TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

1. Communication can be characterized as Formal, Informal, Inter-personal and Non-verbal

communication:

1. Formal Communication

Formal communication means the communication which travels through the formally
established channels. In other words, communication which travels through the formal chain
of command or lines of hierarchy of authority is called the formal communication. Under it,
information is given through the formally designed channel or network. It is designed, controlled
and regulated by the management.

Advantages of Formal Communication

 It helps in the fixation of responsibility and accountability.
 It helps in maintaining the lines of authority in the organization.
 It helps in maintaining discipline.
 It ensures orderly flow of communication.
Disadvantages of Formal Communication
 It lacks personal contacts and relationship.
 It is time consuming. It takes much time to communicate.
 It creates a bottleneck in the flow of information because almost all information is
channeled through a single executive.
 It obstructs free, smooth and accurate circulation of information in an organization.
Formal communication can be Horizontal, Vertical and Diagonal.
i. Horizontal Communication

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 When communication takes place between two or more
persons of the same level or position of the same
department or other departments of the organization, it is
known as horizontal communication. When the finance
manager communicates with the marketing manager
concerning advertising expenditures, the flow of
communication is horizontal. The objective of horizontal communication is to coordinate the
efforts of different departments or persons.
Advantages of Horizontal Communication
 Coordinating in nature.
 Frequently informal and therefore simpler than vertical communication.
 Reassuring to those in charge of implementing department policy, since it provides them
with the opportunity of checking with each other and comparing notes.
 Expedient in terms of communication time.
Disadvantages of Horizontal Communication
The major disadvantages of horizontal communication are listed as below:
 Department chiefs may remain uninformed about what their division heads are thinking.
 It can have a disuniting effect by fostering clique i.e. grouping among personal at the
same
levels of authority.
 It can distort the purpose of a department policy, and even render it inoperative by
allowing
too much discussion about it.
 It may actually increase misunderstanding among division heads by permitting informal
(verbal) alterations of formal communications.
ii. Vertical Communication
The communication in which information is either transmitted from top to the bottom or from
bottom to the top in structural hierarchy is a vertical communication. In this way, vertical
communication may be of two types as:

a) Downward Communication
When messages are transmitted from superiors to subordinates along with the chain of command,
it is said to be downward communication. It refers to the transmission of information from
superior to subordinates. The most common downward communications are job instruction,
official memos, policy statements, procedures, manuals and company publications.

b) Upward Communication
When messages are transmitted from bottom to top of the organizational hierarchy, it is said to
be upward communication. This provides feedback on the extent of effectiveness of downward
communication. It is also a means of informing the management about the viewpoints, reactions,
feelings and state of employee morale. Widely used upward communication devices include
suggestion boxes, group meetings, report to supervisors and appeal or grievance procedures.
Usually upward communication is utilized in democratic and participative management.

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Effective upward communication channels are important because they provide employees with
opportunities to have a say.
Advantages of Vertical Communication
 It is authoritative and official.
 It is binding to all parties involved.
 It is the most legitimate type of communication.

Disadvantages of Vertical Communication

The major disadvantages of vertical communication are listed as below:
 It is formal and informal.
 It is usually slow-moving, since it must be channeled through several levels of
 authority.
 It may conceal the true motives behind the formal message it carries.

iii. Diagonal Communication

Diagonal communication cuts across departmental lines. Such communication is in between
people who are neither in the same department nor on the same level of organizational structure.
In other words, it refers to interchange of messages between the managers and employees who
are neither in the same department nor on the same level of organizational structure. Diagonal
communication refers to communication between managers and workers located in different
functional divisions. Although both vertical and horizontal communication continue to be
important, these terms no longer adequately capture communication needs and flows in most
modern organizations. The concept of diagonal communication was introduced to capture the
new communication challenges associated with new organizational forms, such as matrix and
project based organizations.

Advantages of Diagonal Communication

 It is the most direct method of communication.
 It is the most selective method of communication.
 It is one of the fastest methods of communication.
 In critical situations, it would seem to be the most essential and logical type of
communication.

Disadvantages of Diagonal Communication

 It can destroy lines of authority and formal chains of command.
 It can leave immediate superiors uninformed of what their subordinates are doing.
 It can lead to conflicting orders so it may lead to further confusion.
 It is usually verbal and thus is untraceable if things go wrong.
2. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Informal communication refers to the communication which takes place on the basis of informal
relations between the members of a group. It is personal communication in nature and not a
positional communication. It does not flow along with the formal lines of authority or formal
chain of command. Even it is not regulated by the formal rules and procedures. Normally,

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members of informal group use this form of communication in order to share their ideas, views,
opinions and other information. There is lack of official instruction for communication. It is not
controlled and designed by formal organizational structure. So, it is not used to communicate
formal message.
advantages of Informal Communication
 It is more flexible.
 It helps to improve decision-making.
 Informal communication is faster in speed than formal communication.
 It works as a powerful and effective tool of communication.
 It may provide feedback to managers on their actions and decisions.

Disadvantages of Informal Communication

 It is difficult to fix responsibility for the information.
 It may cause misunderstanding.
 It carries inaccurate, half-truth or distorted information.
 It is difficult to believe on information.
 It leads to leakage of secret information.
3. INTER-PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Inter-personal communication is the sharing of information between two or more people face-to-
face through any other direct channel. Since communicating parties get face-to-face, so it is two-
way communication. Very simply, manager or supervisors give direction and guidance to their
subordinates in their presence is the common example of inter-personal communication. Inter-
personal communication can be oral or written.

i) Oral Communication

When message is expressed through the words of mouth or spoken words, it is said to be oral
communication. It may take place either through face-to-face conversation or through any
electronic mode such as telephone, cellular phone, intercom etc. In oral communication, source
of message i.e. sender gives the information through oral means i.e. by speaking. This means of
communication is more reliable because sender can get feedback quickly.

Advantages of Oral Communication

 It is quicker and saves in time.
 It establishes a personal touch and leads to better understanding.
 It is economical or less expensive as compared to written communication.
 It is flexible and the messages can be changed to suit the needs and response of the
receiver.

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

 It has the tendency of being distorted.

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 It is less reliable.
 It provides no record for future reference.
 It does not provide sufficient time for thinking before conveying the message.

ii. Written Communication

When message is expressed through written words, it is known as written communication. It may
be expressed even through groups, charts, diagrams, pictures with or without words. In this form
of communication, information is shared to the receiver by writing or drawing. It is the formal
means of communication. Normally, information that should be kept for long time for future
reference, are transmitted by means of written communication.

Advantages of Written Communication

 It tends to be complete, clear, precise and correct.
 It tends to reduce misunderstanding, conflicts and disputes.
 It ensures transmission of information in uniform manager, i.e. everyone concerned has
the same information.
 It ensures little risk of unauthorized alternation in the messages.
 It is taken as a legal evidence by the courts.

Disadvantages of Written Communication

 It is time consuming.
 It is expensive.
 It may be interpreted in a different manner by different people.
 It tends to ineffective and unimpressive in case of poor drafting.
 It fails to provide feedback immediately.

4. Non-Verbal Communication

Communication through postures or gestures of body parts is known as the gestural or non-
gestural or non-verbal communication. It is a mode of communication in which anything other
than words may be used to transmit message from one person to another. In other words, the
communication of information by means of facial expression, body movement, physical contact,
gestures, etc. is called non-verbal communication. It is the communication in which neither
written nor oral means are used. It is often used to encourage the subordinates like shaking
hands, blinking eyes, smiling, clapping etc. It is most powerful means of communication. Good
managers always use this type of communication frequently whenever necessary.

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE SOCIETY

2. Some of the functional pre-requisites of human society are as follows:

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Society is the most important concept used in sociology. It is the first and foremost social group
of human kind. It is as old as human being itself. The very existence of human beings is tied up
with society. When man’s collective life is institutionalized society came into existence.
Different institutions like family, school and state develops on the basis of value system. All
these institutions constitute human society.

But the existence, continuity and preservation of human society requires the fulfillment of certain
basic functional needs and necessities. These needs are necessary for the smooth functioning of
society. These are known as functional pre-requisites of society. If society has to exist these pre-
requisites must be met. However, human society has the following pre- requisites.

(1) The first and basic functional pre-requisites of human society are food, clothing, shelter,
security and defence against the dangers of outer environment. Sufficient provision must be
made for the fulfillment of the above basic needs of man.

(2) Co-ordination of human actions is another functional pre- requisite of human society. Every
human being must perform some acts which will help for the smooth continuation and
functioning of society. There must be some co-ordination among the human beings in
performing different acts. This co-ordination is possible through division of labour.

(3) Division of labour is another functional pre-requisite of human society. Different works of
society is allotted to individuals on the basis of efficiency. Every society has a clear division of
labour among its population on the basis of age, sex and efficiency. It will also lead to progress.

(4) Procreation is another important functional pre-requisite of society. Because this will help in
the continuation of human society, old population must be replaced by new population.
Procreation is the most important means of replacing members.

(5) Socialization is another important functional pre-requisite of society. New members of

society should learn the values beliefs and behavior system to maintain the continuity of society.
By this process a new born human being is socialized in the societal ways.

(6) Social control is another functional pre-requisite of society. This is necessary to maintain and
preserve value oriented behaviors. It exercises some control over individual and direct him to
conform to the societal behavior.

(7) Meaning fullness of a goal in social life is another functional pre-requisite of society.

(8) Co-operation among the members is another functional prerequisite of society. Without co-
operation no society can exist and functions smoothly.

(9) Inter-dependence among the members of society is another functional pre-requisite of

society. Because without interdependence no society can be formed.

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 COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The term communication process refers to the exchange of information (a message) between two
or more people. For communication to succeed, both parties must be able to exchange
information and understand each other. If the flow of information is blocked for some reason or
the parties cannot make themselves understood, then communication
The Sender
The communication process begins with the sender, who is also called
the communicator or source. The sender has some kind of information — a command, request,
question, or idea — that he or she wants to present to others. For that message to be received, the
sender must first encode the message in a form that can be understood, such as by the use of a
common language or industry jargon, and then transmit it.
The Receiver
The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter. To
comprehend the information from the sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the
sender's information and then decode or interpret it.
The Message
The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay to the receiver.
Additional subtext can be conveyed through body language and tone of voice. Put all three
elements together — sender, receiver, and message — and you have the communication process
at its most basic.
The Medium
Also called the channel, the medium is the means by which a message is transmitted. Text
messages, for example, are transmitted through the medium of cell phones.
Feedback
The communication process reaches its final point when the message has been successfully
transmitted, received, and understood. The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating
comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as a written or verbal response, or it may take the
form of an act or deed in response (indirect).
Other Factors
The communication process isn't always so simple or smooth, of course. These elements can
affect how information is transmitted, received, and interpreted:
Noise: This can be any sort of interference that affects the message being sent, received, or
understood. It can be as literal as static over a phone line or radio or as esoteric as
misinterpreting a local custom.
Context: This is the setting and situation in which communication takes place. Like
noise, context can have an impact on the successful exchange of information. It may have a
physical, social, or cultural aspect to it. In a private conversation with a trusted friend, you would

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share more personal information or details about your weekend or vacation, for example, than in
a conversation with a work colleague or in a meeting.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication serves four major functions within a group or organization. These are:
 Control
 Motivation
 Emotional expression
 Information
Let’s discuss these functions one by one
Control
When employees communicate any job-related grievance to their immediate boss, follow their
job description, or comply with company policies, communication is performing a control
function.
Motivation
Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what they must do, how well they
are doing it, and how they can improve if performance is subpar. The formation of specific goals,
feedback on progress toward the goals, and reward for desired behavior all stimulate motivation
and require communication.
Emotional Expression
Communication is a fundamental mechanism by which members of group shows their
satisfaction and frustrations. Communication, therefore, provides for the emotional expression of
feelings and fulfillment of social needs.
Information
Communication provides the information individuals and groups need to make decisions by
transmitting the data needed to identify and evaluate choices. Thus communication helps to
facilitate decision making.

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 Unit -2 COMMUNICATION THEORIES

Father of the Cognitive Theory

Albert Bandura is known as the father of cognitive theory. He was born December 4, 1925 in a
small town in northern Alberta, Canada, located approximately 50 miles from Edmonton.
Bandura’s early education consisted of one small school with only two teachers. In 1949 he
graduated from the University of British Columbia with a degree in Psychology. He received his
Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Iowa in 1952. After he finished his PhD
because of his famous studies and searches Bandura was elected as the president of the American
Psychological Association in 1974. He was also elected as the outstanding lifetime contribution
to Psychology, American Psychological Association in 2004. Among all scholars Bandura was
known as the father of the Cognitive Theory.

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Social learning theory is increasingly cited as an essential component of sustainable natural

resource management and the promotion of desirable behavioural change. This theory is based
on the idea that we learn from our interactions with others in a social context. Separately, by
observing the behaviors of others, people develop similar behaviors. After observing the
behavior of others, people assimilate and imitate that behavior, especially if their observational
experiences are positive ones or include
rewards related to the observed behavior.
According to Bandura, imitation involves the
actual reproduction of observed motor
activities.

SLT has become perhaps the most influential

theory of learning and development. It is rooted
in many of the basic concepts of traditional
learning theory. This theory has often been
called a bridge between behaviorist learning
theories and cognitive learning theories because
it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.

General principles of SLT

The principles of social learning are assumed to operate in the same way throughout life.
Observational learning may take place at any age. Insofar as exposure to new influential,
powerful models who control resources may occur at life stage, new learning through the
modeling process is always possible.

SLT posits that people learn from one another, via:

 Observation;
 Imitation;
and  Modeling

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Based on these general principles, learning can occur without a change in behavior. In other
words, behaviorists say that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior;
while in contrast social learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation
alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Later in his studies
2006 bandura says that “Learning may or may not result in a behavior change”.

Bandura termed this phenomena observational learning and characterized the elements of
effective observational learning as attention, retention, reciprocation and motivation. He
demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors which they have observed in other people.
On this process, he identified three basic models of observational learning:

 A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
 A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
 A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in
books, films, television programs, or online media.

Modeling Process
Bandura mentions four necessary conditions which are needed in modeling process. By
considering these steps, an individual can successfully make the behavior model of someone
else.

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AGENDA SETTING THEORY (MAXWELL MCCOMBS AND DONALD L. SHAW)
The influence of media affects the presentation of the reports and issues made in the news that
affects the public mind. The news reports make it in a way that when a particular news report is
given importance and attention than other news the audience will automatically perceive it as the
most important news and information are given to them. The priorities of which news comes first
and then the next are set by the media according to how people think and how much influence
will it have among the audience.
Agenda setting occurs through a cognitive process known as “accessibility”. Media provides
information which is the most relevant food for thought, portraits the major issues of the society
and reflects people minds.

These are the levels of agenda setting theory:

First Level:
The first level is usually used by the researchers to study media uses and its objectives or the
influences that media creates on people and the most proximal thought that people will have on
the exposure to the information given by media house.

Second level:
At the second level, the media focuses on how people should think about the nature of the issues.
Thus, sensationalization of news reports may happen to bring in the interest of the audience. In
fact, media wants to grab attention and implant thoughts in people minds about some serious
issues. That’s why media turn certain issues viral.

Agenda setting theory is used in a political ad, campaigns, business news, PR (public relation)
etc. The main concept associated with the theory is GATEKEEPING. Gatekeeping is in charge
of and has control of the selection of content discussed in the media. It is assumed that the public
cares mostly about the product of a media gatekeeping. Editors are the main gatekeepers of
media itself. The news media decides ‘what’ events to broadcast and show through the media
‘gates’ on the basis of ‘newsworthiness’.
For e.g.: News Comes from various sources, editors choose what should appear and what
should not that’s why they are called as gatekeepers.

Gatekeepers are the powerful authority who ensure the right material is disseminated to mass.
Because some issues are important to media but not to masses. Also they are much concern on
not to distort peace and public stability.

Priming
The responsibility of the media in proposing the values and standards through which the objects
gain a certain amount of attention can be judged. The media’s content will provide a sufficient
amount of time and space to certain issues, making it more vivid.

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In simple words, the media gives the utmost importance to a certain event such that it gives
people the impression that that particular news is the most important one. This is done on a daily
basis. The selected news report is carried on as a heading or covered regularly for months. For
example, terms such as headlines, special news features, discussions, expert opinions are used.
Media primes news by repeating the news and giving it more importance like, for example,
Nuclear Deal.

Framing
Framing is a process of selective control. It has two meanings.

1. The way in which news content is typically shaped and contextualized within the same
frame of reference.
2. Audience adopts the frames of reference and to see the world in a similar way. This is how
people attach importance to a piece of news and perceive its context within which an issue is
viewed.
Framing deals with how people attach importance to certain news. For example, in the case of an
attack, defeat, win and loss, the media frames the news in such a way that people perceive from a
different angle.

We can take the Kargil War between India and Pakistan as an example. In both the countries, the
news reports were framed in such a way they show their own country in a positive light and the
other in the negative. So depending on which media people have access to, their perception will
differ.

Factors affecting Agenda setting

Gatekeepers, editors and managers and other external influences.
Non-media sources like government officials and influential personnel.
For example, “if the media has close relationship with the elite society, that class will probably
affect the media agenda and the public agenda in turn”.
Criticisms of Agenda setting theory is
 Media users are not ideal. The people may not pay attention to details.
 The effect is weakened for people who have made up their mind.
 Media cannot create problems. They can only alter the level of awareness, priorities,
importance, etc.

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 THE USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
The Uses and Gratification theory discusses the effects of the media on people. It explains how people
use the media for their own need and get satisfied when their needs are fulfilled.
In other words, it can be said that the theory argues what people do with media rather than what media
does to people. Also, this theory is in contradiction to the Magic Bullet theory, which states that the
AUDIENCE IS PASSIVE.
This theory has a user/audience-centered approach. Even for communication, say – interpersonal, people
refer to the media for the topic to discuss among themselves. By referring the media, they gain more
knowledge and exposure to the world beyond their limited eyesight.

There are several needs and gratification for people. They are categorized into five needs.
 Cognitive needs
 Affective needs
 Personal Integrative needs
 Social Integrative needs
 Tension free needs
Cognitive needs:
People use media for acquiring knowledge, information, facts, etc. Among the audience, some
have the thirst to acquire intellectual and academic knowledge. This is not a very common
phenomenon. Different people have different needs. For example, quiz programs on television
give on factual knowledge; to know about current affairs people need to watch the news
regularly; search engines on the internet are also very popular since people can browse for any
topic easily under the run with no time restriction.

Affective needs:
It includes all kinds of emotions, pleasure and moods of the people. People use media; say
television, to satisfy their emotional needs.

The best example would be when people get emotional or sometimes even they cry for a sad
scene while watching the movie/soap opera.

Personal Integrative needs:

This is the self-esteem need. People use media to reassure their status, gain credibility and
stabilize. So people watch television and assure themselves that they have a respectable status in
society. For example, people watch advertisements in the media like jewellery ads, furniture ads,
apparel ads, etc. and buy these products so that they can change their lifestyle. Hence the media
helps them to do so.

Social Integrative needs:

It encompasses the need to socialize with family, friends and relations in society. For social
interaction nowadays, people do not seem to gather socially during weekends instead they have
turned to social networking sites on the internet such as Facebook, Twitter, and Tumblr etc. to
satisfy their needs.

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Another example is people may start watching a particular programme, not because they have
any self-interest, but because their neighbor/friend watches it such that both the parties may have
something in common to discuss.

Tension free needs:

People sometimes use the media as a means to escapism from the real world and to relieve from
tension and stress.

For example, people tend to relax while watching television, listening to the radio, surfing
the internet, etc. In fact, media has the power to grab audience mind since it makes them
feel connected with the situation and characters emotionally.

Note: The needs are specific in nature to the individual and how the media satisfies the need is
subjective. For example, some people may watch the news to relax while others may get tensed
or agitated by the same. The media is the same, but people use it for different needs.

On television, most people watch reality shows nowadays not only its popular, but because of the
following reasons:

 It is more realistic.
 It provides entertainment.
 It is more interesting.
 There are new concepts cropping up every now and then.
 Viewers can participate as well in many ways while sitting at home.
 Controversies are extensively covered.
 Sensationalism brings in more viewers.
Criticism of Uses and gratification theory:
 The uses and gratification theory does not bring into consideration the power of media.
 It is more audience-oriented study.
 Positive point of the uses and gratification theory is it focuses attention on individuals in the
mass communication process.
 It mainly focuses on people’s selectivity on media content rather than its unintended effects
in their minds.
 Researches of this theory conclude the results are subjective rather than objective.

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 MEDIA DEPENDENCY THEORY
Explanation of Theory:
This theory states that the more dependent an individual is on the media for having his or her
needs fulfilled, the more important the media will be to that person.
Theorist: Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur
Date: 1976
Primary Article:
Ball- Rokeach, S. J., & De Fleur, M.L. (1976). A dependency model of mass media effects.

Individual Interpretation:

This theory is based on the Uses and Gratifications Theory and ties into the Agenda Setting
Theory. Uses and Grats identifies how people use and become dependent upon the media.
People use the media for many reasons. Information, entertainment, and parasocial relationships
are just a few of them. The Dependency Theory says the more a person becomes dependent on
the media to fulfill these needs, the media will become more important to that individual. The
media will also have much more influence and power over that individual. If someone is so
dependent on the media for information, and the media is that person’s only source for
information, then it is easy to set the agenda. The individual falls victim to Agenda setting.

Critique: Media Dependency Theory is Relatively Scientific in nature. It predicts a correlation

between media dependence and importance and influence of the media, but each person uses the
media in different ways. Also, the media affects each person in different ways. According to
Chaffee & Berger ‘s 1997 criteria for scientific theories, this theory is a pretty good one.

 It has explanatory power, but more of predictive power because it predicts how
dependency on the media correlates with importance of the media to a certain person.
 It is relatively simple to understand, so it is parsimonious.
 It can be proven false. If a person is not dependent on the media, media will not be of
great importance to that individual.
 It is internally consistent, with meta-theoretical assumptions on the same side of the
continuum.
 It is a springboard to further research, especially so, since it came from other theories.
 It helps to organize and relate other media effect theories.

The Degree of Dependence Is Directly Proportional to:

 Individual: The media have ability to satisfy the audience needs. An individual will become
more dependent on media, if the medium satisfies his/her needs. Otherwise the media
dependence will become less
 Social Stability: The audience reconsider their beliefs, practice and behaviour when strong
social change, conflicts, riot or election which will force to re-evaluate and make new
decisions. During this period media dependency is dramatically increased, because there is a
strong need for information, support and advice
 Active audience: In this communication process, the active audience chooses the media
dependence on their individual needs and other factors such as economic conditions, society

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 and culture. If alternative source fulfils the audience needs, then it will reciprocally decrease
the media dependence
Process of Creating Dependence:
 Media attracts individuals by offering the content which is able to fulfil the audience needs
for understanding, entertainment and information
 There is much difference in the level of strength in Dependence relationship. Cognitive
motivations encourage the individuals to maintain the level of attention and Affective
motivation serves the individuals to enhance the level of satisfaction
 Both Cognitive and Affective motivation are intensifying the audience to higher level of
involvement to enable the information process
Example:
In 2011, Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami hit Eastern Japan very badly. Due to this natural
disaster the whole communication were blocked and others could not know the exact effects of
tsunami in Eastern Japan. During this period, Peoples information needs were dramatically
increased and they were all more depend on media than any other.

Critics of Media Dependency Theory:

 It describes the media role during social changes and crisis
 Theory is more flexible and descriptive
 Power of media dependency is not clearly described
 It’s difficult to prove scientifically or experimentally.

THEORIES OF PERSUASION

History:
In mid-1930’s media scholars found the first theory on Media Effects and the Media Behaviors.
During second world wars media plays a vital role in both United States and Germany to made
influence in the people’s mind. The Germany Hitler’s Nazi used film industry for Propaganda
and they produced lots of movies about their achievements which made a great impact in
Germans mind. Later the United States also used its own Hollywood and produced films like
“It’s Happened one night”, “It’s a wonderful life” and Mr. Smith goes to Washington” to portrait
Germany as Evil force which also made impact in Americans Mind. Here media audience
accepts the messages directly without any rejection.

Theory:
The media (magic gun) fired the message directly into audience head without their own
knowledge. The message causes the instant reaction from the audience mind without any
hesitation is called “Magic Bullet Theory”. The media (needle) injects the message into audience
mind and it cause changes in audience behavior and psyche towards the message. Audience are
passive and they can’t resist the media message is called “Hypodermic Needle Theory”.

Both theories are deals with impact of media messages in audience mind and how audience react
towards the message without any hesitation.

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Example:
In 1930, Newly formed mercury theater and Orson Wells join together and created a fake news
bulletin about aliens invasion in american city called Grover’s Mill, New jersey. They broadcast
this news bulletin in between the radio program called “The War of the Worlds”. The “Panic
Broadcast” was reached merely 12 million American people and one million were seriously
believed. Due to this broadcast the whole country was in chaos.

Study:
The magic bullet theory is based on assumption of human nature and it was not based on any
empirical findings from research. Few media scholars do not accepting this model because it’s
based on assumption rather than any scientific evidence. In 1938, Lazarsfeld and Herta Herzog
testified the hypodermic needle theory in a radio broadcast “The War of the Worlds” (a famous
comic program) by insert a news bulletin which made a widespread reaction and panic among
the American Mass audience. Through this investigation he found the media messages may
affect or may not affect audience.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that intelligence changes as children
grow. A child's cognitive development is not just about acquiring knowledge; the child has to
develop or construct a mental model of the world.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes 4 stages of development.

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
 Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years
 Concrete operational stage: 7 to 11 years
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years)

The first stage is the sensory motor stage, and during this stage the infant focuses on physical
sensations and on learning to co-ordinate his body.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving
around and exploring its environment).
 During the sensorimotor stage a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include:
object permanence; self-recognition (the child realizes that other people are separate from
them); deferred imitation; and representational play.
 They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to
represent the world mentally
 At about 8 months the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will
still exist even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them when they
disappear.

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The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 - 7 Years)
The pre-operational stage is one of Piaget's intellectual development stages. It takes place
between 2 and 7 years. At the beginning of this stage the child does not use operations, so the
thinking is influenced by the way things appear rather than logical reasoning.
A child cannot conserve which means that the child does not understand that quantity remains
the same even if the appearance changes.
Furthermore, the child is egocentric; he assumes that other people see the world as he does. This
has been shown in the three mountains study.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through
language and mental imagery.
 During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability
to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.
 A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not
yet capable of logical (problem solving) type of thought.
 Moreover, the child has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but
cannot include objects in sub-sets, which involves classify objects as belonging to two or
more categories simultaneously
 Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think
that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.

The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 - 11 Years)

By the beginning of the concrete operational stage, the child can use operations (a set of logical
rules) so he can conserve quantities, he realises that people see the world in a different way than
he does (decentring) and he has improved in inclusion tasks. Children still have difficulties with
abstract thinking.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.
 Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although
things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
 During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g. picture a ball of plasticine
returning to its original shape).
 During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel.

The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Over)

The formal operational period begins at about age 11. As adolescents enter this stage, they gain
the ability to think in an abstract manner, the ability to combine and classify items in a more
sophisticated way, and the capacity for higher-order reasoning.

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Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is (not
everyone achieves this stage). This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science
fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning.
Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas: e.g. they can understand division and fractions without
having to actually divide things up. Solve hypothetical (imaginary) problems.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out
on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual
constraints.
 During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to
think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).
 They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific
examples.
 Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if
asked ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour’s time? they could
speculate about many possible consequences.

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 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by
Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social
context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The
unique feature of SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and
internal social reinforcement. SCT considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and
maintain behavior, while also considering the social environment in which individuals perform
the behavior. The theory takes into account a person's past experiences, which factor into
whether behavioral action will occur. These past experiences influences reinforcements,
expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape whether a person will engage in a specific
behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that behavior.Many theories of behavior used
in health promotion do not consider maintenance of behavior, but rather focus on initiating
behavior. This is unfortunate as maintenance of behavior, and not just initiation of behavior, is
the true goal in public health. The goal of SCT is to explain how people regulate their behavior
through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over
time. The first five constructs were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy
was added when the theory evolved into SCT.

1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the dynamic
and reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned experiences),
environment (external social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve
goals).
2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a behavior
through essential knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a
person must know what to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of
their behavior, which also affects the environment in which they live.
3. Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior
conducted by others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often exhibited through
"modeling" of behaviors. If individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior, they
can also complete the behavior successfully.
4. Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's behavior
that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior. Reinforcements can
be self-initiated or in the environment, and reinforcements can be positive or negative.
This is the construct of SCT that most closely ties to the reciprocal relationship between
behavior and environment.
5. Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior.
Outcome expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the
consequences of their actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated
consequences can influence successful completion of the behavior. Expectations derive
largely from previous experience. While expectancies also derive from previous
experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on the outcome and are
subjective to the individual.
6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to
successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories have

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 added this construct at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior. Self-efficacy is
influenced by a person's specific capabilities and other individual factors, as well as by
environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).

Unit – 3 Normative theories – Authoritarian theory (Gulf), Libertarian theory (America, U.K.),
Social responsibility theory (India), Soviet media theory (Russia), Democratic participant media
theory (Third World Countries).

INTRODUCTION

Media systems around the world operate under different normative theories, each with its own
set of principles guiding the role and purpose of media within society. These theories offer
valuable insights into how media functions, its relationship with the government, its
responsibilities to the public, and its impact on democracy and social cohesion. In this essay, we
will delve into five prominent normative theories of media: Authoritarian Theory,
Libertarian Theory, Social Responsibility Theory, Soviet Media Theory, and
Democratic Participant Media Theory. Through examining these theories, we aim to
understand the diverse purposes and study objectives associated with each.

Authoritarian Theory

Authoritarian Theory, prevalent in regions like the Gulf, emphasizes government control over
media content and dissemination. The study purpose of this theory lies in analyzing mechanisms
employed by authoritarian regimes to suppress dissent, control narratives, and shape public
opinion. By understanding this theory, scholars can delve into the implications for freedom of
speech, press freedom, and human rights within such media environments. Through studying
Authoritarian Theory, researchers seek insights into how media operates under regimes where
dissent is often silenced, and information is tightly controlled to maintain state authority.

Example: The Indian government's crackdown on dissenting voices during the farmer
protests, including arrests and intimidation of journalists critical of government policies.

Libertarian Theory

Contrary to Authoritarian Theory, Libertarian Theory, commonly observed in countries like the
United States and the United Kingdom, advocates for a free press as essential to democracy. The
study purpose of Libertarian Theory involves examining the role of media as a watchdog,
providing checks and balances on government power. By understanding this theory, scholars aim
to explore the principles of press freedom, independence, and pluralism in liberal democracies.
Through studying Libertarian Theory, researchers seek insights into how media operates as a
pillar of democracy, fostering transparency, accountability, and informed citizenry.

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Example: Investigative journalism by outlets like The Wire exposing corruption scandals,
such as the Rafale deal controversy, highlighting media's role as a watchdog.

Social Responsibility Theory

Social Responsibility Theory, exemplified in countries like India, posits that media serves as a
public trustee with an obligation to serve the public interest. The study purpose of this theory
revolves around exploring the role of media in promoting social cohesion, democracy, and
ethical journalism. By understanding this theory, scholars aim to analyze the responsibilities of
media professionals in upholding democratic values and fostering informed citizenry. Through
studying Social Responsibility Theory, researchers seek insights into how media operates as a
force for social good, balancing commercial interests with public service obligations.

Example: Media campaigns supporting the #MeToo movement in India, providing a platform for
survivors to share experiences and raising awareness about gender-based violence.

Soviet Media Theory

Soviet Media Theory, prevalent in Russia and other former socialist states, underscores the role
of media in propagating state ideology and maintaining government authority. The study purpose
of this theory involves understanding media within the context of state-controlled socialist
systems. By studying Soviet Media Theory, scholars aim to analyze the role of media in shaping
public opinion, controlling narratives, and suppressing dissent. Through studying Soviet Media
Theory, researchers seek insights into the tensions between media as a tool for propaganda and
its potential for expressing dissent within a controlled framework.

Example: Government-controlled narratives surrounding the abrogation of Article 370 in

Jammu and Kashmir, portraying it as a move towards development while downplaying
dissenting voices.

Democratic Participant Media Theory

Democratic Participant Media Theory, relevant in many third-world countries, focuses on

media's role in fostering civic engagement, participatory democracy, and social change. The
study purpose of this theory lies in examining media systems in developing nations striving for
democratic governance. By understanding this theory, scholars aim to analyze the challenges
faced by media in balancing diverse interests, promoting inclusivity, and navigating political
transitions. Through studying Democratic Participant Media Theory, researchers seek insights
into how media operates as a catalyst for social and political transformation, amplifying
marginalized voices and facilitating citizen participation.

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Example: Grassroots media initiatives like Dalit Camera amplifying voices from
marginalized communities, highlighting issues of caste-based discrimination and social
justice.

Conclusion

Normative theories of media provide invaluable frameworks for understanding the diverse roles
and purposes of media in different societal contexts. Through examining theories such as
Authoritarian Theory, Libertarian Theory, Social Responsibility Theory, Soviet Media Theory,
and Democratic Participant Media Theory, scholars gain insights into the complex interplay
between media, government, and society. By studying these theories, researchers can contribute
to informed discussions on media regulation, ethics, and the role of journalism in promoting
democracy and social justice worldwide.

Harold D. Lasswell’s Model

Harold D. Lasswell, an American political scientist, introduced a seminal model of

communication in 1948. Lasswell's model is succinctly summarized as "who says what in which
channel to whom with what effect," encapsulating the essential elements of the communication
process. This model remains influential in the field of communication studies due to its
simplicity and applicability across various contexts.

At its core, Lasswell's model breaks down communication into five key components:

 Who: This refers to the sender or communicator, the individual or entity initiating the
communication process.

 Says What: It pertains to the message being conveyed, the content, information, or ideas
transmitted by the sender.

 In Which Channel: This denotes the medium or channel through which the message is
transmitted, whether it's verbal, written, visual, or electronic.

 To Whom: This represents the audience or receiver, the individuals or group intended to
receive and interpret the message.

 With What Effect: This concerns the impact or outcome of the communication process on
the audience, including changes in attitude, behavior, or understanding.

 Now, let's delve into a practical example to illustrate Lasswell's model in action:

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Practical Example: Political Campaign Speech

 Imagine a scenario where a political candidate is delivering a speech during an election

campaign. Here's how Lasswell's model applies:

 Who: The political candidate serves as the sender or communicator in this scenario. Their
identity, credibility, and delivery style significantly influence the effectiveness of the
communication.

 Says What: The content of the speech constitutes the "what" in Lasswell's model. It
includes the candidate's policy proposals, promises, rhetoric, and vision for the future.

 In Which Channel: The speech may be delivered through various channels, such as live
rallies, televised debates, social media platforms, or traditional print media.

 To Whom: The audience comprises voters, constituents, or members of the public

targeted by the political candidate's communication efforts. Their demographics, values,
and existing beliefs shape how they interpret the message.

 With What Effect: The ultimate goal of the political campaign speech is to influence the
audience's perception, attitude, and voting behavior. The effect may vary, ranging from
rallying supporters to swaying undecided voters or reinforcing existing allegiances.

By analyzing this example through Lasswell's model, we gain a comprehensive understanding of

the communication dynamics inherent in political campaigns. It underscores the strategic
considerations involved in crafting messages, selecting appropriate channels, and targeting
specific audiences to achieve desired effects.

In conclusion, Harold D. Lasswell's model provides a foundational framework for analyzing

communication processes across diverse contexts, from interpersonal interactions to mass media
campaigns. Its simplicity and flexibility make it a valuable tool for researchers, practitioners, and
students seeking to unravel the complexities of human communication.

SHANNON AND WEAVER’S MODEL

In 1948, mathematician Claude Shannon and engineer Warren Weaver introduced a

groundbreaking model of communication that revolutionized the understanding of information
transmission. Shannon and Weaver's model, often referred to as the "mathematical theory of

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communication," provides a systematic framework for analyzing the process of communication,
particularly in the context of telecommunications and information theory. This model lays the
foundation for modern communication systems and has profound implications across various
fields, including technology, media, and interpersonal interactions.

At its core, Shannon and Weaver's model conceptualizes communication as a process of

transmitting information from a sender to a receiver through a channel, while accounting for
factors that may introduce noise or distortion along the way. Let's explore each component of the
model and its practical implications through an illustrative example:

Practical Example: Telephone Conversation

Imagine a simple telephone conversation between two individuals, Alice and Bob, separated by a
considerable distance. Here's how Shannon and Weaver's model applies:

 Information Source: In this scenario, Alice serves as the information source, generating
thoughts, ideas, or messages that she intends to convey to Bob during the conversation.
These messages could range from casual conversation topics to important updates or
personal news.

 Transmitter: The transmitter refers to the device or mechanism responsible for encoding
the information into a transmittable format. In this case, Alice's telephone handset serves
as the transmitter, converting her spoken words into electrical signals suitable for
transmission over telephone lines.

 Channel: The channel represents the medium through which the encoded message travels
from the transmitter to the receiver. In traditional telephone systems, this channel
comprises physical wires or wireless signals that facilitate the transmission of electrical
impulses carrying Alice's voice.

 Receiver: Bob, the intended recipient of the message, acts as the receiver in this
communication process. His telephone handset decodes the electrical signals received
through the channel, converting them back into audible sound waves that he can perceive
and understand.

 Destination: Once the message reaches Bob, he becomes the destination or ultimate
recipient of the information. He interprets the message based on its content and context,
gaining insight into Alice's thoughts, emotions, or intentions as conveyed through the
conversation.

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  Noise: In any communication process, noise refers to factors that interfere with the
transmission or reception of the message, potentially causing distortion or loss of
information. In the case of the telephone conversation, noise could manifest as static,
background noise, or technical glitches that degrade the clarity of Alice's voice as
perceived by Bob.

 Feedback: Feedback plays a crucial role in closing the communication loop by allowing
the receiver to respond or react to the sender's message. In this example, Bob's verbal
responses, such as acknowledgments, questions, or comments, serve as feedback to Alice,
indicating his comprehension and engagement with the conversation.

By applying Shannon and Weaver's model to the scenario of a telephone conversation, we gain a
deeper understanding of the intricate dynamics involved in communication processes. This
model elucidates the roles of senders, receivers, channels, and noise in shaping the transmission
and reception of information, highlighting the challenges and opportunities inherent in human
communication.

OSGOOD AND SCHRAMM’S MODEL

Osgood and Schramm's model of communication, developed in the mid-20th century, offers a
holistic framework that emphasizes the interactive and dynamic nature of the communication
process. Building upon earlier models, such as Shannon and Weaver's, Osgood and Schramm
introduced the concept of "field of experience," suggesting that individuals interpret messages
based on their unique perspectives, cultural backgrounds, and previous experiences. Let's explore
this model and its practical implications through an illustrative example:

Practical Example: Cross-Cultural Business Negotiation

Imagine a scenario where two business executives, one from the United States and the other from
Japan, engage in negotiations to establish a partnership between their companies. Here's how
Osgood and Schramm's model applies:

 Sender and Receiver: The American executive serves as the sender, conveying proposals,
terms, and expectations to the Japanese executive, who acts as the receiver.
 Each executive brings their own cultural context, communication style, and business
norms to the negotiation table, shaping how they encode and decode messages.
 Message: The message encompasses various elements, including verbal communication
(spoken words, proposals) and non-verbal cues (body language, gestures).
 Each executive's message may reflect their cultural values, priorities, and negotiation
tactics, influencing how it is perceived by the other party.
 Channel: The negotiation takes place through face-to-face meetings, email exchanges,
and video conferences, representing different communication channels.
 Cultural nuances and language barriers may affect the effectiveness of these channels,
requiring sensitivity and adaptation from both parties.

26
  Field of Experience: Both executives interpret the negotiation process through the lens of
their respective cultural backgrounds, business practices, and personal experiences.
 Differences in communication styles, decision-making processes, and attitudes toward
risk may lead to misunderstandings or conflicts during the negotiation.
 Feedback: Throughout the negotiation, both executives provide feedback through verbal
responses, clarifications, and reactions to each other's proposals.

Effective communication relies on active listening, empathy, and mutual understanding to

address concerns and build rapport.

By applying Osgood and Schramm's model to the cross-cultural business negotiation example,
we gain insights into the complexities of communication dynamics, particularly in intercultural
contexts. This model underscores the importance of considering individuals' diverse backgrounds
and perspectives in shaping how messages are transmitted, received, and interpreted.

BOLTON AND CLEAVER’S MODEL

Bolton and Cleaver's model of communication focuses on interpersonal relationships and the role
of social cues in facilitating effective communication. This model highlights factors such as trust,
empathy, and non-verbal behavior in shaping the quality of interactions. Let's explore this model
and its practical implications through an illustrative example:

Practical Example: Job Interview

Imagine a scenario where a job candidate, Sarah, participates in an interview for a position at a
reputable company. Here's how Bolton and Cleaver's model applies:

 Sender and Receiver: Sarah, the job candidate, serves as the sender, conveying
information about her qualifications, skills, and experiences to the interviewer, who acts
as the receiver.
 The interviewer assesses Sarah's suitability for the role based on her communication
style, demeanor, and responses to interview questions.
 Message: The message encompasses both verbal communication (answers to interview
questions, explanations) and non-verbal cues (eye contact, facial expressions, posture).
 Sarah's message aims to demonstrate her competence, professionalism, and enthusiasm
for the position, influencing the interviewer's perception of her candidacy.
 Channel: The interview takes place face-to-face, allowing for real-time interaction and
observation of social cues.
 Non-verbal communication, such as Sarah's body language and tone of voice, conveys
additional information beyond her verbal responses.
 Feedback: Throughout the interview, the interviewer provides feedback through verbal
acknowledgments, follow-up questions, and observations of Sarah's behavior.

Effective communication involves active listening and responsiveness from both parties,
fostering engagement and rapport.

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By applying Bolton and Cleaver's model to the job interview example, we recognize the
importance of non-verbal communication and social cues in interpersonal interactions. This
model emphasizes the role of trust, empathy, and mutual understanding in building positive
relationships and facilitating effective communication in various contexts.

Theodore M. Newcomb’s Model: Understanding Communication in Social Settings

Theodore M. Newcomb's model of communication focuses on the dynamics of social

relationships and group interactions, emphasizing the role of interpersonal influence and group
cohesion in shaping communication patterns. Newcomb's model highlights the
interconnectedness between individuals' attitudes, behaviors, and social contexts, offering
insights into how communication processes unfold within groups. Let's explore this model and
its practical implications through an illustrative example:

Practical Example: Team Collaboration in a Workplace

Imagine a scenario where a team of professionals collaborates on a project in a corporate setting.

Here's how Theodore M. Newcomb's model applies:

 Individual Attitudes and Beliefs: Each team member brings their own attitudes, beliefs,
and perspectives to the collaboration, shaped by their personal experiences, values, and
professional expertise.
 These individual attitudes may influence how team members approach the project, make
decisions, and interact with one another.
 Social Context and Group Dynamics: The team operates within a social context
characterized by organizational norms, team dynamics, and hierarchical structures.
 Group cohesion, leadership styles, and communication norms play a significant role in
shaping the collaborative process and influencing individual behaviors.
 Interpersonal Influence and Communication Patterns: Communication within the team
involves sharing ideas, exchanging feedback, and coordinating tasks to achieve common
goals.
 Interpersonal influence mechanisms, such as persuasion, consensus-building, and social
comparison, shape communication patterns and decision-making processes among team
members.
 Group Cohesion and Social Identity: As the project progresses, the team develops a sense
of cohesion and shared identity, bolstered by common goals, shared experiences, and
mutual support.
 Group cohesion fosters cooperation, trust, and effective communication, enhancing the
team's ability to overcome challenges and achieve success.

By applying Theodore M. Newcomb's model to the team collaboration example, we gain insights
into the interplay between individual attitudes, group dynamics, and communication processes in
social settings. This model underscores the importance of understanding the social context and
interpersonal relationships within groups to facilitate effective collaboration and achieve
collective goals.

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 BERLO’S MODEL

David K. Berlo's model of communication focuses on the factors influencing the effectiveness of
communication processes, including the sender, message, channel, receiver, and feedback.
Berlo's model emphasizes the importance of encoding and decoding in transmitting meaning
accurately and highlights the role of feedback in ensuring mutual understanding. Let's explore
this model and its practical implications through an illustrative example:

Practical Example: Classroom Lecture

Imagine a scenario where a professor delivers a lecture to a class of students in a university

setting. Here's how Berlo's model applies:

 Sender: The professor serves as the sender, conveying information, concepts, and insights
to the students during the lecture.
 The professor's credibility, expertise, and delivery style influence the effectiveness of
communication and students' receptiveness to the message.
 Message: The message comprises the content of the lecture, including key concepts,
explanations, and examples presented by the professor.
 Clarity, organization, and relevance of the message impact students' comprehension and
retention of the material.
 Channel: The lecture takes place in a classroom setting, with the professor delivering the
message verbally while utilizing visual aids such as slides or whiteboards.
 The choice of channel affects the accessibility and engagement of the message, catering
to diverse learning styles and preferences among students.
 Receiver: The students act as the receivers of the message, processing and interpreting
the information presented by the professor.
 Individual differences in prior knowledge, attention span, and cognitive abilities
influence how students perceive and understand the lecture content.
 Feedback: Throughout the lecture, students provide feedback through verbal responses,
questions, and non-verbal cues such as nodding or facial expressions.

Feedback allows the professor to gauge students' understanding, address misconceptions, and
adjust the delivery of the message accordingly.

By applying Berlo's model to the classroom lecture example, we recognize the multifaceted
nature of communication and the factors contributing to its effectiveness. This model highlights
the importance of considering the sender, message, channel, receiver, and feedback in designing
and delivering communicative interactions to facilitate learning and knowledge transfer in
educational settings.

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 DANCE’S HELICAL MODEL

Dance's Helical Model of communication, proposed by Frank Dance, challenges the linear
perspective of traditional communication models by emphasizing the dynamic and cyclical
nature of communication processes. Unlike linear models that depict communication as a linear
progression from sender to receiver, Dance's Helical Model suggests that communication unfolds
in a continuous spiral, with each interaction building upon previous ones and leading to new
understandings. Let's explore this model and its practical implications through an illustrative
example:

Practical Example: Interpersonal Relationship Development

Consider a scenario where two individuals, Alex and Jamie, meet for the first time at a social
gathering. Here's how Dance's Helical Model applies:

 Initiation Stage: The interaction begins with the initiation stage, where Alex and Jamie
exchange greetings and engage in small talk.
 This initial encounter sets the foundation for future communication interactions and
establishes a baseline for their relationship.
 Experimentation Stage: As Alex and Jamie continue to interact, they engage in
experimentation, gradually revealing more about themselves and testing the waters of
their compatibility.
 They may share personal stories, interests, and opinions, seeking common ground and
mutual understanding.
 Intensification Stage: Over time, Alex and Jamie's relationship deepens as they develop a
stronger emotional connection and sense of trust.
 They may express affection, support, and vulnerability, fostering intimacy and closeness
in their interactions.
 Integration Stage: In the integration stage, Alex and Jamie's relationship becomes more
stable and intertwined, with shared experiences, routines, and mutual commitments.
 They may develop rituals, traditions, and shared goals that reinforce their bond and
define their identity as a couple.
 Bonding Stage: Finally, Alex and Jamie reach the bonding stage, where their relationship
is solidified through formal commitments, such as marriage or long-term partnership.

They may publicly declare their love and commitment to each other, symbolizing their enduring
connection and shared future.

Through Dance's Helical Model, we see how communication processes in interpersonal

relationships evolve over time, progressing through distinct stages of development. This model
highlights the cyclical nature of communication, where each interaction informs and shapes
subsequent ones, leading to deeper understanding and connection between individuals.

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 KITE CO-ORIENTATION MODEL

The Kite Co-Orientation Model, developed by Kite and Associates, focuses on interpersonal
communication within dyads or groups, emphasizing the importance of mutual understanding
and shared perspectives in fostering effective communication. This model suggests that
successful communication relies on alignment between individuals' perceptions, attitudes, and
goals, leading to co-orientation and coherence in their interactions. Let's explore this model and
its practical implications through an illustrative example:

Practical Example: Conflict Resolution in a Team Setting

Imagine a scenario where a team of colleagues encounters a conflict during a project meeting.
Here's how the Kite Co-Orientation Model applies:

 Perception Alignment: The conflict arises due to differing perceptions and interpretations
of the project goals, deadlines, and responsibilities among team members.
 To resolve the conflict, team members engage in open dialogue and active listening,
striving to understand each other's perspectives and concerns.
 Attitude Alignment: As the discussion progresses, team members work towards aligning
their attitudes and values regarding the project objectives and desired outcomes.
 They identify common ground and shared priorities, acknowledging the importance of
collaboration and teamwork in achieving success.
 Goal Alignment: Through collaborative problem-solving and negotiation, team members
reconcile their individual goals and aspirations with the collective goals of the team.
 They establish clear expectations, roles, and action plans to address the conflict and move
forward with a shared sense of purpose and direction.
 Mutual Understanding and Co-orientation: By achieving alignment in perceptions,
attitudes, and goals, team members foster mutual understanding and co-orientation in
their communication.
 They demonstrate empathy, trust, and respect for each other's perspectives, laying the
foundation for effective collaboration and synergy within the team.
 Conflict Resolution and Coherence: Ultimately, the conflict is resolved through
constructive dialogue and compromise, leading to a resolution that reflects the collective
interests and aspirations of the team.

Team members emerge from the conflict resolution process with renewed cohesion,
commitment, and clarity, ready to tackle future challenges together.

Through the Kite Co-Orientation Model, we see how effective communication within teams
involves aligning perceptions, attitudes, and goals to achieve mutual understanding and
coherence. This model underscores the importance of empathy, collaboration, and shared
purpose in fostering positive interpersonal relationships and driving collective success.

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 POWERFUL MODEL THEORY

The Powerful Model Theory, also known as the Hypodermic Needle Model or Bullet Theory,
was one of the earliest theories of mass communication. It suggests that media messages are
powerful and have a direct, uniform impact on individuals' attitudes and behaviors. According to
this theory, audiences are seen as passive recipients of media content, and exposure to persuasive
messages can lead to predictable and immediate effects. The metaphorical imagery of a "needle"
or "bullet" implies that media messages penetrate individuals' minds, shaping their beliefs and
behaviors without their awareness or resistance.

One practical example of the Powerful Model Theory can be seen in the historical context of
mass media during the early to mid-20th century. At that time, radio and television emerged as
dominant forms of communication, reaching large audiences with unprecedented speed and
scale. Scholars and policymakers expressed concerns about the potential negative effects of mass
media, particularly regarding the influence of violent or propagandistic content on public opinion
and social behavior.

For instance, during World War II, governments used mass media as a powerful tool for
propaganda, aiming to rally support for the war effort and shape public perceptions of the enemy.
The widespread dissemination of propaganda films, radio broadcasts, and posters was believed to
have a significant impact on shaping citizens' attitudes, morale, and patriotism.

However, while the Powerful Model Theory may hold some validity in specific contexts,
contemporary research has challenged its assumptions and limitations. Studies in media effects
have demonstrated that individuals are not passive recipients of media messages but actively
engage with and interpret media content based on their existing beliefs, values, and social
contexts. Furthermore, the rise of digital media and interactive technologies has empowered
audiences to select, customize, and even create their own media content, blurring the distinction
between sender and receiver in the communication process.

In conclusion, while the Powerful Model Theory offers valuable insights into the potential
influence of mass media on individuals and society, it is essential to recognize its limitations and
complexities in understanding contemporary communication dynamics. By critically examining
media effects within the broader context of social, cultural, and technological factors, researchers
can develop more nuanced theories and models that capture the intricacies of communication in
the digital age.

Example: Television commercials influencing consumer preferences and purchasing decisions.

SYSTEM THEORY

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System Theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding communication as a
complex, interconnected system composed of multiple elements and processes. Developed by
scholars such as Niklas Luhmann and Bertalanffy, System Theory posits that communication
occurs within dynamic systems characterized by interdependence, feedback loops, and emergent
properties. In this view, communication is not just a linear exchange of messages between
senders and receivers but a holistic process shaped by various factors and interactions within the
system.

At the heart of System Theory is the concept of a system, which refers to a set of interconnected
elements that work together to achieve specific goals or functions. These elements can include
individuals, groups, organizations, technologies, and cultural norms, all of which interact and
influence each other within the broader communication system. Moreover, System Theory
emphasizes the importance of feedback mechanisms, which allow for information to be
circulated back into the system, enabling self-regulation and adaptation over time.

A practical example of System Theory can be observed in the analysis of social media platforms
as communication systems. Social media platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram,
consist of interconnected users, content, algorithms, and interface designs that collectively shape
the communication experience. Users generate content, interact with each other, and provide
feedback through likes, shares, and comments, influencing the flow of information within the
system. Meanwhile, platform algorithms analyze user data and preferences to personalize content
recommendations and optimize user engagement.

By applying System Theory to the study of social media platforms, researchers can gain insights
into the complex dynamics of online communication, including issues related to information
diffusion, echo chambers, and algorithmic bias. Moreover, System Theory highlights the
interconnectedness between digital communication systems and broader social, cultural, and
political contexts, underscoring the need for interdisciplinary approaches to understanding and
addressing communication challenges in the digital age.

In conclusion, System Theory offers a valuable framework for analyzing communication

processes as dynamic, interconnected systems shaped by various elements and interactions. By
adopting a systemic perspective, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the complex
dynamics of communication in contemporary society and develop strategies for promoting more
effective, ethical, and inclusive communication practices.

Example: Social media platforms as dynamic systems where users interact and provide
feedback through likes and comments.

CONVERGENCE THEORY

Convergence Theory explores the phenomenon of media convergence, wherein distinct forms of
media, such as television, radio, print, and digital platforms, merge or converge into a single
medium. This theory posits that advancements in technology and changes in consumer behavior
are driving convergence, blurring the boundaries between traditional and digital media and
reshaping communication practices. Convergence Theory suggests that media convergence is not

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only a technological shift but also a cultural and economic transformation that impacts how
information is produced, distributed, and consumed.

One practical example of Convergence Theory can be seen in the evolution of journalism in the
digital age. Traditionally, journalism relied on distinct media platforms, such as newspapers,
radio, and television, each with its own production processes, audiences, and revenue models.
However, with the advent of digital technologies and the internet, news organizations have
embraced convergence by integrating multiple platforms into their news production and
distribution strategies.

For instance, many newspapers have launched digital editions and mobile apps to reach online
audiences and deliver news in real-time. Likewise, broadcast news outlets have expanded their
online presence through websites, podcasts, and social media channels, enabling users to access
news content across multiple devices and platforms. Moreover, the rise of citizen journalism and
user-generated content has further accelerated convergence, blurring the lines between
professional and amateur news production.

By adopting a convergence approach, news organizations can leverage the strengths of various
media platforms to enhance audience engagement, promote multimedia storytelling, and adapt to
changing consumer preferences. However, convergence also presents challenges, including
issues related to media ownership concentration, platform monopolies, and digital inequality.
Moreover, convergence raises questions about the future of journalism ethics, standards, and
practices in an increasingly fragmented and decentralized media landscape.

In conclusion, Convergence Theory provides a valuable framework for understanding the

ongoing transformation of media systems in the digital age. By examining how different media
platforms converge and interact within broader sociocultural and economic contexts, researchers
can gain insights into the complexities of contemporary media environments and develop
strategies for promoting media diversity, accessibility, and accountability.

Example: Multimedia journalism integrating newspapers, websites, and social media for
news distribution.

NEW MEDIA THEORY

New Media Theory explores the impact of digital technologies on communication practices,
social interactions, and cultural production in the digital age. This theory examines how the
internet, social media, mobile technologies, and other digital platforms have transformed the way
information is created, disseminated, and consumed. New Media Theory emphasizes the
interactive, participatory, and networked nature of digital communication, challenging traditional
notions of media consumption and audience engagement.

One key concept in New Media Theory is the notion of remediation, which refers to the process
by which new media technologies borrow, repurpose, and transform elements of older media
forms. For example, social media platforms like Facebook and Instagram incorporate features of

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traditional media, such as text, images, and videos, while introducing new functionalities, such as
likes, shares, and comments, that enable users to interact with content in real-time.

Moreover, New Media Theory highlights the democratizing potential of digital technologies,
allowing individuals and communities to produce and distribute their own media content,
bypassing traditional gatekeepers and intermediaries. This participatory culture fosters creativity,
collaboration, and grassroots activism, enabling marginalized voices to be heard and amplified
on a global scale.

Example: Citizen journalism on social media platforms enabling individuals to report and
share news content globally.

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