Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A study of the relevant literature is an essential step to get

a full picture of what has been done and said with regard to the

problem, understudy. Collection of relevant literature provides the

basic understanding of the problem and its depth. Such a review

brings about a deep insight and a clear perspective of the overall field.

It is a key to the thinking of the investigator. A study of related

literature is an essential step to get a full picture of what has to be

done with regard to this study. The literature in any field forms the

foundation upon which all future work will be built in.

Jan Hoff and Jan Helgerud [2004] found the relative

effects of isolated and combined aerobic and anaerobic interval

training on selected speed and endurance parameters among soccer

players. Interval training can be help elite improve both anaerobic and

aerobic fitness. To develop anaerobic fitness an athlete would work

very intensely, running swimming, cycling or rowing very fast possibly

above race pace, before resting for a moderately long period, then
 26

repeating the exercise a number of times, for example 10x 30 sec, with

90 sec rest. This is proven to develop anaerobic endurance. It’s also

possible to use interval training to improve anaerobic training. By

setting the pace and intensity of endurance training correctly-which

requires scientific knowledge about an athlete’s maximum heart ate

and maximal oxygen capacity (VO2 max) and the pace that is

equivalent to an athlete can be given a programme with equal work or

rest intervals, for example 1 minute at maximum intensity followed by

1 minute’s rest, which targets aerobic fitness extremely effectively.

For endurance athletes, there is a limit to the level of

fitness that can be achieved thorough steady paced training and for

games players and the fighting sports like judo/boxing, interval

training is useful because you can get quick results and effective

improvement in endurance, without the need for masses of volume, as

EIS strength and Conditioning Coach, Raph Brandon, explains. For a

player on a mixed training programme where they have to work on

strength endurance and speed like a rugby or netball player during

interval workouts, they can effectively improve their endurance in one

or two workouts each week. Also, that is more compatible with their

training programme because it removes the need for time consuming

runs or long cycles which would interfere with their strength

development. It is impossible to do interval training every day of the

week, because it’s to intense and the body would break down may be
 27

two or three high quality workouts per week, integrated with a normal

training programme.

Interval training and continuous training were compared

for effects on physiological adaptations. Untrained men and women

were randomly assigned to four groups: 1) running continuously at

75% HR max for four miles: 2) running continuously at 75% HR max

for two miles; 3) eventually running one minute intervals at 90% HR

max with three minute recovery intervals and 4) no exercise control.

Males (N=24) and females (N=35) completed the study. Training

sessions were conducted three times per week for 12 weeks. Only the

interval training group improved significantly more than the control

group in VO2max. The response to training was similar genders,

although values differed between them. There were no differences in

percent body fat changes, triglycerides, and cholesterol and high

lipoproteins.

Hopkins et al., [1990] conducted a study to determine the

effect of low-impact aerobic dance on sedentary elderly women (N=53),

functional fitness was measured by items from the proposed American

Alliance of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance

(AAHPED) fitness test for older adults. After 12 weeks of low-impact

aerobic dance, the group improved significantly on all functional

 28

fitness components except motor control/coordination, including

cardio-respiratory endurance, strength/endurance, body agility,

flexibility, body fat and balance.

Overend, et al,[1992] investigated change in the

parameters of aerobic function resulting from Continuous Training

(CT) and Interval Training of both low power (LPO-IT) and high power

output (HPO-IT) untrained males (n=17, 25 years) were trained 10

weeks on cycle ergometers (four 40 minute sessions a week) at 80%

VO2 max. Cycle ramp function tests at zero and ten weeks were used

to determine the four aerobic parameters; VO2 uptake kinetics (MRT)

and work efficiency (ETA), VO2 max increased significantly (3.30 to

3.661.min-1). Absolute VeT increased significantly (2.17 to 2.451 min-

1) but there was no change in the relative threshold (VeT/VO2 max).

MRT decreased significantly from 38.8 to 33.1 seconds and there was

no change in ETA. There were no differences between groups, thus

neither low power output nor high power output Interval training

offers an advantage over Continuous training of the same average

power output in altering the aerobic parameters.

Adeniran and Toriola et al [1988] investigated the

effectiveness of continuous and interval running programs on aerobic

and anaerobic capacities in school girls. For this purpose, 68 female

Nigerian School girls aged 15.5 years were categorized in to a control

group (n=23), a continuous jogging (n=22) and an interval jogging

 29

(n=23) groups. Standardized field test were used to measure the

subject’s aerobic and anaerobic capacities within one week before and

one week after the study. Continuous running involved jogging 4.8 Km

three times a week for eight weeks at subjects’ 80 to 85% maximum

heart rate (Heart rate Maximum). Interval running consisted of jogging

for 240 second sets interspersed with four minutes of relief interval

three times a week for eight weeks. This amounted to a work to relief

ratio of 1:1. The interval jogging was performed at about 90% of the

subjects’ Heart Rate Maximum. In contrast to the control group, both

exercise groups had comparable magnitude of significant

improvements in their aerobic and anaerobic power (p<.01). In

general, improvements in aerobic power of 1.6%, 10.2% and 14.6% as

well as gains in anaerobic power of 2.4%, 13.2% and 14.6% were

found in the control group, Continuous running and Interval running

categories respectively. Both Continuous and Interval running

programs are effective in alternantting aerobic and anaerobic power

secures in sedentary female adolescents.

Mac Dougall and Sale [1981] viewed that both Interval and

Continuous training are necessary in order to maximize the

endurance of athlete’s potential competition. Continuous sub maximal

training exerts its greatest effect upon the oxygen transport system of

the body while high intensity endurance Interval training exerts its

greatest effect on the structural and bio-chemical properties of the

 30

muscle. The physiological basis for both forms of training is discussed

and the recommendations are made for year round training and

training to elevate the anaerobic threshold.

Cunningham, McCrimmon and Vlach [199] examined the

cardio-vascular response to interval and continuous training in

women. For this, three groups of five women (age= 18 to 25 years)

participated in a 12 week training program. Cardiovascular responses

up to 85% VO2 max to interval and continuous training were studied

in two groups, before training and after four eight and twelve weeks of

training, four times per week. A control group was assessed before

and after six and twelve weeks. Both exercise groups demonstrated

significantly increase in CaCo2-CVO2 after eight weeks with only slight

further increase after twelve weeks (Continuous group =8.9% Interval

group 20% at 85% Vo2 Max). No significant changes were noted in

either group in SV (+5ml Interval group, +9 Continuous group). These

results indicated that in response to high intensity training, women

may demonstrate similar cardiovascular adaptations to training as

have been observed in men.

Uppal [1980] conducted a study to determine the effects of

Interval training and two continuous load methods on cardio

respiratory and selected physiological parameters. One group was

given Interval training, the second fartlek and third group was given

slow Continues running for a period of ten weeks, five days in a week.
 31

The load was increased progressively after every two weeks.

He found that (i) all the three groups had equal training effects on

maximal oxygen uptake, vital capacity, leg strength, positive breath

holding time, negative breath holding time, (ii) slow continuous and

Fartlek methods result significantly higher improvements in Cardio

respiratory endurance when compared to Interval training and (iii)

slow Continuous running and Interval training were superior to

Fartlek in reducing the resting pulse rate.

Edge et al., [2005] compared the effects of high intensity

interval (HIT) and moderate-intensity continuous (MIT) training on

changes in repeated sprint ability (RSA) and muscle metabolism. Pre

and post training, VO (2peak), lactate threshold (LT), and RSA (5x6-s

sprints, every 30 s) were assessed in 20 females. Subjects were

matched on RSA, randomly placed into the HIP (N=10) or MIT (N=10)

group and performed 5 week (3 days per week) of cycle training;

performing either HIT (6-10, 2-min at 80-95% LT). Both groups had

significant improvements in VO (2peak) and LT, with no significant

differences between them. Both groups also had significant increases

in RSA total work (KJ), with a significantly greater increase following

HIT than MIT (13 vs. 8.5%, respectively; P< 0.05). They concluded that

when total is matched, high intensity interval training results in

greater improvement in repeated sprint ability than moderate intensity

continuous training.
 32

Dupont et al., [2004] investigated the effects of in-season,

high intensity interval training on professional male soccer player’s

running performances. Twenty-two subjects participated in 2

consecutive training periods of 10 weeks. The first period was

considered a control period and was compared with a period where 2

high-intensity interval training exercises were included in the usual

training program. Intermittent runs consisted of 12-15 runs lasted 15

seconds at 120% of maximal aerobic speed alternated with 15 seconds

of rest. Sprint repetitions consisted of 12-15 all-out 40-m runs

alternated with 30 seconds of rest. Results from the high-intensity

interval training have shown that maximal aerobic speed was

improved and that the time of the 40-m sprint was decreased, whereas

no change in either parameter was decreased, whereas no change in

either parameter was observed during the control period. This study

shows that improvements in physical qualities can be made during

the in-season period.

Creer et al., [2004] investigated the effects of short-term,

high intensity sprint interval training on neutral, metabolic and

performance adaptations. Seventeen trained cyclist were randomly

assigned to a sprint training (S) group (n=10) ort a control (C) group

(n=7). Sprint training was performed bi-weekly for four weeks,

comprising a total of 28 minutes over the training period. EMG

measurements were taken before and after training during a series of

 33

four 30-s sprints separated by four minutes of active recovery. Plasma

lactate, peak performance, mean power and total week were measured

during each sprint bout. Following sprint training a significant

increase occurred in the RMS of the vastus lacteralis with an increase

did not change. Pre training exercising plasma lactate values were

higher in control group compared to sprint training group, but did not

change with training.

Exercising plasma lactate values increased from pre to post

training in sprint training group, but were not different from control

group post training. Total work output increased from pre to post in

sprint group. Peak power, mean power, and VO2 max increased pre to

post training in sprint training group and control group, indicating

control group was not a true control. They concluded that four weeks

of high intensity sprint training combined with endurance training in

a trained cycling population increased motor unit activation,

exercising plasma lactate levels and total work output with relatively

low volume of sprint exercise compared to endurance training alone.

Burgomaster et al., [2000] examined the effects of short

term sprint interval training on human muscle metabolism and time

trial performance. Eight men performed six sessions of SIT (4-7x30-s

“all-out” cycling with 4 min of recovery) over 2 week. Subjects assess

changes in cycling performance. TT performance improved by 9.6%

after training and a control group showed no change in performance

 34

when tested 2 weeks apart without SIT. They conclude that short-term

sprint interval improved cycling time trial performance.

Kotzamanidis et al., [2005] investigated the effects of a

combined high intensity strength and speed training on running and

jumping ability of soccer players. Thirty five individuals were divided

into 3 groups. The first group performed a combined resistance and

speed training program the some resistance training without speed

training. The third group was control group. Three groups tests were

used for the evaluation of vertical jump performance. Squat jump

countermovement jump and drop jump. The 30-m dash and 1

repetition maximum (1RM) tests were used for running speed and

strength evaluation, respectively. After training, both experimental

groups significantly improved their 1RM of all tested exercises.

Furthermore, the combined training and the control groups in the 30-

m dash, squat jump and countermovement jump, it was concluded

that the combined resistance and running speed program provides

better results that the conventional resistance training, regarding the

power performance of soccer players.

Adams et al., [2000] have studied the effects of concurrent

strength and endurance training on anaerobic power. Twenty one

subjects were selected and divided into three equal groups of 7

subjects each as strength group, endurance group and strength plus

endurance group. The strength training group added high-intensity

 35

overload strength work twice a week for six weeks. The endurance

training group underwent endurance training (slow continuous

running) for twice a week for six weeks. And third group underwent

strength training plus endurance training for twice a week for six

weeks. Tests were performed on a bicycle ergometer. The endurance

training group did not change any anaerobic factors over the duration

of the study. The strength-plus group improved in all variables

(vertical jump, peak watts, watts per kg of body weight, watts per kg of

lean body mass, and Wingate bicycle test).

Donati [1995] conducted a study on the development of

stride length and stride frequency in sprinting of 25 high level

sprinters (15 male and 10 female). Each one was required to run a

number of times over distance varying between 60 and 100 meters,

with adequate rest periods between the runs. Stride length was

changed at a each run and data were plotted in a group. A point at

which two lines meet was used to indicate the time and the number of

strides that the athlete should, in theory be able to achieve, samples

of effective training methods to improve performance.

Sood Meera [1980] compared the effect of continuous

and intermittent and the combination of both in her doctoral study.

120 girls students of age 9-12 years were engaged. The students

distributed to four equal groups (three experimental and one control

group). First group ran slow and continuously, second group trained
 36

with intermittent running and third group is the combination of slow

continuous and intermittent running group. The fourth group acts as

control group.

The results of the study were as follows, (1) all the three

methods of endurance training had improved the aerobic performance,

(2) slow continuous running proved to be most effective in developing

aerobic endurance (i.e.,) 8 minutes run/walk test in both the high and

low fat group, (3) combination method was effective in improving

aerobic performance as compared to interval running of low fat group,

(4) training load dominated by intermittent running as being found to

be more effective in developing aerobic performance than that of

combination of slow continuous running and intermittent running of

the high fat group and (5) all the three groups are better than the

control group.

Vaithianathan.,[1988] studied the effects prior to and after

training on selected physical and physiological variables. For this

purpose 70 physically fit and untrained boys were randomly assigned

to one of the two groups: Group I (experimental group) performed

circuit training five days a week for a period of 12 weeks; Group II

(control group) were restricted to participate on any type of the

training programs.

Prior to and at the end of training period all subjects were

tested for muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardio–respiratory

 37

endurance, blood pressure, vital capacity and respiratory rate. The

results of the study indicated that circuit training improved the

efficiency significantly in physical fitness variables such as muscular

strength, muscular endurance and cardio – respiratory endurance and

also physiological variables such as blood pressure, vital capacity and

respiratory rate.

Madanmohan et al., 1992] conducted a study to

determine the effect of yoga training on reaction time, respiratory

endurance and muscle strength. For this investigation they were

selected 27 male medical student volunteers residing in the college

hostel. Their age was 18-21 years; weight 50-69 kg and height 161-

179 cm. The experimental subjects were tested on visual and auditory

times (RTs), maximum expiratory pressure (MEP), maximum

inspiratory pressure (MIP), 40 mmhg. Test, breath- holding time after

expiration (BHT expi.), breath holding time after inspiration (BHT

inspi.) and hand grip strength (HGS). The researchers found out there

was a significant (p<0.001) decrease in visual RT (from 270.0 ± 6.20

(SE) to 224.81 ± 5.76 ms) as well as auditory RT (from 194.18 ±

126.46 ± 10.75 mmhg) while MIP increased from 72.23 ± 6.45 ± 90.92

± 6.03 mmhg, both these changes being statistically significant

(p<0.05). 40mmhg test and HGS increased significantly (p<0.001)

from36.57 ± 83.36 ± 3.95 s and 13.8 ± 0.58 to 16.67 ± 0.47 kg

respectively. BHT exp increased from 63.69 ± 5.38 to 89.07 ± 9.61

 38

(p<0.005). They conducted that yogic practice showed a significant

reduction in visual and auditory RTS and significant increase in

respiratory pressure, breath holding times and HGS.

Sajwan., [1986] compared the effects on cardio respiratory

endurance and related physiological variables caused by jogging and

rope skipping 45 male students aged 14 to 16 years have been

analyzed on the basis of their pre and post test results on cooper’s 12

minutes run/walk, Basal blood pressure, vital capacity, conventional

pulse rate and positive breath holding time. The subjects were

assigned to one of the three groups. Group I jogging for 25-40 minutes

and group II rope skipping for 10 to 25 minutes and group III acted as

control. Both training group improved significantly on cardio

respiratory endurance and other selected physiological variables and

the jogging group is better than rope skipping group in all manner.

Dhayanithi [1991] conducted a study to determine the

effects of continuous running Interval running and the combined

effects on cardio respiratory endurance. For this forty five untrained

boys were divided into three equal groups such as continuous interval

and combined running group consisting of 15 subjects in such each

groups the subjects were trained for six weeks five days in a week the

data per training to the variable from pre test and post-test were

analyzed by correlated mean difference “t” to find out the training

effect and ANOVA was adopted for the competition of the training
 39

effect. He found that (i) all kinds of endurance training caused a

significant improvement in developing cardio respiratory endurance

due to six weeks of endurance work out and (ii) through there was no

significant difference among the training group but a trend towards

the Interval running group was shown.

Gualtiere [1993] trained two groups three days in a week

for seventeen weeks using continuous and tempo training. The

continuous group maintained a heart rate of 175 – 190 for at least 18

minutes. The tempo training group ran short (262 yards), fast

repetition (up to eight) with two or three minutes rest between each.

The tempo group made a significant increase (7.9%) in Vo2 max while

the continuous has a lesser increase (4.9%). It was noted that the

reverse effect for blood volume with the continuous group making the

greater gain. Both groups showed significantly their run times to fairly

equivalent degree.

Hennessy and Watson [1994] in their study compared the

effect of three pre-season training programme on endurance, strength,

power and speed. Subjects were divided into four groups; the

endurance (E) group completed a running endurance programme 4

days per week, the strength (S) group trained 3 days per week. The S

plus E group combined S and E training programs 5 days per week.

The control (C) group did not train. After eight weeks the E and S + E
 40

groups had similar gains in endurance running performance, the S

group had no change while the C group showed a decline. No

strength gains were noted in the C or E groups but strength gains

were made in the S + E and S groups. Power (vertical jump

performance and speed (20 m sprint time) gains were noted only for

the S group. These findings show the training for strength alone

results in gains in strength, power and speed, while maintaining

endurance, S + E training, while producing gains upper body strength

compromises gains in lower body strength and not improve power or

speed.

Uppal and Turidan [1984] studied the comparative effect

of difference frequencies of endurance training on cardio vascular

respiratory endurance. According to their findings the cardio

respiratory endurance of secondary school students could be

effectively improved by administering a progressive programme of

interval training. To bring about significant improvement in cardio

respiratory endurance varied frequencies of training namely, twice,

thrice and five days per week employed. Endurance training workout

using interval running method, administered three and five days a

week were more effective in developing cardio-respiratory endurance

as compared to workouts twice a week.

Ziemenn, et al, [2011] they investigated the aerobic and

anaerobic benefits of high-intensity interval training performed at a

 41

work-to-rest ratio of 1:2 because little performance enhancement data

exist based on this ratio. Recreationally active male volunteers (21

years, 184 cm, 81.5 kg) were randomly assigned to a training (interval

training [IT] (n = 10) or control group (n = 11). Baseline assessments

were repeated after the last training session. Each participant

underwent basic anthropometric assessment and performed a V̇o2max

test on an electronically braked cycle ergometer and a 30-second

Wingate test. Venous samples were acquired at the antecubital vein

and subsequently processed for lactate (LA); samples were obtained at

rest and 5 and 15-minute post-Wingate test. The interval training

used a cycling power output equivalent to 80% of V̇o2max (80% p

V̇o2max) applied for 6 90-second bouts (each followed by 180-second

rest) per session, 3 sessions per week, for 6 weeks. The control group

maintained their normal routine for the 6-week period. Group × time

repeated-measures analyses of variance revealed that IT improved

V̇o2max (5.5 ml·kg−1·min−1), anaerobic threshold (3.8 ml·kg−1·min−1),

work output (12.5 J·kg−1), glycolytic work (11.5 J·kg−1), mean power

(0.3 W·kg−1), peak power (0.4 W·kg−1), and max power (0.4 W·kg−1); p <

0.05. Post testing LA was lower on average for IT at the 5-minute mark

but significantly so at the 15-minute mark. Twenty-seven minutes of

cycling at 80% p V̇o2max applied with a work-to-rest ratio of 1:2 and

spread over 3 sessions per week for 6 weeks provided sufficient

stimulus to significantly improve markers of anaerobic and aerobic

 42

performance in recreationally active college-aged men. Inclusion of

such a protocol into a training program may rapidly restore or improve

a client's or athlete's maximal functional capacity.

Barnard et al. [2000] found the American Heart

Association, American College of Sports Medicine, National Strength

and Conditioning Association and the Surgeon General support the

addition of strength training (ST) to aerobic exercise for optimizing

exercise outcomes. This study evaluated an 8-week combined high-

intensity ST and aerobic exercise program on muscular strength,

muscle soreness or injury and cardiovascular responses in congestive

heart failure (CHF) patients. Twenty-one men with CHF were randomly

assigned to either aerobic training (AT; n = 7) or AT plus ST (ATST; n =

14). Muscular strength, cardiovascular responses and rate of muscle

soreness or injury to 1 repetition maximum (1RM) testing were

measured before and after 8 weeks of training. The ATST group

significantly improved strength in comparison with the AT group, with

an average increase of 26%. No cardiovascular abnormalities, muscle

injury or significant muscle soreness were observed. The addition of a

high-intensity ST program to aerobic training resulted in significant

increases in strength in stable CHF patients with no abnormal

responses.
 43

Baquet, et al., [2010] conducted a study was to show if the

use of continuous-running training vs. intermittent-running training

has comparable or distinct impact on aerobic fitness in children. At

first, children were matched according to their chronological age, their

biological age (secondary sexual stages), and their physical activity or

training status. Then, after randomization 3 groups were composed.

Sixty-three children (X 9.6 ± 1.0 years) were divided into an

intermittent-running training group (ITG, 11 girls and 11 boys), a

continuous-running training group (CTG, 10 girls and 12 boys), and a

control group (CG, 10 girls and 9 boys). Over 7 weeks, ITG and CTG

participated in 3 running sessions per week. Before and after the

training period, they underwent a maximal graded test to determine

peak oxygen uptake (peak V̇o2) and maximal aerobic velocity (MAV).

Intermittent training consisted of short intermittent runs with

repeated exercise and recovery sequences lasting from 5/15 to 30/30

seconds. With respect to continuous training sessions, repeated

exercise sequences lasted from 6′ to 20′. Training-effect threshold for

statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. After training, peak V̇o2

was significantly improved in CTG (+7%, p < 0.001) and ITG (+4.8%, p

< 0.001), whereas no difference occurred for the CG (−1.5%). Similarly,

MAV increased significantly (p < 0.001) in both CTG (+8.7%) and ITG

(+6.4%) with no significant change for CG. Our results demonstrated

that both continuous and intermittent-running sessions induced

 44

significant increase in peak V̇o2 and MAV. Therefore, when adequate

combinations of intensity/duration exercises are offered to pre-

pubertal children, many modalities of exercises can successfully be

used to increase their aerobic fitness. Aerobic running training is often

made up of regular and long-distance running exercises at moderate

velocity.

Mc Manus et al., [1997] which causes sometimes boredom

in young children. During the developmental years, it seems therefore

worthwhile to use various training modalities, to make this activity

more attractive and thus create conditions for progress and enhanced

motivation. They investigated the effects of two, three times a week, 8-

week training programmes on the aerobic power and anaerobic

performance of 30 prepubescent girls, with a mean age of 9.6 y. Peak

oxygen uptake assessed by an incremental discontinuous treadmill

test, and peak power in 5 s and mean power over 30 s estimated from

a Wingate anaerobic test were used as the criterion measures. Twelve

girls trained using a continuous cycle ergometer programme, 11 girls

followed a sprint running programme and the control group consisted

of 7 girls. Both training groups significantly (p < 0.05) increased their

peak oxygen uptake and peak power in 5 s. However, the increases

reported here are lower than those generally observed in adolescents

following training. The control group demonstrated no significant (p >

 45

0.05) change in either variable. No significant (p > 0.05) changes in

mean power over 30 s were observed in any group.

Kendall et al., [2007] found the critical power test provides

to measures, critical power (CP) and anaerobic working capacity

(AWC). In theory, the CP measurement represents the maximal power

output that can be maintained without fatigue, and AWC is an

estimate of work capacity associated with muscle energy reserves.

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been shown to be an

effective training method for improving endurance performance,

including V̇O2PEAK. In addition, creatine (Cr) supplementation has been

reported to improve AWC without training; however, it has shown no

effect on CP. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 4

weeks of HIIT with Cr supplementation on CP and AWC. Forty-two

recreationally active men volunteered to participate in this study.

Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: Cr (n = 16), 10 g

Cr + 10 g dextrose; placebo (PL, n = 16), 20 g dextrose; control (CON, n

= 10), no treatment. Before and after supplementation, each

participant performed a maximal oxygen consumption test (V̇O2PEAK)

on a cycle ergometer to establish peak power output (PPO).

Participants then completed a CP test involving 3 exercise bouts with

the workloads set as a percentage of their PPO to determine CP and

AWC. After a 2-week familiarization period of training and

supplementing, PPO, CP, and AWC were re-measured before an

 46

additional 4 weeks of HIIT and supplementation were completed.

Training consisted of 5 sets of 2-minute exercise bouts with 1 minute

rest in between performed on the cycle ergometer, with intensities

based on PPO. A significant improvement in CP was observed in the

Cr group (6.72% ± 2.54%), whereas PL showed no significant change

(3.87% ± 2.30%), and CON significantly decreased (6.27% ± 2.38%).

Furthermore, no changes in AWC were observed in any of the groups

after treatment. The current findings suggest that Cr supplementation

may enhance the effects of intense interval endurance training on

endurance performance changes.

Granier et al., [1995] investigated the aerobic and

anaerobic contributions to performance during the Wingate test in

sprint and middle-distance runners and whether they were related to

the peak aerobic and anaerobic performances determined by two

commonly used tests: the force-velocity test and an incremental

aerobic exercise test. A group of 14 male competitive runners

participated: 7 sprinters, aged 20.7 (SEM 1.3) years, competing in 50,

100 and 200-m events and 7 middle-distance runners, aged 20.0

(SEM 1.0) years, competing in 800, 1,000 and 1,500 m-events. The

oxygen uptake ( V O2 ) was recorded breath-by-breath during the test

(30 s) and during the first 20 s of recovery. Blood samples for venous

plasma lactate concentrations were drawn at rest before the start of

the test and during the 20-min recovery period. During the Wingate
 47

test mean power ( W ) was determined and three values of mechanical

efficiency, one individual and two arbitrary, 16% and 25%, were used

to calculate the contributions of work by aerobic ( W aer,ind,16%,25% ) and

anaerobic ( W an,ind,16%,25% ) processes. Peak anaerobic power ( W

an,peak) was estimated by the force-velocity test and maximal aerobic

energy expenditure ( W aer,peak) was determined during an incremental

aerobic exercise test. During the Wingate test, the middle-distance

runners had a significantly greater V O2 than the sprinters (P <

0.001), who had significantly greater venous plasma lactate

concentrations (P < 0.001). Moreover, W aer,ind,16%,25% were also

significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the middle-distance runners [ W aer,ind

45 (SEM 4) % vs 28 (SEM 2) %; W aer,16% 30 (SEM 3) % vs 19 (SEM 2)

%; W aer,25% 46 (SEM 3) % vs 29 (SEM 2)%]; W an,ind,16%,25% in the

sprint runners (P < 0.05) [ W an,ind 72 (SEM 3) % vs 55 (SEM 4) %; W

an,16% 81 (SEM 2) % vs 70 (SEM 3) %; W an,25% 71 (SEM 2) % vs 54

(SEM 3) %]. The W aer,ind/ W aer,peak and W × W an,ind/ W an,peak ratios,

however, were not significantly different between the two groups of

athletes. These results would indicate that the sprinters and middle-

distance runners used preferentially a metabolic system according to

their speciality. Nevertheless, under the conditions of its experiment,

they seemed to rely on the same percentage of both peak anaerobic

and peak aerobic performance for a given exercise task.

 48

Fernandez-Fernandez et al., [2012] compared the effects

of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and repeated-sprint training

(RST) on aerobic fitness, tennis-specific endurance, linear and

repeated-sprint ability (RSA) and jumping ability. Thirty-one

competitive male tennis players took part in a training intervention of

6 weeks. The players were matched into 3 groups, HIIT (n = 11), RST

(n = 12), or control group (CON, n = 9). The results showed significant

time × intervention interactions for V̇O2peak, with a significant

increase in the V̇O2peak level of 6.0% in HIIT (p = 0.008) and 4.9% in

RST (p = 0.010), whereas no changes occurred in CON. However, the

following differences were found between the intervention groups: The

HIIT-induced greater improvements in tennis-specific endurance (HIIT

28.9% vs. RST 14.5%; p < 0.05) and RST led to a significant

improvement in RSA (i.e., reduction in the mean sprint time of 3.8%; p

< 0.05). Neither training strategy induced any effects on jumping and

sprinting abilities. Both training interventions showed similar

improvements in general aerobic fitness. Also, the present results

suggest that RST represents a time-efficient stimulus for a

simultaneous improvement of general and tennis-specific aerobic

fitness as well for RSA.

Billat et al., [2001] examined the history of scientific and

empirical interval training. Scientific research has shed some light on

the choice of intensity, work duration and rest periods in so-called

 49

‘interval training’. Interval training involves repeated short to long

bouts of rather high intensity exercise (equal or superior to maximal

lactate steady-state velocity) interspersed with recovery periods (light

exercise or rest). Interval training was first described by Reindell and

Roskamm and was popularised in the 1950s by the Olympic

champion, Emil Zatopek. Since then middle- and long- distance

runners have used this technique to train at velocities close to their

own specific competition velocity. In fact, trainers have used specific

velocities from 800 to 5000m to calibrate interval training without

taking into account physiological markers. However, outside of the

competition season it seems better to refer to the velocities associated

with particular physiological responses in the range from maximal

lactate steady state to the absolute maximal velocity. The range of

velocities used in a race must be taken into consideration, since even

world records are not run at a constant pace.

Laursen et al., [2002] found While the physiological

adaptations that occur following endurance training in previously

sedentary and recreationally active individuals are relatively well

understood, the adaptations to training in already highly trained

endurance athletes remain unclear. While significant improvements in

endurance performance and corresponding physiological markers are

evident following sub-maximal endurance training in sedentary and

recreationally active groups, an additional increase in sub-maximal

 50

training (i.e. volume) in highly trained individuals does not appear to

further enhance either endurance performance or associated

physiological variables [e.g. peak oxygen uptake (O), oxidative enzyme

activity]. It seems that, for athletes who are already trained,

improvements in endurance performance can be achieved only

through high-intensity interval training (HIT). The limited research

which has examined changes in muscle enzyme activity in highly

trained athletes, following HIT, has revealed no change in oxidative or

glycolytic enzyme activity, despite significant improvements in

endurance performance (p < 0.05). Instead, an increase in skeletal

muscle buffering capacity may be one mechanism responsible for an

improvement in endurance performance. Changes in plasma volume,

stroke volume, as well as muscle cation pumps, myoglobin, capillary

density and fibre type characteristics have yet to be investigated in

response to HIT with the highly trained athlete. Information relating to

HIT programme optimization in endurance athletes is also very sparse.

Preliminary work using the velocity at which O is achieved (V) as the

interval intensity, and fractions (50 to 75%) of the time to exhaustion

at V (T) as the interval duration has been successful in eliciting

improvements in performance in long-distance runners. However, V

and T have not been used with cyclists. Instead, HIT programme

optimization research in cyclists has revealed that repeated

supramaximal sprinting may be equally effective as more traditional

 51

HIT programmes for eliciting improvements in endurance

performance. Further examination of the biochemical and

physiological adaptations which accompany different HIT

programmes, as well as investigation into the optimal HIT programme

for eliciting performance enhancements in highly trained athletes is

required.

MacDougall et al., Our purpose was to examine the effects

of sprint interval training on muscle glycolytic and oxidative enzyme

activity and exercise performance. Twelve healthy men (22 ± 2 yr of

age) underwent intense interval training on a cycle ergometer for 7 wk.

Training consisted of 30-s maximum sprint efforts (Wingate protocol)

interspersed by 2–4 min of recovery, performed three times per week.

The program began with four intervals with 4 min of recovery per

session in week 1 and progressed to 10 intervals with 2.5 min of

recovery per session by week 7. Peak power output and total work

over repeated maximal 30-s efforts and maximal oxygen consumption

(V˙o 2 max) were measured before and after the training program. Needle

biopsies were taken from vastus lateralis of nine subjects before and

after the program and assayed for the maximal activity of hexokinase,

total glycogen phosphorylase, phosphofructokinase, lactate

dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, succinate dehydrogenase, malate

dehydrogenase, and 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase.

 52

The training program resulted in significant increases in

peak power output, total work over 30 s, andV˙o 2 max. Maximal

enzyme activity of hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, citrate synthase,

succinate dehydrogenase, and malate dehydrogenase was also

significantly (P < 0.05) higher after training. It was concluded that

relatively brief but intense sprint training can result in an increase in

both glycolytic and oxidative enzyme activity, maximum short-term

power output, and Vo2 max.

Buchheit, et al., [2008] conducted a study was to gather

evidence supporting the accuracy of the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness

Test (30-15IFT) for individualizing interval training of young

intermittent sport players. In 59 young intermittent sport players (age,

16.2 ± 2.3 years), we observed the relationships between the maximal

running speed (MRS) reached at the end of the 30-15IFT (MRS30-15IFT)

and physiological variables elicited by shuttle intermittent runs,

including maximal oxygen uptake, explosive power of lower limbs, and

the ability to repeat intense exercise bouts through cardiorespiratory

recovery kinetics during exercise. To observe the capacity of the 30-

15IFT to prescribe suitable running intensities for interval training

sessions, we compared heart rates (HRs) reached during 3 series of

intermittent runs, where distances were set according to the MRS30-

15IFT and to MRS reached with 2 popular continuous field tests: the

University of Montreal track test and the 20-m shuttle run test. The
 53

results show that the MRS30-15IFT is significantly correlated with all

physiological variables elicited by shuttle intermittent runs (P < 0.05).

Although mean HR were not different among the 3 series of

intermittent runs, HR recorded during the runs based on MRS30-15IFT

presented significantly less inter individual variation than when the

continuously determined MRS were used as reference speeds. In

conclusion, we can say that the 30-15IFT leads to an MRS that

simultaneously takes into account various physiological qualities

elicited when performing shuttle intermittent runs. For scheduling

interval training sessions, the MRS30-15IFT appears to be an accurate

reference speed for getting players with different physiological profiles

to a similar level of cardio respiratory demand and thus for

standardizing training content.

Taylor, David et al., [2007] found an intervention in the

clinical management of individuals with type 2 diabetes is strength

and aerobic training. Limited research has been conducted that

investigates the effect of a supervised strength and aerobic training

program on muscular strength and aerobic capacity in people with

type 2 diabetes. The purpose of this 1-group repeated-measures-

designed study was to investigate the impact of a supervised strength

and aerobic training program on muscular strength and aerobic

capacity in subjects with type 2 diabetes. Thirteen subjects with type

2 diabetes completed the training program. Subjects met the

 54

American Diabetes Association diagnostic criteria for type 2 diabetes.

For each subject, muscular strength (estimated 1 repetition

maximum) and aerobic capacity (estimated maximal oxygen uptake)

were measured before and after a supervised strength and aerobic

training program as well as during a 6-week follow-up. Repeated-

measures analysis of variance was used to compare muscular

strength and aerobic capacity between pretesting, post testing, and

follow-up testing periods. Significant improvements in muscular

strength (p > 0.01) and aerobic capacity (p > 0.01) were found during

post testing and follow-up testing, as compared to pretesting

measures. Yet a significant loss in muscular strength (p > 0.01) and

no significant change in aerobic capacity (p > 0.05) were found during

follow-up testing, as compared to post testing measures. This study

indicates that a supervised strength and aerobic training program can

significantly improve muscular strength and aerobic capacity in

people with type 2 diabetes. Yet improvements in muscular strength

due to training will not be maintained if individuals with type 2

diabetes do not adhere to a continuous training program. In addition,

aerobic capacity can be improved with training, but aerobic capacity

will not continue to improve if people with type 2 diabetes are not

compliant with a continuous training program.

Clark, et al., [2010] examined improvements in cardio

respiratory fitness (V̇o2) after the use of a mixed-intensity interval

 55

endurance-training (MI-ET) program in female soccer players, to

validate the MI-ET program as an appropriate training regimen to

improve cardio respiratory fitness (V̇o2) in soccer players. 32 female

soccer players (average 18.66 ± 0.31 years) were recruited from a

group of currently conditioning local U-19 and college soccer teams

and randomly assigned to participate in an 8-week periodized training

program that involved either the MI-ET program or the continuation of

a current endurance-training (ET) program. Analysis of variance

indicates no differences in V̇o2 values within the group of athletes

before participating in the exercise program. After the 8 weeks of

training, the MI-ET group of athletes had significantly greater average

V̇o2 values (62.13 ± 0.96 ml O2·kg−1·min−1 vs. 57.27 ± 1.59 ml

O2·kg−1·min−1), p = 0.015, along with a greater group average of change

in V̇o2 (12.44 ± 0.92 ml O2·kg−1·min−1 vs. 7.72 ± 0.99 ml O2·kg−1·min−1),

p < 0.001. The MI-ET program is shown to be a valid means to

improve aerobic fitness as indicated by the MI-ET group exhibiting

significantly greater V̇o2 measures after training.

Tanisho, et al., [2009] The purpose of this study was to

examine the effects of 2 different training regimens, continuous (CT)

and interval (IT), on endurance capacity in maximal intermittent

exercise. Eighteen lacrosse players were divided into CT (n = 6), IT (n =

6), and nontraining (n = 6) groups. Both training groups trained for 3

days per week for 15 weeks using bicycle ergometers. Continuous

training performed continuous aerobic training for 20-25 minutes,

 56

and IT performed high-intensity pedaling comprising 10 sets of 10-

second maximal pedaling with 20-second recovery periods. Maximal

anaerobic power, maximal oxygen uptake (V̇o2max), and intermittent

power output were measured before and after the training period. The

intermittent exercise test consisted of a set of ten 10-second maximal

sprints with 40-second intervals. Maximal anaerobic power

significantly increased in IT (p ≤ 0.05), whereas V̇O2max increased in

both training groups (p ≤ 0.05). In the intermittent exercise test, the

average of the total mean power output (1-10 sets) increased in both

training groups (p ≤ 0.05); however, the mean power output in the last

stage (8-10 sets) and fatigability improved only in IT. Consequently,

continuous aerobic training reduced lactate production and increased

the mean power output, but there was little effect on high-power

endurance capacity in maximal intermittent exercise.

In contrast, although lactate production did not decrease,

IT improved fatigability and mean power output in the last stage.

These results indicated that the endurance capacities for maximal

intermittent and continuous exercises were not identical. Ball game

players should therefore improve their endurance capacity with high-

intensity intermittent exercise, and it is insufficient to assess their

capacity with only V̇o2max or continuous exercise tests.

Talanian, et al., [2007] their aim was to examine the

effects of seven high-intensity aerobic interval training (HIIT) sessions

over 2 wk on skeletal muscle fuel content, mitochondrial enzyme

activities, fatty acid transport proteins, peak O2 consumption (V̇o2

 57

peak), and whole body metabolic, hormonal, and cardiovascular

responses to exercise. Eight women (22.1 ± 0.2 yr old, 65.0 ± 2.2 kg

body wt, 2.36 ± 0.24 l/min V̇o2 peak) performed a V̇o2 peak test and a

60-min cycling trial at 60% V̇o2 peak before and after training. Each

session consisted of ten 4-min bouts at 90% V̇o2 peak with 2 min of

rest between intervals. Training increased V̇o2 peak by 13%. After

HIIT, plasma epinephrine and heart rate were lower during the final

30 min of the 60-min cycling trial at ∼60% pre-training V̇o2 peak.

Exercise whole body fat oxidation increased by 36% (from 15.0 ± 2.4

to 20.4 ± 2.5 g) after HIIT. Resting muscle glycogen and triacylglycerol

contents were unaffected by HIIT, but net glycogen use was reduced

during the post-training 60-min cycling trial. HIIT significantly

increased muscle mitochondrial β-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase

(15.44 ± 1.57 and 20.35 ± 1.40 mmol·min−1·kg wet mass−1 before and

after training, respectively) and citrate synthase (24.45 ± 1.89 and

29.31 ± 1.64 mmol·min−1·kg wet mass−1 before and after training,

respectively) maximal activities by 32% and 20%, while cytoplasmic

hormone-sensitive lipase protein content was not significantly

increased. Total muscle plasma membrane fatty acid-binding protein

content increased significantly (25%), whereas fatty acid

translocase/CD36 content was unaffected after HIIT. In summary,

seven sessions of HIIT over 2 wk induced marked increases in whole

body and skeletal muscle capacity for fatty acid oxidation during

exercise in moderately active women.

 58

SUMMARY OF RELATED LITERATURE

To have a clear, comprehensive picture in current status of

aerobic and anaerobic circuit trainings, the research studies

conducted in this area had been reviewed. The investigator had given

thirty-eight research studies which have been conducted very recently

in the area of sports training through various periodicals, journals,

research quarterlies, internet sources, and master and doctoral theses

on physical education and sports sciences. The reviews summarize the

influence of aerobic and anaerobic circuit trainings.