MODULE IV

Sport marketing
Questionnaires and physical evaluation

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 SPORT MARKETING
The sport marketing is a new field of study and therefore it does not involve a body of substantial knowledge when
compared with many another fields of study. The sport marketing is very recent when compared with the other fields
of study like Law, Education, Administration, Medicine or Marketing. The sport marketing isn’t still considered a distinct
academic discipline. The marketing, on the other hand, has been considered an academic discipline for decades.
Consequently, a conclusive theory of sport marketing doesn’t still exist.
The researchers didn’t still reach an agreement regarding to the definition of sport marketing. Some believe that
the activity only involves the sale of sport events. Others adopt a wider approach and they believe that the sport
marketing is the application of the principles from the marketing to any product (goods, services, people, places and
ideas) of the sport industry.
Although sport marketing is a field study in development it doesn’t mean that the marketing has never been used
in the industry of sport. The practices and principles of the marketing were used in many segments of the industry
of sport along the history and they continue being used until today. The professionals of sport marketing use a variety
of study fields. When they are applied to the industry of the sport, the principles of marketing modify according to the
necessity. As strategies and marketing models appear in the industry of sport and researches are published, the body
of knowledge gets more developed.
To understand the evolution of the theory of sport marketing, it is necessary to know the base in which the matter
is built. Such a base is made up of research, foundations, principles and theories. The base of the sport marketing is
constituted basically of four wide fields of study: Sport studies, studies of Companies’ Administration, the studies of
Social Sciences and Communication. Each one of these wide fields of study presents specific or specialized study
areas from which the sport marketing develops its body of knowledge.
The fields Sport Studies, Administration, Communication and Social Sciences serve as a base for the foundations,
principles, theories and researches of sport marketing.
Inside the Sport Studies, the specializations include the Sport Sociology, the Sport Psychology, the Sport Philosophy,
the Administration of Physical Education, Sport Administration, the Administration of Leisure Sport facilities,
Administration, the Studies of Leisure and Ethics in the Sport.
Inside the administration, the specializations include Marketing, Economy, Financial Administration, Administration
Law, Consumer Behavior, Human resources and Administration.
In Communication, the areas include Journalism, Public Relationships, Studies of Media, Propaganda and
Broadcasting.
The areas that compose the Social Sciences include Human Relationships, Studies of Multicultural Topics,
Epidemiologic Studies and Studies of the labor market.

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 As an example of the way the academics and professionals of sport marketing use other fields of the study to develop
the marketing theories, the Social Sciences will be used. The social sciences can contribute via the following ways:

(a) The conceptualization, project and implementation of good researches of the market;
(b) The development of research instruments;
(c) The interpretation of the discoveries incorporating previous and later explanations to the existent bases of
knowledge;
(d) The effective propaganda with basic information, specially regarding the lifestyle characteristics;
(e) The creation of a general base of marketing data (characteristic of the target- market);
(f) The exploration and identification of new markets; and
(g) The introduction of orientation of Social Sciences in the company.

This involves:

The appreciation of the interactive nature of forces of the system in the atmosphere of the marketing and it’s impact
on the consumer’s preferences, with prominence for models, tendencies and their potential impact on the willing of
the consumers to purchase, the cultural differences and their influence on the decisions of the purchase, besides of
the role that the sport carries out in the society in terms of influence of values and attitudes, the formation of likes
and providing models, creating new fashions, etc.
In other words, a part of the theory of the sport marketing to elaborate is the study of the consumer in the industry
of sport. The fields of Social Sciences and Sport Sociology have existed specifically for a long time. The objective of
those fields is to study the human behavior and the relationships between the human beings and society. The Sport
Sociology is the study of the relationships between the human beings and sport and between the sport and society.
Consequently, the existent theories in those fields should be applied to the sport marketing and the sport industry and
they should be used in the development of a theory of the sport marketing.

MARKETING
Marketing is a managerial process that was developed with the growth of the companies. The elements,
functions, principles and marketing theories were developed trough the study of many factors, as the expansion
of the industrial production, the invention of new products, the study of the human behavior (Sociology and
Psychology), epidemiological studies, studies about education and incomes and studies of new and several
markets. As a reaction to these and other factors, an economy was developed moved by the market. The
companies passed to spend more and more attention in the consumers and to study their necessities and
desires.
The concepts of today’s marketing were developed from the concept of simpler marketing for a more complex and
wider one. The marketing comes from the Social Sciences and it is more than a managerial activity. The business
exists in a variety of political, social and economic atmospheres that are always offering opportunities and threats.
The professional of marketing or the sport administrator should be able to recognize and analyze such atmospheres,
determining their effects on their business and making strategic decisions that guarantee the success of the sport
business.
Although the marketing is a managerial function and it should constitute a significant part of any business, the
functions of the marketing should be essential part of each section of the company. The marketing should represent
an effort of the whole company. The companies with the challenge of promoting profitable growth in an atmosphere
of intense competition, the proliferation of products and costs in elevation should make of the marketing a high-priority
function in all their sections.
The concept of marketing is a philosophy related to the way of administering a company. It consists of three
requirements:

1. To analyze the necessities and the desires of people as a base to decide the direction of the business (or economy).
2. To select the best way to assist on the necessities of the target-consumer of the company.
3. To reach the productivity objectives of the organization attending the consumer’s desires in a satisfactory way.

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 In summary, the company has to discover what the consumer wants and provide the product. Although it seems a
rule easy to follow, there are many functions to execute that demand critical analysis and appropriate administration to
make appropriate marketing decisions. It is not easy to identify what somebody wants or needs and then provide the
product. The human being is a complex organism that is affected by a considerable variety of factors. The professional
of the marketing can discover what the consumer wants today, but tomorrow everything can change!
What complicates the task of producing what the consumer wants is the capacity of the company to manufacture
and to offer the product. Consequently, the careful administration and the critical analysis of the functions of the
marketing can increase the opportunities of success of the company. It is essential to incorporate a strategy of
marketing administration.

SPORT MARKETING
The Sport Marketing is the process of elaborating and carrying out production activities, price formation, promotion
and distribution of a sport product to satisfy the necessities or the desires of consumers and to achieve the
personal (or the company) objectives.
The sport marketing became the most important function in a sport business, due to the phenomenal growth of
the industry of the sport that doesn’t give signs of exhaustion. Such a growth produces a bigger and bigger number
of companies and sport products. Each product or sport company means concurrence. In this area, concurrence
means that a sport business competes with another to conquer the consumer’s money. In the managerial sense,
to conquer means to stay in the business in a satisfactory level. The success is defined by the own sport company
and in general it is measured by the achievement of its proposed objectives.
Nowadays, the companies of the sport industry face many concurrents. All sport business should use the sport
marketing as a managerial function, considering that each facet of the company is guided by the concept of sport
marketing. It is the function that guides the sport business to identify the products that the consumers need or
want. It is the function that identifies and analyzes the concurrence and that develops prices strategies. That
develops the promotional strategies regarding the products of the company to attract the consumer. It is the
function that identifies how to take the product to the consumer.

THE MODEL OF ADMINISTRATION OF THE SPORT MARKETING

To market is a process. The process is a continuous cycle. Consequently, the marketing is a function that never
finishes. The pattern of administration of the sport marketing should serve as a guide for the marketing professional
when administering the functions of marketing of the company.

THE MISSION AND THE OBJECTIVES OF THE SPORT COMPANY

The whole business exists for a purpose. Each company fights to be consistent with its purpose to increase its
opportunities of success. The purpose of the company should be stated on its mission. A company offers products
with the intention of executing its mission. Consequently, the mission is the reason of its existence.
All the marketing activities should begin with a clear understanding of the mission and of the current situation of
the company. Guided this way, the professional of sport marketing can make fundamental decisions and elaborate
strategies. The mission should be accompanied by objective of the company. The objectives define specific and
concrete orientation, while the declaration of the mission may be more wide and ambiguous. The objectives should
declare the exact directions that the administration wants for the company. The professional of the marketing should
make decisions to prepare strategies that will manage the company toward the achievement of the declared
objective.

ANALYSIS OF THE SITUATION

An important responsibility of the administration is to analyze the situation of the company regarding its past,
present and future situations. That analysis provides concrete data regarding to where the company was, where
it is now and where it wants to be in the future.

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 The situational analysis can be divided in six areas: (a) the cooperative atmosphere, (b) the competitive atmosphere,
(c) the economic atmosphere, (d) the social atmosphere, (e) the political atmosphere and (f) the legal atmosphere. After
the analysis of all the atmospheres, the professional of sport marketing should determine how each one of them affects
the company and the opportunities and threats that each atmosphere offers to the company.
The cooperative atmosphere. It consists on all the individuals and companies directly involved in the sport
company, in particular those that invested in him. All the employees, executives, investors, salespersons and others
can be included. An analysis of the cooperative atmosphere of the company can include the effectiveness of the
production, quality of the service, the financial analysis, readiness of supplies and materials, distribution lines and
many other factors.
The competitive atmosphere. It involves an analysis of the other companies that are in the same
business. They are the direct concurrents. This analysis involves the study of tendencies and the action of the
company, the financial capacity of the concurrence, marketing tactics, rescues and properties, acquisitions,
development of products and many other factors. In summary, it is necessary to know the concurrence as
well as the own company. A study of the concurrence should include an analysis of offered products, prices,
services, financial capacity, target-market and other factors. It is necessary to compare the concurrents´
situation with the situation of your company to be able to determine likeness and differences and to calculate
the possible impact on your business.
The economic atmosphere. The economical situation can have an impact in the sport company. The
professional of sport marketing should analyze the current economic situation to determine its effect on the
company. It can produce opportunities of success and, on the other hand, the possibility of financial disaster for
the company.
The social atmosphere. The traditions and the cultural and social behaviors can affect your company. The
professional of sport marketing should apprehend the social and cultural structures that the company integrates
and analyze the effects on the company and the effects of the company inside the society.
The political atmosphere. It consists on individuals and organizations determined in establishing tolerance
or no-tolerance inside the public sphere for the specific managerial practices.
The legal atmosphere. It is important that the professional of the sport marketing studies the laws, when
they are applied to specific products or segments of the industry of the sport and how the legislation can be used
to reveal opportunities and threats to the sport business.
The knowledge of those atmospheres will guide the professional of sport marketing in his decisions and formation
of marketing strategies.

SPORT MARKETING RESEARCH AND SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION

OF INFORMATIONS
The data resulting from research of the marketing constitute significant elements for the taken of decisions and
strategies for the composition of the marketing. The research provides vital information in two fundamental areas
of the study of the marketing professional: the consumer and the concurrence.
We live in a world that seems very small mainly because the communication systems are phenomenal. The
quantity of information produced and disseminated through the communication systems is massive. In fact, the last
decade of the XX century was denominated “the computer science decade”. The professional of the marketing
should reach the capacity to manage a research, to obtain information, to analyze the results of the research and
the data obtained, to find out the utility of the information and to make strategic decisions with base in research
and information. Also, the professional of the marketing should have (or create) a system to administer data and
research.
Research of Marketing is defined as the collection, analysis and systematic report of the data to answer
the administrator’s questions with respect to a problem, opportunity or decision of specific marketing. The
professional of sport marketing will need the information obtained from the research to make decisions and
to elaborate relative strategies to each aspect of the company and its marketing plan. The research of the
marketing generally concentrates on a problem. At the same time, it can settle down and maintain great
databases with regard to the specific aspects of the company or from the market consumers and concurrents
of the company.

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 The massive quantity of information demands a sophisticated system of administration of data. Usually, it is called
“system of marketing information”, or SMI. The purpose of the SMI is to obtain, to keep and to recover specific
informations.
A SMI can be simple as a group of indexes or complex as a system of last generation computer. Some of the
decisive factors include the capacity of the company to consolidate a system, the quantity and types of informations
to administer and how the professional of the marketing will need to use the information.

ANALYSIS OF THE SPORT CONSUMER AND OF THE CONCURRENCE

IN THE INDUSTRY OF THE SPORT
The professional of sport marketing needs to know and understand the consumers and potential consumers of his
products and the potential products for the future. He also needs to know and to understand the concurrence and
their potentials. Summoned of this knowledge, the professional of marketing can make strategic decisions for the
company toward the success.
It is phenomenal the group of products in the industry of the sport and there is a great variety of consumers’ groups
for these products. The consumers can be grouped, or segmented, in several ways. The professional of sport
marketing should decide how to segment the existent consumers as well as the potential consumers. The segmentation
should be made in a way to provide the maximum benefit to the company. The professional of the marketing should
always be studying each segment of existent consumers and the potential consumers to have current information
regarding the consumers. This way, the professional of sport marketing will have knowledge to develop new products,
to change existent products, to establish new objectives and to make other strategic decisions for the company.
The data on the consumers should be analyzed together with the information from the concurrence. What
the other companies are making will affect your business. The professional of sport marketing should
continually study and analyze the concurrence to understand what they are making, what they are able to
make and the impact that their action can cause in your business. Having these informations, the professional
of the marketing will have conditions to altering strategies in prosecution, if necessary, and also to formulate
new strategies.

SEGMENTATION OF THE CONSUMER, THE INDUSTRY AND THE PRODUCT

With the informations obtained by the research about the consumers and concurrence in the industry of the sport, the
professional of sport marketing needs to organize them. The first step is the segmentation. The segmentation is the
process of classifying according to characteristics. Two big categories of consumers exist: final consumers and the
industrial consumers (also called managerial consumers). Final Consumers are the individuals that buy for the personal
use. The industrial consumers are, in general, companies that buy products to produce other articles or for resale.
The characteristics of the consumers fall essentially in two wide categories: demographic and psychographic.
The demographic characteristic consists basically on quantitative data, as sex, age, income and race. The
psychographic characteristic involves the psychological characteristics, as favorite color, favorite plate and
emotional health. For example, it can be formed two segments of consumers when the sex is taken as characteristic:
women and men. Any demographic and psychographic number can be used in the creation of any quantity of
segments. For example, if the age and the favorite color are taken as sexual characteristic, more segments can be
formed. In the formulation of this segment, there are necessary other decisions with regard to the age and color.
How will the age be classified and what colors will be identified? For example, the professional of the marketing
can create segments like the following example:

• Sex: feminine
• Age: 21-25
• Favorite color: blue

It is now a segment formed by women among 21 and 25 years whose favorite color is the blue. The sum of other
characteristics can divide the segment in two segments or sub-segments. For example, the women whose favorite
sport is weight training from those whose favorite activity is the aerobics. This creates the following segments:

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 • Segment 1: woman, age 21-25 whose favorite color is the blue and that prefers aerobic class.
• Segment 2: woman, age 21-25 whose favorite color is the blue and that prefers weight training.

Every time a characteristic is added, more segments are created.

The professional of sport marketing uses the segmentation to organize and to administer the information relative
the consumers. Then, the data are used in the taken of strategic decisions regarding the products, prices, distribution
and promotion of the company.
The professional of sport marketing should understand the industry of sport as a whole, the segments of the
industry, the interrelations of the segments, where is inserted his company and the impact of the segments in the
company. That knowledge is important so that he can formulate a strategy.
The segmentation of the product involves the categorization of the products. The marketing professional can use any
method. The more used is the segmentation of the products by function and characteristic. The function of the product
is what the product makes (the function it serves for) for example; somebody wants to learn how to train with weights.
The offered product is the teaching of weigh training. The teaching of weight training can be offered to the consumer in
several ways, as private classes, group classes, a course at the university, videocassette, DVD, books, magazines among
others. The consumer can learn how to weight train by one of the offered products or combining the offered products.
The segment of the product can be called products of the teaching of weight training.

DECISIONS OF THE TARGET- MARKET

The segmentation is used to identify categories, or markets, of consumers and concurrents. It can have many segments.
The marketing professional should guide the company in the determination of the segments that it is able to assist. The
chosen segments are the target-market of the company. The Target-market is a segment of homogeneous consumers,
with power to purchase and disposition to buy. The target-market should constitute the base of all the strategies of the
marketing. It is for the target-market that a product is produced and offered, a specific price is determined, the place to
offer the product is selected and the promotional strategies are formulated.

STRATEGIES OF MIX OF SPORT MARKETING

The composition of the marketing is summarized characteristically in the 4 Ps of the marketing. The 4 Ps is product,
price, point and promotion. The decisions and strategies for each one are important for the marketing professional.
The data for a scientific decision that the 4 Ps involves come from the investigation of the market: what is know
from the consumer’s segments and from the concurrents. A critical decision, and one of the bigger challenges of
the sport marketing professional, is to know how to combine the strategies of the 4 Ps to satisfy the consumer
and to achieve the objectives of the marketing.
Each concurrent inside a market of specific product will make decisions from the mix of the marketing in an effort
to affect its position of the market. The position of the market refers to the way that a company uses its mix of
marketing to influence the consumer’s perception on a product. All that can influence the consumer’s thought about
the quality of the product, the value of the product, the characteristics not found in another similar product, status,
convenience and many other factors.

PRODUCT
The central element of the marketing mix is the product. The product should be understood as concept and not
simply as individual article. The consumer offers functions and benefits and the product is the agent of satisfaction
of these yearnings. The sport product is any goods, service, person, place or devises with tangible or intangible
attributes that satisfy the necessities or the desires of the consumers related to the sport, fitness or recreation.
The product is something that represents a necessity or the consumer’s desire. Price strategies, point and promotion
are elaborated specifically for the product to increase its sales opportunities.
The professional of sport marketing studies the consumer to discover what he/she wants or needs. The result
can already be the development of a new product or the change of an existent product. The professional of sport
marketing also uses the informations from the concurrence when making such decisions.

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 The decisions relating to the products of the company are important for it. The product is the company. Any
change: increase or elimination will have specific effects on it. It is the sport marketing professional’s function
to try to foresee such effects and to implement only the changes with potential for positive results for the
company and for the consumer.

PRICE
The decision of a consumer to purchase is affected by many factors. Among the main factors include: How
much the consumer can pay, if the product obtained with the money has that value, if the consumer believes
to be making “a good business”, the reaction of the friends, the family influences, how the product is compared
to other with similar characteristics and other factors, the guarantee of the product and the extended services.
The decision of establishing the price of a product is very important for the professional of sport marketing,
because the price affects the success of the product, the status quo of the product and the consumer’s
perception of the product. The decision should be based on many factors as: the consumer’s knowledge and
when he will pay the costs of the company to produce and to offer the product, the strategies of financial
realization of the company, the prices of the concurrence, the offer and the demand inside the market of the
product

POINT
The point is where and how a company takes a product from its position of production or origin to a place
where the target-consumer can have access to it. Remember that “products “ include people, places, gender,
services and ideas. Also in the sport industry, the products include people, places, gender, services and ideas.
The point, or distribution, demands a knowledge of the type of the product, which is the best way to take that
product to the consumer, or taking the consumer to the product, efficient and effective distribution channels,
packing and other factors. The analysis will take to the best decisions.

PROMOTION
The promotion is what the general public calls Marketing. It happens because the promotion is what the public
sees. More specifically, the promotions are planned to get the attention of people. The propaganda appears
in the form of TV announcement, commercial and radio announcements, announcements in magazines, in
books, in movies, in videotape rental stores, in outdoors in the highways, in the lateral of bus, trucks and
automobiles, in badges above and at the lateral of buildings, in the sport fields, the gyms, stadiums, and in the
uniforms. In other words, it is everywhere. People are wrapped by the propaganda.
People are attracted for the sport events by promotional special events.
It is not surprising, consequently, that the public in general thinks that the marketing is promotion and that
the promotion is the propaganda. The promotion, however, involves more than to create propagandas and to
elaborate special events. The promotion is the process of promoting. This way, a simple definition of promotion
would be to make people aware of something. The process can involve a series of methods of getting the
attention of somebody in order to tell him something and to inform him about something, or both. To complete,
after getting the person’s attention, the professional of the marketing should maintain it during the enough time
to transmit the message. In general, the message contains information on the product or business. The
marketing professional’s objective when promoting is to motivate the person to buy the product. Consequently,
the message should make three things: first, to get the person’s attention; second, to transmit a message or
to inform the person; and third, to persuade the person to buy the product.
The promotion can be one or more from several promotional methods and strategies. Some examples of
promotional methods are propaganda through mail, special sales during limited time, the special financing,
special services to the client, the use of specific colors in the package of a product or in the product, propaganda
in the local newspaper or in a magazine of national circulation, the outdoors use beside highways for publicity,
and the use of radio and television to announce. The professional of sport marketing can choose one of these
or a combination of this promotional methods and strategies.

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 It is of fundamental importance to use the data of the consumer’s researches and of the concurrence to create
strategies and the promotional message.

STRATEGIES OF MARKETING ADMINISTRACIÓN

The professional of sport marketing should develop a system to administer the process of sport marketing. Such
a system includes the administration, the implementation and the evaluation of all the components of the sport
marketing. The administration involves the determination of objectives for the strategy of sport marketing, the
selection and administration of the sport marketing, the establishment of a financial plan, the settlement and
administration of an organizational structure, the settlement and direction of terms and programming, the
coordination of all the functions of sport marketing, besides of other administrative functions. The implementation
involves the establishment of a system for planning of realization of the strategies of marketing of the sport company.
The evaluation involves establishing a system for the analysis of the marketing strategies to determine if they are
reaching the proposed objectives.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPORT MARKETING PLAN

The strategic planning is good to strengthen the relationships between the sport marketing and other administrative
functional areas of the company. The plan of sport marketing is the action plan written for the company or for an
element (or product) of the company.
The plan contains the objectives of the marketing, the target-market identified, financial strategies and details of
the strategies of marketing mix. A marketing plan can be written for only a specific sport product, a group of
products, a new promotional strategy or for the whole sport company.
The sketch of a plan of sport marketing should contain:

(1) The description of the commercial or sport product,

(2) The objectives of the business; the objectives of the marketing,
(3) The situational status, even the financial situation of the business,
(4) A summary of the consumer’s market research,
(5) A summary of the research from the concurrent market,
(6) The strategies of mix of final sport marketing: product, price, point and promotion,
(7) The detailed action plan of the operation in a specified period of time (example: 2 years),
(8) The method of the evaluation, including deadlines.

The sport marketing plan should not be made in a hurry. It demands time, research and a critical analysis. The
plan should represent the apex of the effort during which it was studied and analyzed each possible task, angle,
financial data, function of the company and product. The final plan should reflect a pondered taken-of-decision and
a formulation of the strategy.

QUESTION FOR THE PROFESIONAL DE SPORT MARKETING

Who?…
…are our consumers?;… consume the concurrent´s products?;… could be our next consumers?
…work for us? …takes the important decisions?
… is our concurrent?
… can influence the economy, the laws, etc.?

What / How much / Which …

…our consumers want? (or do not want); …are willing to pay?
…our company makes? … our company can make?; …our financial situation?
…our concurrent makes? … is their propaganda type?; …is its financial situation?; …are their prices?
…is the future of our economy?; are the laws that affect my company?

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 When…
…the consumer wants the product?; …the consumer can pay?; …will we need to make a propaganda?
…can our company offer a product?; …the company needs to be pay?;
…a propaganda should be made?
…the concurrent offers its products?
…the new laws will begin to have effect?

Where…
…are our actual consumers?; …are our potential consumers?
… is located our company?
.. is located our concurrents?
…the changes of the economy affect with more impact?

Why…
…the consumer wants a product? ...the consumer wants to pay for a certain product?
…does our company offer (or doesn’t offer) that service?
...does the concurrent offer a special service?
... does the economy affect that area more directly?

How / In what…
...can the consumer use that product?; ...can the consumer pay for that product?
... can our company offer a product?; ...does our company track the sale of its products?
...do we compare to the concurrents?; ...are we different?; ...do our concurrents offer the same product?
…it will be the economy in some years?; ...can some change in the law affect my company?

THE MARKETING IN THE FITNESS MARKET

In spite of seemingly generic, the rules and premises that govern the marketing of Fitness or wellness are passing
through countless transformations in the shape and content due to the excess of offers and the uncompromising
concurrence. In a general way the communication in the market of the fitness or wellness follows the orientations of
the graph below:

Graph - The communication in the market of Fitness.

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THE COMMUNICATION PHASES IN THE MARKET OF FITNESS

Offer: All the gyms are promoted for all the publics, with similar appeals, in restricted means.
Positioning: Each gym is promoted a specific public, with the same appeal, in diverse means.
Relationship: The same gym can be promoted to different publics, with specific appeals, in different means.

Figure - The phases of the communication in the market of Fitness.

THE PERSONAL MARKETING

The personal trainer has to know how to use the whole base of the sport marketing in benefit of its own “company“,
that is to say its own image because he also has to sell its work through the image that people have from him. Thus,
besides the whole marketing to promote the product that the personal trainer wants to sell, he has to be attentive to
the way he is seen by people for which he wants to sell his “products “. As the personal trainer is part of the products
that he sells, his presentation can define the success or the lost of a good business.
Who sells health must look health. Who sells longevity has to look longevity. Who sells beauty has to look beauty.
Who sells quality of life must have to live with quality. That is to say, the appearance is of fundamental importance
for the personal trainer.

Gear
It is important to be always very well dressed and with clothes and accessories new and clean. The clothes should
be always impeccable, well ironed, conserved, without signs of stains and should reflect the image that you want
your clients to perceive. The sport clothes of already well-known brands from the fitness market are a good
alternative because they add value to your “product” and they increase the credibility.
The personal trainer should be always concerned with his/her way of dress in all the moments of the day during
period of leisure or at work.
You will hardly ever have a second opportunity to cause a good impression!

Body
Weight: be attentive to the proportionality between weight and height. Try to be in balance. It is fundamental for
your appearance.

Skin
Maintain a healthy appearance. Avoid too much greasy on the skin.

Mouth
Take care of the mouth health. Visit your dentist regularly for preventive treatments. Always conserve the teeth
clean and well treated to have a good smile. Don’t forget that the bad breath interferes negatively in the interpersonal
relationship.

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Hands
Take care of your hands. Well cared hands and fingernail are an important sign of presentation. The fingernails
should always be clean and well done and the hands should be always soft and clean.
Beard and complements: be always well shaved or with the beard and mustache well done. The beard should
be shaved daily. The mustache shouldn’t pass the limit of your mouth.

Hair
Valorize the personal presentation with clean, well cut hair with a good style and well treated.

Deodorant
It should be always with soft aroma or without aroma.
Perfume: it should be soft and it cannot remain in the atmosphere when you live the place. Apply the perfume
in the body, not in the clothes.

Make-up
The use of make-up accentuates your lines and beauties your face, but it should be discreet and soft, respecting
the tonality of the skin.

Smoke
It is expressly prohibited to smoke in the view of the clients. Who is smoker should ALWAYS brush the teeth before
assisting a client. (But don’t forget that the scent that stays in the clothes will reveal it).

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 QUESTIONNAIRES
& PHYSICAL EVALUATION
THE LONGEVITY TEST

A
GENDER
• Men ................................................................................... -5 ................................................................................ o
• Women ............................................................................. +6 ................................................................................ o
AGE
• 0-29 ............................................................................... +10 ................................................................................ o
• 30-54 ............................................................................... +5 ................................................................................ o
• 55-65 .............................................................................. +1 ................................................................................ o
• 66 or over ....................................................................... -10 ................................................................................ o
HEREDITY
• Any grandparent lived to be over 80
(Limit 4) ............................................................................ +1 ................................................................................ o
• Average age all four grandparents lived to:
60-70 ............................................................................... +3 ................................................................................. o
71-80 ............................................................................... +4 ................................................................................ o
Over 80 ........................................................................... +6 ................................................................................ o
FAMILY HISTORY
• Either parent had stroke or
heart attack before age 50............................................. -10 ................................................................................ o
• -2 for a family member (grandparent, parent, sibling) who prior to age 65 has had any of the following:
- Hypertension ..................................................................................................................................................... o
- Cancer ............................................................................................................................................................... o
- Heart disease .................................................................................................................................................... o
- Diabetes ............................................................................................................................................................. o
- Stroke ................................................................................................................................................................. o
- Other genetic disease ......................................................................................................................................... o
SUBTOTAL A =

306
FAMILY ANNUAL INCOME
B
• 0-18.000 .................................................................................... -10 ...................................................................... o
• 18.000-36.000 .............................................................................-5 ...................................................................... o
• 36.000-60.000 ............................................................................ +1 ...................................................................... o
• +1 for each additional $ 10.000 .............................................................................................................................. o
EDUCATION
• Some high school or less ........................................................... -7 ...................................................................... o
• High school graduate ................................................................. +2 ...................................................................... o
• College graduate ........................................................................ +4 ...................................................................... o
• Postgraduate or professional degree ........................................ +6 ...................................................................... o
OTHERS WOULD BEST DESCRIBE YOUR GENERAL MOOD/TEMPERAMENT AS FOLLOWS:
• Calm yet alert ............................................................................ +3....................................................................... o
• Laid-back and passive................................................................. -3 ...................................................................... o
• Angry and easily perturbed or annoyed ................................... -10 ...................................................................... o
OCUPATION (choose one)
• Professional................................................................................ +3 ...................................................................... o
• Self-employed ............................................................................ +3 ...................................................................... o
• In health care field ..................................................................... +2 ...................................................................... o
• Over 65 and working ................................................................. +3 ...................................................................... o
• Clerical or support ...................................................................... -1 ...................................................................... o
• Shift work ................................................................................... ·2 ...................................................................... o
• Unemployed ................................................................................ -3 ...................................................................... o
• Probability of carrier advancement ........................................... + 1 ...................................................................... o
• Regularly in direct contact with pollutants, toxic waste,
chemicals, radiation, or carry a firearm to work ...................... ·1O ...................................................................... o
WHERE YOU LIVE
• Large, congested urban industrial center .................................. -4 ...................................................................... o
• Rural or farm area ..................................................................... +2 ...................................................................... o
• Area with air -pollutions alerts ................................................... -5 ...................................................................... o
• High-crime area........................................................................... -3 ...................................................................... o
• Little or no crime area ............................................................... +2 ...................................................................... o
• Home has tested positive for radon ........................................... -2 ...................................................................... o
DISTANCE FROM A HOSPITAL
• Within 30 miles of major medical/trauma center ........................+ 1 ...................................................................... o
• No major medical/trauma center in the area ............................... -1 ...................................................................... o
TOTAL TIME TO AND FROM WORK
• 0- ½ hour.....................................................................................+ 1 ...................................................................... o
• ½- 1 hour ...................................................................................... 0 ...................................................................... o
• -1 for each ½ hour, over 1 hour ................................................. o
SUBTOTAL B =

307
 C
HEALTH STATUS
PRESENT OVERALL PHYSICAL HEALTH
• Excellent – almost never ill,
fell great most of the time ......................................................... +6 ...................................................................... o
• Good – sick 10 days or less/year,
feel okay most of the time ......................................................... +4 ...................................................................... o
• Fair – sick 11 days or more/year,
feel okay but low energy ............................................................ -2 ...................................................................... o
• Poor – sick 20 days or more/year,
feel average to low energy ....................................................... -1O ...................................................................... o
WHAT IS YOUR BLOOD PRESSURE (if measured within the last year)
• Normal: below 140/90mmHg ...................................................... +3
• Borderline: 140/90 y 160/95 ....................................................... -5
• High (Systolic):
>160 and/or Botton (Diastolic): > 95 ......................................... -10 ...................................................................... o
• Don’t know ................................................................................. - 5 ...................................................................... o
CHOLESTEROL LEVELS
• Low cholesterol (under 200) ..................................................... +5 ...................................................................... o
• Moderate cholesterol (200-240) ................................................. -2 ...................................................................... o
• High cholesterol (over 240) ....................................................... -10 ...................................................................... o
• Don’t know .................................................................................. -5 ...................................................................... o
HDL CHOLESTEROL
• HDL cholesterol 29 or less ....................................................... -10 ...................................................................... o
• 30-45 .......................................................................................... o ...................................................................... o
• Over 45 ...................................................................................... +8 ....................................................................... o
• Don’t know ...................................................................................-5 ...................................................................... o
DIABETES
• Do you or close family member have diabetes?
YES.............................................................................................. -4 ...................................................................... o
NO ................................................................................................ O ....................................................................... o
INSURANCE COVERAGE
• Have comprehensive medical
insurance coverage ................................................................... +2 ...................................................................... o
• Able to use physicians
of your choice ........................................................................... +2 ...................................................................... o
• Insurance limits your physician choices ..................................... -5 ...................................................................... o
• Have no insurance ...................................................................... -7 ...................................................................... o
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TOBACCO (1 pipe= 2 cigarettes; 1 cigar = 3 cigarettes)
• Never smoked ............................................................................ +7 ...................................................................... o
• Quit smoking .............................................................................. +3 ...................................................................... o
• Smoke up to one pack/day ......................................................... -7 ...................................................................... o
• Smoke one to two packs/day ................................................... -1O ...................................................................... o
• Over two packs/day ................................................................ · 20 ...................................................................... o
PACKS-YEARS SMOKED (number of packs smoked/day, times number of years smoked):
• 7-15 ............................................................................................. -5 ...................................................................... o
• 16-25 ......................................................................................... -10 ....................................................................... o
• Over 25 ..................................................................................... -20 ...................................................................... o
ALCOHOL (Daily consumption of 1 beer or 1 glass o wine = 1,25 oz or 40ml of alcohol)
• No alcohol consumption .............................................................. O ...................................................................... o
• 40ml/day or less ........................................................................ +6 ...................................................................... o
• Between 40 ml and 80 ml/day .................................................... -4 ...................................................................... o
• -1 more for each additional 40 ml/day ................................................................................................................... o
EXERCISE (20 min. or more moderate aerobics exercise)
• 5 or more/week......................................................................... +1O ...................................................................... o
• 4 times/week ............................................................................. +6 ...................................................................... o
• 3 times/week ............................................................................. +3 ...................................................................... o
• 2 times/week .............................................................................. +1 ...................................................................... o
• No regular aerobic activity ........................................................ -1O........................................................................ o
HOW MANY FLIGHTS OF STAIRS (OF ABOUT 12 STEPS) DO YOU CLIMB EACH DAY?
• 1-5 ............................................................................................... o ...................................................................... o
• 6-10 .............................................................................................. +1 ....................................................................... o
• Over 1 O ...................................................................................... +3........................................................................ o
WORK REQUIRES REGULAR PHYSICAL EXERTION
• At least two miles walking/day .................................................. +3 ...................................................................... o
• +1 more for each additional mile walked ................................................................................................................ o
• Sedentary work/not much walking or stair climbing .................. -6 ...................................................................... o
AFTER TAKING A BRISK WALK OR A SLOW JOG, DO YOU FEEL ANY OF THESE SYMPTOMS?
• Racing heart, irregular heart beat or chest pain:
YES............................................................................................ -15 ...................................................................... o
NO ................................................................................................ O ...................................................................... o
NOTE: if yes, see your doctor before continuing any exercise program.

• Need more than two pillows to sleep comfortably because of discomfort or breathing
while lying on back: ....................................................................-12 ...................................................................... o
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WEIGHT
• Maintain ideal weight for height ................................................. +5 ...................................................................... o
• 2,5 Kg -5 Kg over ideal ............................................................... -6 ...................................................................... o
• 5 Kg -10 Kg over ideal ............................................................... -10 ...................................................................... o
• 10 Kg -15 Kg over ideal.............................................................. -22 ...................................................................... o
• -1 for each additional 5kg ....................................................................................................................................... o
UNDERWEIGHT
• 2,5 Kg- 5 Kg................................................................................ +5 ...................................................................... o
• 5 Kg – 10 Kg ................................................................................ -5 ...................................................................... o
DETERMINE YOUR WAIST-TO-HIP RATIO AS FOLLOWS:

Measure your waist (W) y and hip (H) in cm;

Divide your W measure by your H measure. W/H=ratio.

WOMEN
• Your ratio is 0.8 or greater ..........................................................-5 ...................................................................... o
• Your ratio is de 0.79 or less ....................................................... +3 ...................................................................... o
MEN
• Your ratio is 0.96 or greater ...................................................... -12 ...................................................................... o
• Your ratio is 0.95 or less ......................................................... + 12 ...................................................................... o
NUTRITION
• Eat a well balanced diet ............................................................. +3 ...................................................................... o
• Don’t eat a well balanced diet ..................................................... -3 ...................................................................... o
• Regularly eat meals at consistent times .................................... +2 ....................................................................... o
• Don’t regularly eat meals at consistent times ............................. -2 ...................................................................... o
• Snack or eat meals late at night ................................................. -2 ...................................................................... o
• Eat a balanced breakfast .......................................................... +2 ...................................................................... o
• Eat fish or poultry as primary protein source
(Almost replacing red meat, once/week or less) ....................... +5 ...................................................................... o
• Eat at least 5 servings of green leafy vegetables/week ........... +3 ...................................................................... o
• Eat at least 5 serving of fresh fruit or juice a day
YES ............................................................................................ +2 ...................................................................... o
NO................................................................................................. -1 ...................................................................... o
• Try to avoid fats ........................................................................ +2 ...................................................................... o
• 50% of your meals consist of fried
take-out foods, pre-packaged or precooked foods
..................................................................................................... - 8 ...................................................................... o
• Eat some food every day that is high in fiber
(Whole-grain bread, fresh fruits and vegetables) ..................... +2 ...................................................................... o
• Do not eat some food every day that is high in fiber.................. -3 ...................................................................... o
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• Take a daily multivitamin or mineral supplement which includes at least the following: Vitamin A/ beta-carotene
(5000 IU), vitamin E (400IU), vitamin B complex (50mg), Zinc (30mg), selenium (100mg) and Vitamin C (500Mg):
YES ........................................................................................... +10 ...................................................................... o
N0 ............................................................................................. -10 ...................................................................... o
• Take calcium supplement
YES ............................................................................................ +3 ...................................................................... o
N0 ............................................................................................... -2 ...................................................................... o
• Do you get colds or other infections more than once every eight weeks?
YES ............................................................................................. -6 ....................................................................... o
NO ................................................................................................ O ...................................................................... o
• Does it take a long time to get over a bad infection?
(for example, do your colds typically last longer than two weeks?)
YES ............................................................................................. -6 ...................................................................... o
NO ................................................................................................ O ...................................................................... o
• Do you need antibiotics three timer/year of more?
YES ............................................................................................. -8 ...................................................................... o
NO ................................................................................................ O ...................................................................... o
• Are your lymph nodes often enlarged?
YES ............................................................................................. -4 ...................................................................... o
NO ................................................................................................ O ...................................................................... o
• Regularly use sunscreen
and avoid excessive sun?.......................................................... + 2 ...................................................................... o
• Subscribe to health-related
periodicals ................................................................................. +2 ...................................................................... o
• Actively involved in a life-extension, prevention
or comprehensive Wellness program ........................................ +5 ...................................................................... o
SUBTOTAL C =

D
ACCIDENT CONTROL
• Always wear a seat-belt as driver and passenger............................................. +6 ................................................................. o
• Don’t always wear a seat belt as driver and passenger ..................................... -6 ................................................................. o
• Never drink and drive or ride with
a driver who has been drinking ............................................................................ +2 ................................................................. o
• - 10 for each arrest for drinking while under
the influence of alcohol in the past 5 years ................................................................................................................................ o
• ¡- 2 for every speeding ticket or accident in the past year ....................................................................................................... o
• - 1 for each 20.000 km per year driven ..................................................................................................................................... o
• Primary car weighs over 1.610 Kg ..................................................................... + 10 ................................................................. o
• Primary car weighs less than 1.610 Kg ................................................................. -5 ................................................................. o
• Motorcycle............................................................................................................... 10
• -2 for every fight or attack you were involved in,
or witness to, in the past 3 years ................................................................................................................................................o
o
• Smoke alarms at home ......................................................................................... + 1 .................................................................
SUBTOTAL D =

311
 E
PREVENTIVE AND THERAPEUTIC MEASURES
• Comprehensive physical exams and blood tests (every 3 to 4 years
before 50, or every 1 to 2 years over 50) .................................. +3 ....................................................................... o
WOMEN:
• Yearly gynaecological exam and Pap smear ............................. +2 ...................................................................... o
• Monthly breast self-exam .......................................................... +2 ...................................................................... o
• Mammogram (35-50, every 3 years;
over 50, every year) .................................................................. +2 ...................................................................... o
• What is your menstrual status?
Still menstruating ....................................................................... +3 ...................................................................... o
Went through natural menopause
at 41 or older............................................................................... +1 ....................................................................... o
Went through natural menopause
at 40 or older ............................................................................. -5 ...................................................................... o
Underwent total hysterectomy
before 41 .................................................................................... -8 ...................................................................... o
Underwent total hysterectomy
at age 41 or older ....................................................................... -4 ...................................................................... o
Postmenopausal and take
oral estrogen supplements ........................................................ +5 ...................................................................... o
MEN:
• Genital self-exam every 3 months .............................................. +1 ....................................................................... o
• Rectal of prostate exam
(yearly after age 30) .................................................................. +2 ...................................................................... o
ALL:
• Rectal exam and tested for hidden blood in stool (Over 40, every 2 years;
over 50, every year) .................................................................. +2 ...................................................................... o
• No rectal exam and test
bay age 50 .................................................................................. -4 ...................................................................... o
• Well –formed bowel movements
1 or 2 times/day without difficulty ............................................. +3 ...................................................................... o
• Constipation and bowel movement
less than once/day ................................................................... -10 ...................................................................... o
• Irritable bowel disorder or other
problems with elimination ........................................................... -7 ...................................................................... o
• Have a suspicious skin lesion that hasn’t healed in six weeks
or that keeps growing .............................................................. -1O ...................................................................... o
SUBTOTAL E =

312
 F
CHANGEABLE PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS
• Married or in long-tem committed relationship........................ + 10 ...................................................................... o
• Not in any long-term relationship ................................................ -6 ...................................................................... o
• Satisfying sex life twice/week or more ..................................... +4 ...................................................................... o
• Unsatisfying sex life .................................................................. -10 ...................................................................... o
• Children under 18 living at home ................................................ +2 ...................................................................... o
• - 1 for each 5 year period living alone..................................................................................................................... o
• No close friends ....................................................................... -10 ...................................................................... o
• + 1 for each close friend (up to 3) ........................................................................................................................... o
• Active membership in a religious community
or volunteer organization ............................................................ +2 ...................................................................... o
• Have a pet .................................................................................. +2 ...................................................................... o
• Regular daily routine (e.g., wake up at 7:00,
o
breakfast at 7:30, etc.) ............................................................... +3 ......................................................................
• No regular daily routine ...............................................................10 ...................................................................... o

HORS OF UNINTERRUPTED SLEEP/NIGHT

• Less than 5 ................................................................................. -5 ...................................................................... o
• 5-8 hours .................................................................................. +5 ...................................................................... o
• 8-10 hours .................................................................................. -7 ...................................................................... o
• No consistent sleep time ............................................................ -5 ...................................................................... o

WORK
• Regular work routine ................................................................. +3 ......................................................................o
• No regular work routine ............................................................. -5 ...................................................................... o
• - 2 for every 5 hours worked over
40 in a week .......................................................................................................................................................... o
VACATION
• Take yearly vacation from work
(at least 6 days) ......................................................................... +5 ...................................................................... o
• No yearly vacation in past two years
(at least 6 days)........................................................................... -5 ...................................................................... o
• Regularly use a stress management technique
o
(yoga, meditation, music, etc.).................................................... +3 ......................................................................
• No stress management program ................................................ -4 ...................................................................... o

SUBTOTAL F =

313
 CHANGEABLE EMOTIONAL STRESS FACTORS

N= Never R= Rarely S= Sometimes A= Always

N R S A

Generally happy -2 -1 +1 +2 o
Have and enjoy time with family and friends -2 -1 +1 +2 o
Feel in control of personal life and carrier -2 -1 +1 +2 o
Live within financial means -2 -1 +1 +2 o
Set goals and look for new challenges -2 -1 +1 +2 o
Participate in creative outlet or hobby -2 -1 +1 +2 o
Have and enjoy leisure time -2 -1 +1 +2 o
Express feelings easily -2 -1 + 1 +2 o
Laugh easily -2 -1 +1 +2 o
Expect good things to happen -2 -1 +1 + 2 o
Anger easily +2 +1 -1 -2 o
Critical of self +2 +1 -1 -2 o
Critical of others +2 +1 -1 -2 o
Lonely, even with others +2 +1 -1 -2 o
Worry about things out of control +2 +1 - -1 -2 o
Regret sacrifices made in life +2 +1 - -1 -2 o
SUBTOTAL =

314
 SUBTOTALS: A After you’ve added all of the subtotals together, divide the
+B grand total by 3 or multiply by 0.333.
+C
+D
/3 X 0,333
+E
SCORE =
+F
This is your score.
GRAND TOTAL =
Follow the chart for the next step.

If age: This final number is your potential is

your potential estimated lifespan.
• (1-30):
How did you do? Did you learn
Age + 30 + (score x 2,0) something about factors in your life that
( x 2,0) might be making you “old before your
time” or that are sapping your youthful
• (31-46): energy, health and vigor? Remember,
there are no “right” or “wrong” answers
Age + 20 + (score x 1,5) to these questions. We’re not suggesting
( x 1,5) that you move to the country or give up
your high-powered job. And a life without
• (47-61): at least some of the “life-stress” elements
we listed would be an empty life indeed!
Age + 10 + (score x 1,2)
The point is not to judge yourself, but
( x 1,2) rather become aware of the things that
may be placing a strain on your system.
• (62-73): Then you can choose which risk factors
or stressors are worth keeping and
Age + 5 + (score x 1.0)
which need to be corrected.
( x 1.0) We now know a great deal about the
physical and emotional conditions for
• (74-84): staying healthy and vigorous well into a
Age + 3 + (score x 0,50) lengthy old age and we hope you have
gained a greater appreciation of how
( x 0,50)
your lifespan can be significantly
extended through the application of some
• (83 ó+):: therapeutic principles. Of course, not all
Age + 1 + (score x 0,20) the factors determining your biological
age, your health, and your lifespan are
( x 0,20)
within your control. But of those that are,
you now have the knowledge you need to
SCORE = make the choices that are right for you.

315
 PERSONAL RECORDS AND WORK PLAN

Name:..................................................................................................

Date of Birth: ....................................................................................

Height: ...............................................................................................

BEGINNING 3 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 9 MONTHS 12 MONTHS

BODY WEIGHT

% FAT

BODY MEASUREMENTS:

NECK

SHOULDER

CHEST (INS.)

CHEST (EXP.)

WAIST

HIP

THIGH

CALF MUSCLE

ARM (BENT)

FOREARM (BENT)

316
 MEDICAL RECORD
FIRST MEDICAL MEDICAL MEDICAL
MEDICAL DATE: DATE: DATE:

Pulse at rest

Blood pressure

Total cholesterol

High density cholesterol

Blood sugar level

Biotype

Red corpuscles

White corpuscles

Prescribed medication

General state of health

NOTE: Our objective is far from getting the personal trainer to act as a doctor or specialist. In fact it is exactly the
opposite. We want he/she to work with the doctor to carry out a more complete and professional job. Nevertheless, we
offer an explanation of each one of the parameters included in the medical record for a better understanding of them.

Pulse at rest: The pulse is the frequency with which our heart beats.
To know the frequency with which our heart beats we just need a watch with a second hand. At rest you
can take the measurement over 20 or 30 seconds and then multiply that by 3 or 2 to obtain the number of
beats you have per minute.
Blood pressure: Blood pressure measures the force which the blood exerts against the walls of the blood
vessels when the heart contacts (systolic pressure) and relaxes (diastolic pressure). Normal values in young adults:

• Systolic (mm. Hg.): 100 - 140

• Diastolic (mm. Hg.): 60 – 90

Total Cholesterol and High Density Cholesterol: The cholesterol that exists in our body is the product, on
the one hand, of cholesterol that our own organism forms and, on the other hand, of that which comes from the
food we eat, particularly those products of animal origin. To be transported in the blood it needs special particles
called lipoproteins. There are several types of these special particles, the most important include: The LDL-lipoprotein
(low density): the cholesterol that joins this lipoprotein is known as LDL-cholesterol or “bad cholesterol” because it
is the one that can be deposited on the walls of the blood vessels. These lipoproteins increase when animal fats,
full fat cheese, cold meats, are eaten.
The HDL-lipoproteins (high density): this lipoprotein clears the blood vessel walls of excess cholesterol, thus
facilitating its release. It is HDL-cholesterol or “good cholesterol”. And they increase with physical exercise and a
diet rich in fibre and low in fat and cholesterol.
Normal values:

Total cholesterol: less than 200 mg/dl

LDL-cholesterol: less than 150 mg/dl
HDL-cholesterol: greater than 35 mg/dl

317
 Blood sugar (or glucose) level: Measures the amount (concentration) of glucose present in the blood. Glucose
is used by tissues as a form of energy. When we consume foods the sugar in the blood increases, which is why we
have insulin, a regulating hormone produced by the pancreas. This hormone is responsible for the glucose in the blood
entering the tissues and being used. When the blood glucose is very low, often during a period of fasting, another
hormone called glycogen is secreted which has the opposite effect and maintains the blood glucose levels in the body.
Normal values: Normal values are between 70 and 105 mg per decilitre ( determined during period of fasting). Values
below 40-50 mg/dl are considered to be low (hypoglycaemia). Values higher than 128 mg/dl are considered to be high
(hyperglycaemia).

Biotype: Body´s gene type. It may be:

• Endomorph: Is the person whose body tends to gain and maintain body fat easily.
• Mesomorph: Has a naturally muscular physique.
• Ectomorph: Has a naturally thin physique.

Red corpuscles ( or red blood cells): Red corpuscles are the blood cells that contain haemoglobin. Red
blood cells are the principal carriers of oxygen to the body´s tissues and cells.
Normal Values:

Adult man: 4.5 to 5 million/ml

Adult woman: 4.2 to 5.2 million/ml

Lower values may be brought about by: changes in diet, different kinds of anaemia, cancer, systematic illnesses,
pregnancy, bone marrow fibrosis, haemorrhages.
Increased values: Cardiac illnesses, chronic lung illnesses, periods of time or training in high altitudes,
polyglobulism.

White corpuscles ( or white blood cells). White corpuscles are cells that are mainly in the blood and they
are responsible for fighting infections or foreign bodies; It is part of the human body´s immune system.
Normal values:

Adult man: 4.5 to 10 million/mm

Adult woman: 4.2 to 10 million/mm3

Low values: (leucopenia) may be caused by: bone marrow problems (tumours, fibrosis, poisoning, etc...), self-
immune diseases (Lupus,etc...), kidney or liver illnesses, exposure to radiation, presence of cytotoxic substances.
Increased values (leucocytosis) can be the result of: tissues damaged by burns, infectious diseases, inflammatory
illnesses ( due to self-immune rheumatics or allergy), stress, leukaemia.

318
 PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT

FLEXIBILITY:

SENSE OF BALANCE:

COORDINATION OF MOVEMENTS:

REACTION TIME (STIMULUS/RESPONSE):

AEROBIC CONDITION:

MUSCULAR FORCE:

VELOCITY (TIME FOR 50 METRES):

PRESS-UPS ON THE FLOOR:

PULL-UPS:

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[email protected]

320