors in poorly designed and executed lighting plans.
Lighting
Floodlights
You will use three basic types of field lighting instruments: floodlights, focusing
spotlights, and fixed-focus instruments. Floodlights provide a broad, relatively uncon-
trolled, soft diffused light that you use to cover large areas and to fill in shadow
areas. The most common field floods are LED banks, softlights, broads, and umbrella
lights. LED banks are groups of LED instruments arranged in a frame for mounting on
a gaffer stand. Softlights are the largest, but because they are now constructed of
folding aluminum frames and cloth reflector covers, they are portable. Broads are
smaller, boxlike instruments usually equipped with some type of barn door to control
the coverage of light. They commonly contain only one lamp. Umbrella lighting is more
of a technique than a specific type of instrument, because you can fit any spotlight
with an umbrella. The concept of umbrella lighting is for you to focus light from a
spotlight onto an umbrella-shaped reflector mounted on the instrument so that light
strikes the inner concave surface of the umbrella and is reflected back in the opposite
direction (see Figure 3.30).
Fluorescent lighting uses specially designed tubes that radiate light within a reason-
able range to match the Kelvin temperature of either daylight or tungsten. Newer
units are portable and can be equipped with dimmers for better lighting control in
the field.
Top - Fluorescent
Bottom - Open-faced flood, LED, Softlight
FIG. 3.30 – Floodlights are designed to provide a soft, smooth, shadow-free source of light to act as fill
or supplemental light. (Courtesy Arriflex, Lowell Lights, and LitePanels.)
Lighting
Focusing Spotlights
Focusing spotlights are either open faced without a lens or lensed with a Fresnel or
plano-convex lens. Focusing spots are essential for your critical creative lighting.
You use spotlights generally as the main or key source of light in a scene that requires
the equivalent of sunlight as the apparent source. Spotlights come in a wide range of
sizes from small handheld battery-powered spots to huge brute spots powered by
generators or special power sources used on feature film and major television produc-
tions. You can use small LED and fluorescent spots as key lights for close-in shots (see
Figure 3.31).
Top - PAR, Fresnel

Bottom - Open face, LED
FIG. 3.31 – Spotlights have been the workhorse fixtures of the production industry but are slowly
being replaced by flexible and lightweight instruments to fit the subtle nature of digital
productions. (Courtesy Arriflex and Lowell Lights.)
Fixed-Focus Instruments
Fixed-focus instruments are designed around a lamp similar to an auto headlight.

A bank of these lamps is built into a cabinet that allows each lamp to be turned
on and aimed individually. You use these lamps to light a wide area with an even
but controlled field of light. The lamps are called FAY if the output is 5,400 degrees
Kelvin ( K), and PAR if the output is 3,200K.
You may operate both of these instruments from portable floor stands, and they may
be driven by 110- or 220-volt AC power. They also can be mounted from a variety of
gaffer mounts on walls, doors, or other sturdy objects.
Lighting
FIG. 3.32 – Even in the field, gaffe equipment designed to mount, hold, and position instruments, filters,
flags, umbrellas, and scrims is important to properly place all of the lighting equipment required
to create the professional setup. An EFP lighting kit should contain a set of gaffer’s accessories:
gobos, clamps, stands, weights, brackets, reflectors, and gaffer tools. A gaffer is a lighting
technician. (Courtesy Lowell Lights.)
Controlling Light
Because you seldom will have the opportunity to use a portable light dimmer board,
control over the light output in the field becomes critical for creative shooting situa-
tions. You can use two simple, portable instruments: reflectors and tents. Reflectors
are large foam boards covered on one side with a variety of surfaces: plain white,
colored, or textured. You use these reflectors to throw a soft fill light into areas
not easily reached with instruments or to provide light that will not cast an additional
shadow. You use tents to diffuse light, allowing the lighting instruments mounted
behind the fabric of the tents to create even light without creating unwanted shadows
(see Figure 3.32).
Lighting
Power Sources
In the field, you may use three sources of power: the alternating current present in
most buildings, batteries, and portable generators.
Portable generators are expensive, noisy, and, for video cameras, an uncertain source
of stable power. The instability presents no problem for lighting directors, but the
noise and expense might present problems for you or the director. Batteries for elec-
tronic news gathering (ENG) crews are becoming more dependable and last long
enough for most EFP production situations, but they require care in handling the
charging and discharging functions. The most dependable source of power for lighting
will be the AC circuits in most buildings. Because lighting instruments draw much
more current than any other piece of equipment, you need some knowledge of watt-
age, current, and voltage. The standard power in the United States is delivered either
at 110 or 120 volts. The lamps in lighting instruments are rated in watts, and the
rating on power circuits in buildings is measured in amperage (amps). You can perform
the simple translation of watts to amps or vice versa by using Ohm’s law: wattage
equals voltage times amperage. If voltage is treated as a constant of 100 (this pro-
vides a built-in 10 percent safety margin), then to find wattage, simply multiply amps
by 100. To find amps from known wattage, simply divide wattage by 100. Both can be
done easily without a calculator (see Figure 3.33).
A janitor or building engineer will control and know the location of the circuit breaker
box that controls the AC circuits in the building. Find that person and the box before
connecting more than two lighting instrument in one room. Most breaker circuits are
limited to provide 20 amps or less. Each breaker is marked. Check before connecting
your instruments, especially in any one room at a time.
APPLICATION OF OHM’S LAW TO TYPICAL LIGHTING SETUP
500 Watt Back Light
Subject
1500 Watt 2000 Watt

Key Light Fill Light
Camera
OHM’S LAW: WATTAGE = VOLTAGE × AMPERAGE

W=V×A
Assume V = 100 V as a constant
To find Amperage: A=W

100
To find Wattage: W = A × 100

Lighting
In the example above: Back Light = 500 W

Key Light = 1500 W
Fill Light = 2000 W
TOTAL = 4000 W
Amperage = Wattage
100
Amperage = 4000
100
Amperage = 40 A
FIG. 3.33 – The total amount of amperage available in a typical room in a home or office might not
exceed 20 amps, which means the amount of wattage available from all of the outlets on that one
breaker cannot exceed 2,000 watts, or 1-1,000-watt and 2-500-watt lamps. If more power is needed,
additional power cords must be run to other sources served by other breaker circuits.
Color Temperature
The final consideration in lighting equipment actually is a part of the camera opera-
tion, but the problem starts with the source of light. All light sources are not equal
in their actual color. Your eye and mind compensate for this variation by creating
the illusion that light within a certain range appears white. Actual measurement of
the color of light is in degrees Kelvin, based on the color of carbon heated and
measured at certain temperatures. The lower the Kelvin temperature, the more
reddish yellow and warmer the color of the light. The higher the Kelvin temperature,
the bluer and cooler the light appears.
There is no actual “white light” on the Kelvin scale. Typical candlelight measures
below 1,800 K. An ordinary incandescent lightbulb measures 2,800 K. Professional
tungsten-halogen lamps measure 3,200 K. Daylight varies from approximately
4,000 K to over 12,000 K, but the standard is considered 5,400K. Today’s film and
digital cameras can be adjusted to operate accurately within a range of 3,200 K to
above 5,400 K, but you must make proper adjustment to the camera to compensate
for the color differences (see Figure 3.34).
The critical factor concerning the color temperature is that a camera sees and repro-
duces the actual color of the light source as it is reflected from the subjects. You are
able to adjust an electronic camera to compensate for any variation in the color
temperature by the process of white balancing. To light a scene properly, though,
it should be lit with consistently color-balanced light sources.
Professional lamps are accurately rated for their color output, but when shooting in
the field, you may be in an environment where you cannot control the light source.
Home incandescent lighting is warmer than studio lighting; office fluorescent lighting
is bluer and greener. Because fluorescent light does not emit a specific color
temperature, you can either filter the light at the camera or place filters on the tubes
themselves to correct the temperature to match the camera settings. Newer fluores-
cent tubes now are available that have been designed to match 5,400 K.
If you are shooting next to a window, the daylight does not match the color temperature
of the production lamps. This situation is called mixed lighting. You should consider the
color temperature of the available light sources by measuring them with a Kelvin tem-
perature meter or by arranging to have all light sources be of the same color tempera-
ture. One method you may use to change the Kelvin temperature of a light source is
to filter the source with large gels. You can cover complete office or home windows to
balance the blue sunlight with the warmer incandescent production instruments.
Lighting
FIG. 3.34 – The differences in the actual color of light sources range from the full summer sun to the
candle flame. Fluorescent sources also vary over a wide range, but not as widely as incandescent
and natural light sources.
Measuring Light Intensity
In addition to measuring the Kelvin temperature of the light sources for the best
lighting, you must measure the intensity of the light sources and the light reflected
from the subjects.
You measure the light from the light sources (incident light) by pointing an incident
light meter at the light source. You measure the light from the subject (reflected light)
with a reflected light meter pointed at specific areas of the subject (see Figure 3.35).
Some light meters are designed to permit both types of meter readings, but profes-
sional-quality meters are designed specifically to read either reflected or incident light
levels. You need to use the two methods of taking light-level readings in order to
determine the two types of lighting ratios necessary for quality lighting.
Light falling on subject: Light reflected from subject:

Incident reading Reflected reading
FIG. 3.35 – To take an incident light reading, your meter must be placed near the subject so that
the key light falls on the meter (on left). To take a reflected reading, your meter should be placed
between the camera and the subject with the meter aimed at the subjects (on right).
Lighting Ratio
Regardless of the cost of your digital camera, some minimum amount of light is
required to produce an acceptable picture; this is called a base light. An incident light
reading of the amount of light falling on the subject gives you or the lighting director
two pieces of information: the base light level necessary to produce an acceptable
picture and the ratio of fill light to key light. When you point the meter at the lights
from the subject’s position with just the fill light turned on and then take another
reading with fill and key lights on from the same position, a numerical ratio, called
the lighting ratio, is determined. The standard starting lighting ratio is 2:1, twice as
much light from the key and fill as from the fill alone. A backlight ratio may also
be taken, and it should be close to 1:1; the backlight should approximately equal
the key light.
Lighting
Contrast Ratio
The measurement for contrast ratio is a little more complex. You use a reflected spot-
light meter to measure accurately the amount of light reflected from the brightest
object in the picture and then compare the light reflected from the darkest object.
The difficult part is that when there are either highly reflective or very dark objects
in the frame, it is not necessary to include these areas in the readings if you do
not need to reproduce detail in either of those areas (see Figure 3.36).
If the amount of light reflected from the brightest portion of the frame in which detail
is necessary reflects more than 30 times more light than the darkest areas needed for
detail, then more fill light will be needed on the dark areas or some light will have to
be taken off the lightest areas. If you carefully light for the contrast range of the video
camera, you avoid having areas “blooming” or “flaring” into a white mass or impor-
tant areas appearing so dark that they look muddy.
Top - Reading reflected light from lightest object

Bottom - Reading reflected light from darkest object
FIG. 3.36 – To determine the contrast ratio of a scene, take a meter reading of reflected light from the
brightest portion of the set and compare it to a meter reading from the light reflected from the darkest
portion of the set.
Digital cameras can accept a slightly broader range of contrast than analog cameras,
but because a digital image will show much more fine detail, you must accomplish a
fine level of lighting. Lighting for digital productions simply requires more attention to
small details that might not appear in images taken with an analog camera but will
become obvious in images taken with a digital camera. Digital cameras may operate
with less light, but the light must be well balanced within the contrast range of the
camera.
Regardless of the changes in technology and advances in electronic signal processing,

basic media production equipment operation varies little from the analog to digital.
The care and understanding of your equipment will mean more in the quality of your
final production than the expense and advancement of your equipment. Remember,
it isn’t the paintbrush; it’s the artist that makes the difference.
Lighting

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34 Single-Camera Video Production

1970s "Creepie-Peepie" 2000s Camcorder

Flatbed Film NLE Video

TYPE DV HDV HD BROADCAST DIGITAL CINEMA

SENSOR 3-¼’ -/13” 3-1/3” 3-1/2” 3-2/3” 2/3” TO 35MM

COST LOW LOW TO MEDIUM MEDIUM TO HIGH HIGH EXPENSIVE

FOCAL 3:1, 5:1 5:1 5:1-10:1 10:1-100:1 Fixed FL or 10:1

HDV Professional Camera

Digital Cinema Camera

Specialized Digital Cameras

Image Sources and Optics

The lens is mounted permanently on the front of a consumer-quality camera. In equip-

Image Sources and Optics

Long Focal Length Short Focal Length

Image Sources and Optics

FRONT FOCUS - BACK FOCUS

Image Sources and Optics

Viewfinder and Camera Controls

Viewfinder and Camera Controls

Color Temperature Control/Filter Selector

Viewfinder and Camera Controls

Side Panels & Controls

On better cameras, the following controls will be found:

Viewfinder and Camera Controls

Rear Panels & Controls

Tripods and Body Mounts

Monopod - Tripod Body Mount

Cranes, Dollies, and Pedestals

Handholding the Camera

Handheld Shoulder Mount

Power Connectors and Plugs

Power connectors for your equipment carry either 110/220-volt AC or 12-volt DC

A/C Power Female

A/C Power Male

21-mm Micro Female

21-mm Micro Male

35-mm Mini Female

35-mm Mini Male

Small Audio Plugs Large Audio plugs

USB Ethernet & FireWire

Microphones are categorized in three ways: by their electronic impedance, by their

Microphones are classified as either low impedance or high impedance. Impedance is

Dynamic (Moving Coil) Element Output

Gold of aluminum ribbon

MICROPHONE PICKUP PATTERNS

Nonmicrophone Audio Sources

COMPARISON BETWEEN AUDIO LEVELS

10.0 (ten volts)

1.0 (one volt)

.01 (centi volt)

.001 (milli volt)

MICROPHONE LINE SPEAKER

Which Audio Track to Use

Another consideration is your choice of which audio channel to feed to a camera or

Top - PAR, Fresnel

Fixed-focus instruments are designed around a lamp similar to an auto headlight.

APPLICATION OF OHM’S LAW TO TYPICAL LIGHTING SETUP

500 Watt Back Light

1500 Watt 2000 Watt

OHM’S LAW: WATTAGE = VOLTAGE × AMPERAGE