UDK 664.69:633.17]:66.022.

392

Original research paper DOI: 10.5973/ffr0-47055

DEVELOPMENT AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF EXTRUDED SORGHUM-BASED

GLUTEN-FREE PASTA
Blessing Gwekwe1, Loveness K. Nyanga1, Tonderayi M. Matsungo1, Cathrine Chidewe2, Stanley
Mukanganyama2, Elijah Nyakudya3, Florence Mtambanengwe3, Paul Mapfumo3, Prosper Chopera*1

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1
University of Zimbabwe, Faculty of Science, Department of Nutrition Dietetics and Food Sciences, Harare,
630 Churchill Avenue, Mt Pleasant, Zimbabwe
2
University of Zimbabwe, Faculty of Science, Department of Biotechnology and Biochemistry, Harare, 630
Churchill Avenue, Mt Pleasant, Zimbabwe
3
University of Zimbabwe, Faculty of Agriculture Environment and Food Systems, Harare, 630 Churchill
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Avenue, Mt Pleasant, Zimbabwe

Abstract: Pasta is one of the most consumed staples worldwide. New formulations incorporating
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novel nutritious ingredients are now common in its production. The purpose of this study was to
formulate, optimise and evaluate the sensory properties of sorghum-based extruded gluten-free
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pasta. Sorghum flour, pearl millet flour, high-iron bean flour (Biofortified NUA 45 beans) and
Hermes potato flour were evaluated for proximate and micronutrient composition, formulated to
produce pasta through the extrusion process. Three sorghum-based pastas, namely sorghum high
bean pasta (SHBP), sorghum bean pasta (SBP) and sorghum high potato pasta (SHPP) were
produced and evaluated for sensorial properties (visual, palpatory and gustatory qualities). The
Box-Benhken Design (BBD) in conjunction with Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was used
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to select the best formulation by evaluating cooking quality parameters and sensory parameters.
The protein content in the four flours ranged from 10.52% to 22.00%. NUA 45 bean flour had
significantly (p<0.05) higher protein content than the other flours. Potato flour had significantly
higher carbohydrate content (73.82%) than other flours. SHPP had a significantly (p<0.001) higher
optimum cooking time (7 minutes) than SHBP (5 minutes) and SBP (6.2 minutes). SHPP had
significantly (p<0.001) higher water absorption (WA) capacity (238%) than pasta SHBP (190%)
and SBP (210%). A significant (p<0.001) difference in the swelling index (SI) of the three pasta
samples was observed, with pasta SHBP having a significantly lower SI (1.02%) than pasta SBP
(1.15%) and pasta SHPP (1.24%). The cooking loss (CL) for pasta SHPP (11%) was significantly
higher (P<0.001) than for pastas SHBP and SBP, with pasta SHBP having the lowest CL. There
was no significant (p>0.05) difference in the cross-sectional area, surface appearance and surface
property of the three cooked pastas. A significant (p<0.05) difference in shape between SHBP and
SBP samples was noted. The gluten-free pasta was developed and produced successfully. Sorghum
high bean pasta treatment (SHBP) was found to be superior in terms of sensory, nutritional and
physical properties as compared to the other pasta samples, making it good for commercialisation.
Key words: gluten-free pasta, sorghum, extrusion, organoleptic properties, cooking properties

Corresponding author: Phone: ++263773222710

E-mail address: [email protected]
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

INTRODUCTION Krause &Sanguansri, 2014).

Cereal-based gluten-free (GF) products are not
Recently pasta formulations, including non- only exclusively consumed by individualssuf-
wheat ingredients like sweet potato flour and fering from medically diagnosed celiac disease
tapioca starch, have been reported and their but by a growing number of consumers who
dough is made into different shapes and sizes, spontaneously reduce and/or avoid gluten from
then dried and stored (Anyobodeh, Spio- their eating habits (Cervini, Gruppi, Bassani,
Kwofie&Anaman, 2016). It is reported that Spigno&Giuberti, 2021). The disorders related
about 14.3 million tonnes of pasta are pro- to gluten namely, celiac disease, wheat allergy,
duced annually worldwide. Pasta is traditio-
and non-celiac gluten sensitivity are becoming
nally made from wheat flour. Sorghum flour
an epidemiological phenomenon with a global
with similar attributes as wheat flour and some prevalence of about 5% (Jalgaonkar, Jha, Nain
peculiar desirable sensory and nutritional pro- &Iquebal, 2017). The sorghum-based product
perties can also be used for pasta production as range varies from 100% sorghum to blends
a substitute for wheat. It is common practice to with wheat flour in different proportions.
use pasta as a carrier of health-promoting Gluten-free food items are rapidly capturing
compounds since its nutritional properties can

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the market, and sorghum is one of the main
be improved by adding several types of pro- alternatives for wheat flour (Thilakarathna,
teins, fibres and plant phytochemicals (Pala- Madhusankha&Navaratne, 2022). Nearly 59%
vecino, Curti, Bustos, Penci&Ribotta, 2020).
of the gluten-free market is occupied by North
America (Thilakarathna et al. 2022), and the
Globally, sorghum is one of the most im-
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portant but least utilized staple crops. Its concept is becoming popular in Europe and
ability to grow in arid conditions and resis- Australia. The global gluten-free food market
tance to diseases qualifies it as an important in 2006 was $700 million, and it was estimated
crop for global food security (Girard &Awika, to increase by 700% when it came to 2020 (de
2018). Sorghum is a leading cereal ranked fifth Oliveira, de Oliveira, de Alencar, Queiroz &
in production among cereals, following maize, de Alencar Figueiredo, 2022). The current
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wheat, rice, and barley, with 57.6 million tons gluten-free market is dominated by bakery
of annual production globally in 2017 (Xiong, items and related products such as bread,
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Zhang, Warner & Fang, 2019). Sorghum grain cakes, biscuits, noodles, cereal bars, and pas-
is a rich source of nutrients and health-be- tries, as many researches on improving the
neficial phenolic compounds. The phenolic sensory attributes of sorghum-based products
profile of sorghum is exceptionally unique and are ongoing (Cayres, Ramirez Ascheri, Couto,
more abundant (Xiong et al., 2019) and di- Almeida &Melo, 2020). In a 100 g amount,
raw sorghum provides 329 calories of energy,
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verse than other common cereal grains. More-

over, the phenolic compounds, 3-deo-xyantho- 72% carbo-hydrates, 4% fat and 11% protein
cyanidins, and condensed tannins can be iso- (Adeyeye, 2016). Among cereals without glu-
lated and used as promising natural multi- ten, sorghum represents a staple food for more
functional additives in broad food applica- than half a billion people in at least thirty
tions. More in-depth exploration of functional countries (Padalino, Conte & Del Nobile,
foods in pasta has been explored and reported 2016).
by Sycheva, Skorbina, Trubina, Omarov and The extrusion process has been reported for
Sarbatova (2019). numerous applications, including infant food,
pasta, instant noodles, texturized vegetable
Sorghum contains proteins that are unable to protein, ready-to-eat cereals, snack products,
form the composite viscoelastic doughs re- pet food, precooked flour, meat products, etc.
quired for bread-making and pasta production. (Raleng, Singh, Singh &Attkan, 2016). The
The protein digestibility and lack of protein process simply involves the transformation of
functionality limit the application of sorghum a plasticized biopolymer-based formulation
in food. It is, therefore, essential to identify into a uniformly processed viscoelastic mass
processes to improve the digestibility and fun- that is conditioned for forming or shaping
ctionality of sorghum protein to enable its products through a die. The process of ex-
uptake in food applications, especially in the trusion can be divided into two categories.
gluten- free food product range (McCann, First, non-cooking forming extrusion, where
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

the pressure produced by the screw squeezes dried and then milled into potato flour fol-
the material through a die. Second, cooking lowing the protocol by Ndungutse, Ngoda, Va-
extrusion which, as the name implies, involves santhakaalam, Shakala and Faraj (2019) with
the raw ingredients being cooked by the com- slight modifications. All flours were sieved
bined action of heat, mechanical shearing and through a 300 μm sieve to obtain homogenous
pressure in the presence of moisture (Fabbri et flour properties.
al., 2007). The processing conditions are cri- Proximate analysis of sorghum, pearl millet,
tical for ensuring the appropriate texture and bean and potato flours
cooking behaviour of pasta products (Mina-
rovičová et al., 2018) A proximate analysis of white sorghum flour,
pearl millet flour, bean flour and potato flour
The technology for making noodles and pasta was performed according to standard methods
from sorghum makes the product cheaper and of Winger, Khouryieh, Aramouni and Herald
healthier, as sorghum products are known for (2014). Protein determination was done using
high B vitamin and dietary fibre content (Jood, the Kjeldahl method (Winger et al., 2014). Fat
Khetarpaul& Goyal, 2012). Snacks which are determination was done using the Soxhlet
nutritionally rich and of a high commercial method (Winger et al., 2014). Ash determi-
value are among some of the new extruded

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nation was done using the muffle furnace
sorghum products. The extrusion properties of method (Winger et al., 2014). Moisture deter-
sorghum are excellent and equal to maize and mination was done using the oven method
rice (Adiamo, Fawale&Olawoye, 2018). Res- (Winger et al., 2014). The carbohydrate con-
ponse Surface Methodology (RSM) uses quan- tent was calculated using the difference me-
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titative data from appropriate experimental de- thod. Minerals were extracted from the ashed
signs to determine and simultaneously solve samples. About 2.0 g of the sample was acid-
multivariate equations that can be graphically digested with a diacid mixture (HNO3:HClO4,
represented as response surfaces (Anitha, 5:1, v/v) in a digestion chamber. The digested
Esther Magdalene Sharon, Marx Nirmal&Ma- samples were dissolved in double-distilled
thanghi, 2023). Therefore, this study was de- water and filtered (Whatman No. 42). The
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signed to develop novel gluten-free extruded filtrate was made to 50 mL with double-dis-
pasta using sorghum flour as a substitute for tilled water and was used for the determination
wheat and to evaluate its organoleptic proper-
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of total calcium and phosphorus. Calcium was

ties. determined by a titration method. Phosphorus
MATERIALS AND METHODS was determined spectrophotometrically by
using the molybdo-vanadate method.
Sorghum and pearl millet were bought from
farmers in Buhera, Manicaland, Zimbabwe Experimental design
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(19° 20' 0" South, 31 26' 0” East). The two A Box-Behnken Design (BBD) (Table 1) was
grains were cleaned and sorted to remove all used for studying the ingredient behaviour in a
foreign materials. The grains were naturally very precise way over a relatively small region
fermented for 48 hours under room temper- (Palavecino et al., 2017) with the maximum
ature and pressure in the presence of sodium factor levels (ingredients) being established in
benzoate to avoid fungal growth. The grains preliminary experiments to guarantee easy
were then dried in a food drier model SM12, dough handling. The ingredient (C) hydro-
Qingdao, China for 8 hours at 45 ºC. Flours colloid (guar gum) content limits were esta-
from the fermented grains were produced after blished by Codex Alimentarius regulation
decortication and milling by a stone miller (Mortensen et al., 2017). The variables in the
from Ruzha Brands, Harare, Zimbabwe. NUA experiment were hydrocolloid content, bean
45 bean flour was produced by milling the dry flour content and potato flour content. The
beans into flour. Fresh potatoes were bought constants in the experiments were sor-
from a supermarket Bon Mache, Belgravia ghum/pearl millet flour – 300 g each, 6 whole
shops in Harare. The potatoes were cleaned by eggs, 270 ml of water and 20 ml of olive oil.
running tap water and were peeled and grated The Box-Benhken Design (BBD) under
into small pieces. The grated potato pieces Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with
were soaked in 0.5% citric acid solution for 17 runs was used to select the best formulation
two minutes to prevent oxidation and sun- by considering cooking quality parameters and
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

organoleptic parameters. A conclusion was The three best formulations based on the
reached after analysing the results from the 17 Response Surface Methodology taking into
runs that were performed. Three pasta samples account their protein content and surface
namely, sorghum high bean pasta (SHBP), appearance were selected. These were run 7
sorghum bean pasta (SBP) and sorghum high labelled SHBP, run 14 labelled SBP and run
potato pasta (SHPP) were developed and pro- 11 labelled SHPP respectively. The compo-
duced in triplicates. The samples collected sition of the three treatments is shown in Table
from the three treatments were analysed for 2. The content of other ingredients – sor-
physicochemical, sensorial and nutritional pr- ghum/pearl millet flour, whole egg, water and
operties. olive oil content was kept constant in all
formulations. The incorporation of legume
Pasta preparation
flour (bean flour) was aimed at improving the
The pasta treatments were prepared using a protein content of the pasta. The incorporation
domestic extruder pasta machine (Mini ma- of potato flour was to enhance the flavour of
caroni spaghetti-making machine model 80, the pasta. The use of non-gluten cereals (sor-
Qingdao, China). Firstly, dry ingredients (300 ghum and pearl millet) was to make sure a
g) of each flour, an adequate volume of water gluten-free product was achieved.

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for each treatment (about 270 mL, based on Cooking properties
dough consistency, since in pasta making wa-
ter component is always around 30%, and 30% The optimal cooking time (OCT) was deter-
of 900 (3 flours) is equal to 270mL) were mined by the disappearance of the opaque line
in the centre of the pasta based on the AACC
mixed for 3 min in the representative bowls.
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The obtained dough was forced to pass 66-50.01 methods (AACC, 2009). The OCT
through the extruder cavity fixed with a spa- was determined by compressing a pasta
ghetti die of 2 mm diameter. The extrusion sample between 2 glass slides and observing
step was performed three times to improve the the line disappearance by taking samples at
quality and homogeneity, according to (Su- intervals of 1 minute. The gluten-free pasta
hendro et al., 2000). The operational tem- cooking properties were determined according
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perature was 50 ℃, the extrusion pressure was to methods proposed by (Tudoricǎ, Kuri &
28 bars and the screw rotational speed was 200 Brennan, 2002). Water absorption (WA) of the
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(rpm). Lastly, the extruded pasta was dried at pasta was determined as the weight difference
45 °C and 75% relative humidity in a 12-tray between the cooked pasta in OCT and raw
drier (Chinese model SM12, Qingdao, China). pasta expressed as percentage of raw pasta.
The drying process lasted 90 min to reach 13 𝒂−𝒃
𝑾𝑨 % = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
m/m % moisture content, which is required by 𝒃
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Codex Alimentarius Hungaricus (Biró, Fodor, ais the weight of the cooked pasta in grams.
Szedljak, Pásztor-Huszár& Gere (2019). b is the weight of the dry pasta in grams (Biró
Allthe pasta samples were made in triplicate. et al., 2019)

Table 1
The Box-Behnken Design for the three pasta treatments with 17 runs
Variable Factor Low Middle High
Bean flour (g) A 0 10 20
Potato flour (g) B 0 10 20
Hydrocolloid (g) C 5 10 20

Table 2
The composition of the pasta formulations
Formulation Guar gum (g) Bean flour (g) Potato flour (g)
SHBP 20.0 20.0 10.0
SBP 12.5 20.0 0.0
SHPP 20.0 10.0 20.0
The different compositional levels of the pasta formulations were chosen on the basis of the best ranking results from the
preliminary RSM trials, after sensory evaluation.
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

The swelling index (SI) was determined as the ple presentation was completely randomized
difference in weight between the cooked pasta among assessors, identified with three random
in OCT and the dried cooked pasta at 105 °C. numbers. Dry spaghetti was presented on the
The swelling index of cooked pasta (grams of paper plates, while cooked spaghetti was pre-
water per gram of dry pasta) was calculated in sented in 250-ml sealed thermal ceramic bowls
accordance with the procedure established by and served at room temperature within 10 min
(Yang, 2020). after cooking.
Statistical analysis
Data were tested for normality using Shapiro-
Wilk Test. Data on proximate composition of
Cooking loss (CL) was determined by eva-
the different flours, physicochemical, sensory
poration of the cooking water contained in a
and nutritional properties of produced pasta
pre-weighed beaker, to constant weight at
were analysed statistically used GenstatVer-
105 °C. The residue was expressed as g of so-
sion 18. The means were compared using
lids/100 g of raw pasta. The reported values
ANOVA in Genstat Version 18 and where
were the average of at least triplicates for each
significant difference was observed, Tukey’s

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sample. Cooking loss (CL) is related to
test was used to separate the means at 95%
leaching of solids during cooking and is wi-
probability.
dely used as an indicator of the overall
cooking performance (Jalgaonkar et al., 2017). Pasta formulation and optimisation was done
using Design Expert trial version 11.1.2.0. A
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randomised Response Surface Methodology
using the Box-Behnken design with 17 runs
Sensory evaluation (Torres Vargas, Lema González & Galeano
Loaiza, 2021) and a quadratic model with no
The sensory evaluation of the gluten-free pasta
blocks was used. The building time was 2.00
was conducted by a trained panel consisting of
ms and 5 centre points. Optimisation was done
ten individuals, including laboratory techni-
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based on the highest protein content and best

cians from the Department of Nutrition Die-
surface appearance of individual pasta formu-
tetics and Food Science as well as Depart-
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lations.
ment of Chemistry and Earth SciencesFaculty
of Science, University of Zimbabwe. The trai- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
ning took place at the University Food Science
laboratory and was facilitated by the Chief The results on protein content and optimisation
Laboratory Scientist over a one-week period, are shown in Fig. 1. Protein deficiency is one
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during which the panel members were exposed of the major causes of malnutrition among the
to various commercial pasta samples. Texture Sub-Saharan African population. It is recom-
properties such as firmness, chewiness (pro- mended for food scientists to find affordable,
duct of hardness, cohesiveness and springi- sustainable and evidence-based innovations to
ness) and adhesiveness of the cooked pasta combat this. Consumption of protein-fortified
were determined. Sensory properties of dry foods can help alleviate the problem of mal-
and cooked pasta were evaluated on a 5-point nutrition. Bean flour had the most significant
category scale with end points labelled from 1 (p<0.0001) impact in altering the protein con-
to 5 as shown in Table 3 (Pestorić et al., 2015). centration of the developed pasta. This is
supported by earlier literature by Temba,
In order to obtain the overall quality of spa- Njobeh, Adebo, Olugbile and Kayitesi (2016)
ghetti samples assessors used the hedonic scale whereby a combination of cereals with le-
with 5 quality grades: 1 – extremely dislike, 2 gumes was seen to improve the protein and
– moderately dislike 3 –neither like nor dis- nutrient density of the subsequent food pro-
like, 4 – moderately like, 5 – extremely like. ducts. In Fig. 1, the points on the corners re-
All samples were presented to each panel in present experimental design points. Potato
the single sessions. All panellists were pre- flour had the least significant contribution to
sented with a printed response sheet with writ- the protein concentration in the development
ten instructions for the tests. The order of sam- of pasta (Fig. 1).
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

Table 3.
Sensory evaluation score table. (Source: Data adopted from Pestorić et al. (2015), copyright 2015, CC BY 3.0.https:/doi.org/10.5937/ffr1502109p)
Visual evaluation scores Palpatory evaluation Gustatory evaluation
scores

Scores Surface Cross

Surface Fracture Surface
Shape Appearance sectional Elasticity Firmness Chewiness Adhesiveness
Property Ability Adhesiveness
Appearance

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Excellent Excellent
Uniform no Completely Extremely Excellent Excellent
5 Uncracked resistant to Not sticky firmness Non sticky
damage vitreous smooth elasticity chewiness
fracture (al dente
Insignificant Very good
Insignificantly Insignificantly Very good Very good Very good Insignificantly
4 deviation of Vitreous Smooth resistance

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cracked sticky elasticity firmness chewiness sticky
shape to fracture
Good
Noticeable Partially Partly Slightly Good Good Good
3 resistance Slightly sticky Slightly sticky
deficiencies cracked vitreous rough elasticity firmness chewiness
to fracture
Poor
Clearly Significantly Pretty Poor Poor Poor
2 Partly Mealy resistance Sticky Sticky
deficiencies cracked rough elasticity firmness chewiness
to fracture

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Extremely
Extremely Extremely Extremely
High poor Extremely Extremely
1 Marbled Mealy Rough poor poor poor

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deficiencies resistance sticky sticky
elasticity firmness chewiness
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 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

An increase in potato flour resulted in a small Guar gum concentration had the highest
increase in the protein content of the pasta. The (p<0.001) impact on the surface appearance of
little increase can be justified by the results the pasta (Fig. 2).
from proximate analysis of the individual As the hydrocolloid amount increased, the
ingredients as potato flour had the lowest surface appearance of the pasta improved
protein content of 10.52 % as compared to all significantly. The hydrocolloid mimics the
other ingredients. The contribution of each flour function of gluten hence it creates strong
is represented by equation 1 derived from the smooth bonds among the ingredients. Bean
response surface methodology. A quadratic flour concentration had little or no significant
equation was generated by the model to (p>0.001) effect on the surface appearance of
determine the protein concentration of the pasta. the developed pasta.
P = Y +2.85A- 1.3B-0.0012C+0.21AB-0.0025AC+0.00BC+0.68A2+1.72B2 (equation 1)
Where P= protein content
Y =16.84
A=bean flour
B= potato flour
Factor Coding: Actual
3D Surface

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Response: protein content (g/kg)
Design Points:
Above Surface
Below Surface
14.44 23.79
24

Actual Factor:
C = 12.5
22
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20
protein content (g/kg)

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16

14
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20 20

15 15
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10 10

5 5
B: potato flour (g) A: bean four (g)
0 0

Fig 1.Response surface plot, effect of ingredients (g) on protein concentration (g/kg) of the pasta
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Factor Coding: Actual

3D Surface
Response: surface apperence (%)
Design Points:
Above Surface
Below Surface
20 100
100

Actual Factor:
B = 10 80

60
surface apperence (%)

40

20

20 20

15 17
14
10
11
5
A: bean four (g) 8 C: hydrocolloid (g)
0 5

Figure 2. Response surface plot, effect of bean flour (g) and guar gum (g) on surface appearance (%) of pasta
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

S = Y+0.75A-0.25B+3.3C (equation 2)
Where S =Surface appearance percentage
Y= 14.5 intercept
A= Bean flour
B=Potato flour
C= Hydrocolloid
Factor Coding: Actual
3D Surface
Response: surface apperence (%)
Design Points:
Above Surface
Below Surface
20 100
100

Actual Factor:
A = 10 80

60
surface apperence (%)

40

20

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20 20

15 17
14
10
11
5
B: potato flour (g) 8 C: hydrocolloid (g)
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Figure 3. Response surface plot, effect of potato flour (g) and guar gum (g) on surface appearance (%) of pasta

Potato flour did not affect the surface ap- model to optimise the surface appearance of the
pearance of the pasta (Fig. 3). An increase from pasta. From Fig. 3 the points on the corners
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0 grams to 20 grams of potato flour in the represent experimental design points.

ingredient mixture did not improve the surface Swelling index, water absorption, cooking
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appearance percentage of the pasta as it re- loss and optimum cooking time of the pasta
mained constant below 40 per cent. Guar gum treatments
addition improved the surface appearance of the
pasta from 40 per cent to 90 per cent as its mass The optimum cooking time of pasta was sig-
increased from 0 grams to 20 grams. Hydro- nificantly different among the three samples
colloids are frequently used in gluten-free (GF) (p<0.001). Sample SHPP had a significantly
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recipes, mimicking some rheological properties higher cooking time (7 min) than sample SBP
of gluten, improving dough properties, delaying (6.2 min) and sample SHBP (5 min) (p<0.001).
starch retrogradation and improving bread/pasta Previous studies conducted by El-Sohaimy,
texture, appearance and stability (Culetu, Duta, Brennan, Darwish& Brennan (2020) showed an
Papageorgiou&Varzakas, 2021). optimum cooking time of different pasta formu-
Guar gum is a food additive that is known to lations ranging from 5 minutes to 6 minutes. A
have characteristics that can increase the significant difference in the water ab-sorption of
viscosity of the dough and improve the quality pasta samples produced was recorded
of gluten-free food products (Herawati, 2019). (p<0.001), with sample SHPP having sig-
Guar gum can make dimensional tissue struc- nificantly higher water absorption (238%) than
tures such as gluten but in a weak gel form sample SHBP (190%) and sample SBP (210%)
(Antarlina, Estiasih, Zubaidah&Harijono, (Table 4). There was a significant difference in
2021). Guar gum helps form smooth bonds the swelling index of the three pasta samples
among the ingredients. An increase in the guar produced (p<0.001).
gum significantly (p<0.001) improved the sur- Sample SHPP had a higher swelling index
face appearance of the pasta (Figure 3). Potato (p<0.001). Similarly, cooking loss (%) was sig-
flour concentration had no significant (p>0.001) nificantly higher in sample SHPP with
effect on the surface appearance of the pasta. A (p<0.001), sample SHPP had a cooking loss of
linear equation (Eq. 2) was generated as a 11% compared to 8% for sample SBP (Table 4).
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

Cooking losses are one of the main parameters flours used in the study were recorded (Table
taken into consideration during the assessment 5). There was a significant (p<0.001) difference
of pasta quality. In a high-quality product they in the ash content of the four samples, with
should not exceed 8% of dry matter (Torres, sorghum flour having the highest ash content
Frias, Granito, Guerra & Vidal-Valverde, 2007). (4.23%), while pearl millet had the lowest quan-
The cooking loss observed from the samples tity of ash content (1.11%). Moisture content in
was 6.7% for sample SHBP, 8% for sample the four flours varied significantly (p<0.001)
SBP and 11% for SHPP. Studies by Belahcen et and ranged from 8.10% to 9.14%.
al. (2022) showed the cooking losses of seven Pearl millet flour had significantly higher
different pastas ranging from 11.2% to 15.1%. moisture content (9.14%) than the other flours.
The results we obtained from our experiments Significant (p<0.001) difference in fat content
were in the range. Pasta samples SHBP and was observed across the flours, with pearl millet
sample SBP which had cooking losses of 8% having the highest fat content of 4.22% while
and below were of higher acceptability and this beans had the lowest fat content of 1.42%. The
is in line with the literature published by protein content in the four different flours
Jalgaonkar et al., (2017) as they concluded that ranged from 10.52% to 22%. There was no
good pasta should have a cooking loss below significant difference in the protein content bet-

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9%.The water absorption percentage of our ween sorghum and pearl millet flour (p>0.05).
pasta ranged from 190% to 238%. Previous
studies by Ribeiro, Bolanho, Montanuciand Bean flour had significantly higher protein con-
Ruiz (2018) showed a water absorption percen- tent than the other flour, while potato flour had
the lowest protein content. On the contrary,
tage ranging from 200.18% to 265.15%. This
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also validates our result on water absorption potato flour had significantly (p<0.001) higher
percentage. carbohydrate content (73.82%) as compared to
other flours. Bean flour had significantly lower
Proximate composition of the different flours carbohydrate content (65.85%) than the other
used in the pasta production. flours. No significant difference in carbohydrate
Significant (p<0.001) differences in the pro- content was recorded between bean flour and
E

ximate composition of the four different pearl millet flour (p>0.05) (Table 5).
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Table 4.
Optimum cooking time, water absorption, swelling index and cooking lossof the experimental pasta samples.
Optimum Water Swelling Index
Cooking loss
Pasta cooking time absorption (%)
(%)
(min) (%)
ON

SHBP 5.0 ± 0.03a 190.0 ± 0.04a 1.02 ± 0.01a 6.7 ± 0.03a

SBP 6.2 ± 0.02b 1.15 ± 0.02b 8.0 ± 0.06b
SHPP 7.0 ± 0.04c 238.0 ± 0.03c 1.24 ± 0.05c 11.0 ± 0.01c
P value ＜0.001 ＜0.001 ＜0.001 ＜0.001
Results are given as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3.) Superscripts with different letters within a column signify that the
values are statistically different at p value＜0.05

Table 5.
Proximate composition of different flours used in the pasta production
Flour Nutrients
Carbohydrates
Ash Moisture fat Protein
(%)
Sorghum 4.23 ± 0.05a 8.92 ± 0.02a 3.23 ± 0.01a 19.82 ± 0.03a 70.65 ± 0.09a
Pearl Millet 1.11 ± 0.08b 9.14 ± 0.05b 4.22 ± 0.08b 20.44 ± 0.02a 66.24 ± 0.06b
Bean 3.06 ± 0.02c 8.10 ± 0.04c 1.42 ± 0.05c 22.0 ± 0.06b 65.85 ± 0.02b
Potato 2.20 ± 0.04d 8.20 ± 0.06d 0.95 ± 0.04d 10.52 ± 0.06c 73.82 ± 004c
P value ＜0.001 ＜0.001 ＜0.001 ＜0.001 ＜0.001
Results are given as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). Superscripts with different letters within a column signify that the
values are statistically different with a p＜0.05
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

Nutritional values of the prepared sorghum and bio-fortified beans had significantly higher
pastas ash content (4.36%) than samples SHBP and
The nutritional values of the formulated pasta SHPP. The protein content of the pasta pro-
samples are shown in Table 6. The utilization of duced varied significantly (p<0.001) from
various types of flours through blending con- 14.44% to 20.78%. Sample SBP had signi-
tributes to the enhancement of the product's ficantly (p<0.001) higher fat and fibre content
nutritional quality. This is because different in- 9.67% and 1.35%, respectively than the other
gredients possess distinct nutritional compo- samples. Sample SHBP had significantly
sitions, so one ingredient may compensate for (p<0.001) higher carbohydrate content (66%)
the deficiency of a particular nutrient found in than the other samples, while sample SBP had
another ingredient. The difference in the values the lowest carbohydrate content (Table 6).
is mainly due to the different flour ratios used in Table 7 shows the nutritional content of 3 com-
the production process. Sample SBP which con- mercial pastas on the Zimbabwean market.
tains a high proportion of legumes had the These pastas are wheat-based and were used to
highest protein content compared to the other compare the nutritional content of selected
two samples. Sample SHBP had the highest car- nutrients with our sorghum-based pastas in the
bohydrate content compared to the other two

ST
absence of sorghum pasta on the market for
samples, SBP and SHPP. There was a signi- comparison. Comparing the three macron-
ficant difference in the nutritional content of the trients, carbohydrates, protein and fibre of the
three-sorghum pasta except for phosphorus con- commercial pasta and our three pastas, it was
tent which had a p-value of 0.055. observed that all our pastas had a higher protein
FIR
The moisture content of the three pasta samples content than all the commercial pastas, 14.44-
produced ranged from 6.70% to 7.74%, with 20.78% compared to 11-16% (commercial
sample SBP containing beans having signi- pasta). This can be attributed to the fermentation
ficantly (p<0.001) higher moisture content than and roasting of sorghum and pearlmillet which
the other samples (p<0.001). The ash content increase the protein content of these millets as
varied significantly among the three pasta unfermented flours of the two have lower pro-
E

samples. Sample SBP, pasta produced from a tein content. The fibre content of our pasta
flour blend constituting sorghum, pearl millet samples was higher than that of the
LIN

Table 6.
Proximate composition of the experimental pasta samples
Proximate composition (%)
Pasta
ON

Moisture Ash Protein Fat Fibre Carbohydrate

SHBP 6.71 ± 0.01b 2.03 ± 0.06a 14.44 ± 0.07a 9.46 ± 0.08b 5.44 ± 0.06a 66.00 ± 0.02c

SBP 7.74 ± 0.04c 4.36 ± 0.03c 20.78 ± 0.04c 5.44 ± 0.06a 1.28 ± 0.02a 60.40 ± 0.04a
SHPP 6.70 ± 0.05a 3.69 ± 0.02b 16.63 ± 0.05b 9.67 ± 0.05c 1.35 ± 0.07b 61.96 ± 0.06b
P Value ＜0.001 ＜0.001 ＜0.001 ＜0.001 ＜0.05 ＜0.001
Results are given as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3).Superscripts with different letters on values within a column signify
that the values are statistically different at p＜0.05.

Table 7.
Nutritional information of 3 commercial pastas available from the market
Nutritional Information (%)
Pasta Carbohydrate
Protein content Dietary fibre content
content
A 74 11 0.4
B 78 16 0.8
C 78 16 0.8
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

commercial pasta - it ranged from 1.28% to (sorghum high potato pasta) (p>0.05) and
5.44% when compared to 0.4% to 0.8%. Our samples SHBP and SBP.
pasta had low carbohydrate content (60.4- Table 8.
66.0%) as compared to the commercial pasta, Micronutrient composition of the experimental
(74-78%). This could be due to the fermentation pasta samples
process which converts some of the carbo- Micronutrient content
hydrates to simple sugars during fermentation. Pasta Calcium Phosphorus
Micronutrient composition of experimental (%) (%)
pasta
SHBP 1.10 ± 0.04c 0.47 ± 0.01
Micronutrients are important for a good fun- a
ctional immune system and general growth. SBP 0.50 ± 0.03 0.42 ± 0.01
b
Calcium is very essential in muscle contraction, SHPP 0.90 ± 0.04 0.5 ± 0.04
oocyte activation, building strong bones and P Value 0.008 0.055
teeth, blood clotting, nerve impulse, transmis- Results are given as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3).
sion, regulating the heartbeat and fluid balance Superscripts with different letters within a column signify
within cells. The requirements are greatest du- that the values are statistically different at p ＜0.05
ring periods of growth such as childhood,

ST
pregnancy and breastfeeding (Pravina, Sa- Surface property, cross-sectional area and sur-
yaji&Avinash, 2015). Phosphorus functions as a face appearance ranking of the three produced
structural component of bones and teeth and pasta samples SHBP, sample SBP and sample
DNA/RNA and enables the bipolarity of lipid SHPP were not statistically significantly dif-
FIR ferent (p>0.05). Sample SHBP had a signi-
membranes and circulating lipoproteins. Meta-
bolically, phosphorus functions in critical path- ficantly lower fracture ability score as compared
ways to produce and store energy in phosphate to sample SHPP (P<0.05) but no significant
bonds (ATP), buffer blood, regulate gene trans- difference with sample SBP (Fig. 4). Cooked
cription, activate enzyme catalysis, and enable pasta is always evaluated for certain parameters
signal transduction of regulatory pathways af- to rank its quality attributes. Özyurt et al. (2015)
evaluated their pasta enriched with spirulina for
E

fecting a variety of organ functions ranging

from renal excretion to immune response cooking quality (weight increase, cooking loss,
volume increase). Axentii, Stroe and Codină
LIN

(Calvo&Lamberg-Allardt, 2015). A comparison

of selected micronutrients of the formulated (2023) evaluated their pasta samples for co-
pastas was done. At (p<0.001) differences in the oking loss (CL), optimal cooking time (OCT),
micronutrient composition of produced pastas water absorption (WA) and swelling index (SI).
were recorded (Table 8). The calcium content of We also evaluated our pasta samples for the
the three different pastas produced ranged from following parameters, surface appearance, firm-
ON

0.50% to 1.10%. Sample SBP had significantly ness, surface adhesiveness, chewiness, elasticity
lower calcium content than the other samples and adhesiveness. There was no significant dif-
(p<0.05), while sample SHBP had the highest ference (p>0.05) in the surface appearance,
calcium content. No significant differences in firmness, surface adhesiveness, chewiness, elas-
phosphorus content were recorded among the ticity and adhesiveness of the cooked pasta
three pasta treatments produced (p>0.05) (Table treatments (Fig. 5).Although the results did not
8). show any statistically significant difference bet-
ween the evaluated parameters of the samples
Sensory evaluation of raw pasta SHBP, SBP and SHPP, the pasta products were
Sensory evaluation is a tool employed to evoke, of high acceptable quality as all the parameters
measure, analyze and interpret typical product ranked scored high on the evaluation table as
attributes which can be perceived by human shown in (Figure 5). This is in line with existing
senses and also to curtail the possible influence literature according to (Padalino et al., 2016).
of brand identity on the end user (Sahay Meena Hydrocolloid incorporation can be an easy so-
et al., 2019). There was a significant difference lution for enhancing pasta-cooking quality. The
in shape between sample SHBP (sorghum high observed cooking time of treatments SHBP,
bean pasta) and sample SBP (sorghum, bean SBP and SHPP is very convenient for fast-
pasta) (p<0.05). No significant difference in cooking food with cooking time below ten mi-
shape was observed between sample SHPP nutes.
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

Shape scores
5 b Shape ab a Surface property
4 a

Surface property scores

a
4 a
3
3
2
2
1 1

0 0
A B C A B C
Pasta Pasta
Fracture ability
6 Surface appearance 4
Surface appearence scores

Fracture scores
b
5 a a ab
a
3
a

ST
4
3 2
2
1
FIR
1
0 0
A B C A B C
Pasta Pasta

Cross sectional area

E
Cross sectional area scores

4 a
a
a
LIN

2
ON

0
A B C
Pasta
Sample A is sorghum-high bean pasta (SHBP), Sample B is sorghum-bean pasta (SBP), and sample C is sorghum-high
potato pasta (SHPP).
Different letters on bars signify that the values are statistically different, p ＜0.05.

Figure 4. Sensory evaluation of uncooked pasta

A primary challenge for the currently formu- must appeal to the consumer at the point of
lated pasta lies in penetrating the market. This purchase, whilst cooked spaghetti must meet
may be attributed to people's inclination toward consumer criteria, such as smooth surface and
familiar tastes, as individuals often gravitate to- firmness (Pestorić et al., 2015). Blending
wards flavours they are accustomed to. Among sorghum/pearl millet flour with potato flour and
the quality properties of spaghetti, texture is one bean flour did not affect the cooking properties
of the most important factors affecting pasta of the pasta as there are no significant
quality and consumer acceptance. Dry spaghetti differences observed from the sensory
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

evaluation results obtained from the trained panel.

Surface appearance 5 Firmness
Surface appearence scores

5 a a
a 4 a a
a

Firmness scores
4
3
3
2
2
1 1

0 0
A B C A B C
Cooked pasta Cooked pasta

5 Surface adhesiveness 5 Chewiness

Chewiness scores
a

ST
a a
Surface adhesiveness

4 4 a a
a
3 3
FIR
2 2
1 1
0 0
A B C A B C
E

Cooked pasta Cooked pasta

4
LIN

Elasticity a Adhesiveness
Adhesiveness scores

a a 5 a a a
3
Elasticity scores

2 3
ON

2
1
1

0 0
A B C A B C
Cooked pasta Cooked pasta
Sample A is sorghum-high bean pasta (SHBP), sample B is sorghum-bean pasta (SBP), and sample C is sorghum-high potato
pasta (SHPP).
Different letters on bars signify that the values are statistically different, p ＜0.05.

Figure 5. Sensory evaluation of cooked pasta

This could be attributed to pre-processing of the The SHBP pasta had the shortest cooking time
flours before they were used in pasta making. compared to all the other two pasta formulations
The absence of gluten in the flours used may had the highest micro-nutrient content on the
also be another factor contributing to the tested micronutrients i.e. calcium and phos-
observed cooking properties. phorous. It also had the highest fibre and carbo-
Comparison of the formulated pastas hydrate content as compared to the other two
 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

pastas. The SBP had the highest protein content Adeyeye, S. A. O., & Yildiz, F. (2016). Assessment of
as compared to the other two pastas formulated, quality and sensory properties of sorghum-wheat
flour cookies. Cogent Food and Agriculture, 2(1).
it had the least carbohydrate content and also
12450.
the lowest levels of micronutrients tested. The https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2016.1245059
SHPP had the highest fat content and the Adiamo, O. Q., Fawale, O. S., & Olawoye, B. (2018).
longest optimum cooking time. One of its major Recent trends in the formulation of gluten-free
disadvantages was the high cooking loss. sorghum products. Journal of Culinary Science and
Technology, 16(4), 311-325.
Although, with all these differences all the three
https://doi.org/10.1080/15428052.2017.1388896
formulated pastas were of an acceptable quality.
Anitha, S., Esther Magdalene Sharon, M., Marx Nirmal,
CONCLUSIONS R., & Mathanghi, S. K. (2023). Optimization of
pearl millet and carrot based gluten-free pasta using
The making of gluten-free pasta was achieved response surface methodology. Biological Forum,
using sorghum/pearl millet flour blended with 15(2), 461-466.
Antarlina, S. S., Estiasih, T., Zubaidah, E., & Harijono.
some other non-gluten-containing flours, na- (2021). The physicochemical properties of white
mely potato flour and NUA 45 bean flour. The sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) flour in various
best pasta formulation, according to the physical particle sizes by soaking the seeds before and after
and sensory properties as scored by the sensory dehulling. Food Research, 5(3), 129-143.

ST
evaluation panel, contained sorghum flour, pearl https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.5(3).541
millet flour and a high percentage of NUA 45 Anyobodeh, R., Spio-Kwofie, A., & Anaman, S. (2016).
Preparation and production of pasta using composite
bean flour (Sorghum high bean pasta treatment cassava flour as a substitute of wheat flour.
(SHBP). Based on the results obtained from the International Journal of Novel Research in Mar-
experiments it can be concluded that sorghum
FIR keting Management and Economics, 3(1), 97-105.
can be used for producing quality gluten-free Axentii, M., Stroe, S. G., & Codină, G. G. (2023).
Development and quality evaluation of rigatoni
pasta products. The pasta had higher protein
pasta enriched with hemp seed meal. Foods, 12(9).
content ranging from 14.44% to 20.78%, which https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12091774
is more than most of the commercial pasta on Belahcen, L., Cassan, D., Canaguier, E., Robin, M-H.,
the market whose protein content ranges from Chiffoleau, Y., Samson, M-F., & Jard, G. (2022).
11% to 16%. It also contained a high fibre Physicochemical and sensorial characterization of
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content which ranged from 1.28% to 5.44%, artisanal pasta from the Occitanie region in France.
Foods, 11(20) 3208.
more than most commercial pastas on the mar-
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ket which are mostly at 0.4%. The experimental https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11203208

Biró, B., Fodor, R., Szedljak, I., Pásztor-Huszár, K., &
pasta had lower carbohydrate content than most Gere, A. (2019). Buckwheat-pasta enriched with
commercial pasta on the market. Good cooking silkworm powder: Technological analysis and
attributes and high consumer acceptability are sensory evaluation. LWT - Food Science and
expected from the produced pasta. Technology, 116, 108542.
ON

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108542
АCKNOWLEDGEMENTS Calvo, M. S., & Lamberg-Allardt, C. J. (2015). Phos-
phorus. Advances in Nutrition, 6(6), 860-862.
The authors are grateful to the Department of https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.008516
Dietetics, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Uni- Cayres, C. A., Ramirez Ascheri, J. L., Couto, G., Almeida,
versity of Zimbabwe, Ministry of Higher and E. L., & Melo, L. (2020). Consumers’ acceptance of
Tertiary Education Innovation Science and optimized gluten-free sorghum-based cakes and
their drivers of liking and disliking. Journal of
Technology Development, for the financial sup- Cereal Science, 93, 102938.
port in the form of the Future Grains for Africa https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2020.102938
fellowship grant. Special thanks go to Prof. J. Cervini, M., Gruppi, A., Bassani, A., Spigno, G.&
Chifamba, the University of Zimbabwe Inno- Giuberti, G. (2021). Potential application of re-
sistant starch sorghum in gluten-free pasta: Nu-
vation HUB manager and Dr A. Nhamo, HUB tritional, structural and sensory evaluations. Foods,
Research Specialist for their unwavering sup- 10(5), 908.
port through the research period. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10050908
Culetu, A., Duta, D. E., Papageorgiou, M., & Varzakas, T.
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 Blessing Gwekwe et al., Development and sensory properties of extruded sorghum-based gluten-free pasta,
Food and Feed Research, 51 (1), 1-17, 2024

RAZVOJ RECEPTURE I SENZORSKA SVOJSTVA EKSTRUDIRANE BEZGLUTENSKE TESTENINE NA BAZI

SIRKA

Blessing Gwekwe1,Loveness K. Nyanga1,Tonderayi M. Matsungo1, Cathrine Chidewe2, Stanley

Mukanganyama2, Elijah Nyakudya3, Florence Mtambanengwe3, Paul Mapfumo3, Prosper Chopera*1
1
Univerzitet u Zimbabveu, Fakultet nauka, Katedra za ishranu i prehrambene nauke, Harare, 630 Avenija Čerčil,
Maunt Plezant, Zimbabve
2
Univerzitet u Zimbabveu, Fakultet nauka, Katedra za biotehnologiju i biohemiju, Harare, 630 Avenija Čerčil,
Maunt Plezant, Zimbabve
3
Univerzitet u Zimbabveu, Fakultet poljoprivrede i prehrambenih sistema, Harare, 630 Avenija Čerčil, Maunt
Plezant, Zimbabve

Sažetak: Testenina spade u grupu namirnica koje se najviše konzumiraju u svetu. U

proizvodnji testenine uobičajeno je stvaranje novih formulacija uvođenjem novih sirovina.

ST
Cilj ovog rada je formulisanje, optimizacija i senzorska ocena ekstrudirane bezglutenske
testenine na bazi sirka. Određen je hemijski sastav i sadržaj mikronutrijenata osnovnih
sirovina koje su korišćene u stvaranju novih eksperimentalnih formulacija ekstrudiranih
testenina: brašnosirka, proseno brašno, brašno pasulja sa visokim sadržajem gvožđa)
(Biofortified NUA 45 beans) i brašno od krompira sorte Hermes. Tri formulacije testenine
FIR
na bazi sirka su odabrane za proizvodnju testenine: sirak-obogaćenipasulj (SHBP), sirak-
pasulj (SBP) i sirak-obogaćeni-krompir (SHPP) i ispitani su njihovi senzorski atributi
(vizuelno, palpatorno i gustatorno). Za optimizaciju formulacije sa najboljim senzorskim
svojstvima i svojstvima pri kuvanju korišćen je Box-Benhkenov dizajn (BBD) u
kombinaciji same todomodzivne površine (RSM). Sadržaj proteina u 4 bezglutenska
brašna koja su korišćena u formulacijama testenina kretao se od 10,52% do 22,00%. NUA
45 brašno od pasulja je statistički značajno (p<0.05) sadržalo više proteina u odnosu na
E

ostala bezglutenska brašna. Krompirovo brašno je imalo najveći sadržaj ugljenih hidrata
(73,82%) u odnosu na ostala brašna. Testenina SHPP je imala značajno (p<0.001) duže
LIN

optimalno vreme kuvanja (7 min) u poređenjusa SHBP (5 min) i SBP (6,2 min). SHPP je
takođe pokazalo značajno (p<0.001) viši kapacitet apsorpcije vode (238%) u odnosu na
SHBP (190%) i SBP (210%). Postojale su značajne razlike u stepenu bubrenja testenine:
SHBP sa najmanjim stepenom bubrenja od 1,02% u odnosu na SBP 1,15% i SHPP 1,24%.
Gubitak pri kuvanju je bio značajno viši (p<0.001) kod testenine SHPP (11%) dok se
SHBP karakterisala najmanjim gubitkom pri kuvanju. Nisu postojale značajne (p>0.05)
ON

razlike u površinskim svojstvima, izgledu površine i izgledu poprečnog preseka kuvanih

testenina. Uočene su značajne razlike u obliku između testenina formulacije SHBP i SBP.
Testirane formulacije bezglutenske testenine su uspešno proizvedene. Testenina SHPP
(sirak-obogaćeni-krompir) je imala najbolja senzorska svojstva, fizička svojstva i
prehrambenu vrednost u poređenju sa ostalim formulacijama i pokazala je najveći
potencijal za komerccijalizaciju.
Ključne reči: bezglutenska testenina, sirak, ekstruzija, organoleptička svojstva, osobine
pri kuvanju

Received: 11 October 2023/ Received in revised form: 21 December 2023/ 31. January 2024/ Accepted: 21. February 2024
Available online: April 2024

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