Social and Professional Ethics

Unit 1: Human Value: Definition, essence, features and sources, Sources and
classification, Hierarchy of values, Values across culture

The term ‘ethics’ is drives from the Greek word ‘ethos’ which means character. Ethics
are the principles of conduct governing an individual or a group. Ethics concerns
attempts to distinguish ‘right’ from ‘wrong’, ‘good’ from ‘bad’ and constitution of
desirable conduct in a particular set of social circumstances.

Human Values: Concept & Importance

Role of family, society and educational institutions in inculcating values

Human values: Values are beliefs that have an inherent worth in usefulness or
importance to the holder," or "principles, standards, or qualities reflected worthwhile
or desirable.” Values institute an important characteristic of self-concept and serve as
supervisory principles for person. In literature, it is documented that values are so
indissolubly woven into human language, thought and behaviour patterns that they
have fascinated philosophers for millennia. Yet they have proved so "quick-silvery"
and complex that, despite their decisive role in human motivation, we remain
desperately ignorant of the laws that govern them. (Toffler, 1969). Scott and
Kluckhohn described value as a conception: explicit or implicit of desirable which
influences the selection from available modes, means and end of action (1951).

Rokeach impacted with this idea and stated that value is abstract ideals, positive or
negative, not tied to any specific object, or situation, representing a person’s belief
about modes of conduct and ideal terminal goal. It can be represented that values are
global beliefs that transcendentally guide actions and judgements across specific
objects and situation (Rokeach, 1968). According to Rokeach, Rokeach (1969), value
are type of belief that is “centrally located within one’s total belief system, about how
one ought or ought not to behave” (p. 124). On the contrary, Feather (1975) criticizes
Rokeach on equating values. He claimed that values are not “neutral”; they are held
with a slight degree of feeling. Feather (1975) continued to criticize Rokeach by
arguing that values may be classified as prescriptive or proscriptive beliefs rather than
as a descriptive or evaluative belief.

Human values are necessity in today’s society and business world. Human values are
the features that guide people to take into account the human element when one
interacts with other human. They have many positive characters that create bonds of
humanity between people and thus have value for all human beings. They are strong
positive feelings for the human essence of the other. These human values have the
effect of bonding, comforting, reassuring and procuring serenity. Human values are
the basis for any practical life within society. They build space for a drive, a
movement towards one another, which leads to peace. In simple term, human values
are described as universal and are shared by all human beings, whatever their religion,
their nationality, their culture, and their personal history. By nature, they persuade
consideration for others.
 Common human values are as under:

1. Brotherhood, friendship, empathy, compassion, and love.

2. Openness, listening, welcoming, acceptance, recognition, and appreciation.
3. Honesty, fairness, loyalty, sharing, and solidarity.
4. Civility, respect, and consideration.

The function of these basic values enable every human to realize or maintain highest
or human value for establishing relations of peace and yet it remains indefinable. Its
understanding varies according to age (child, teen, adult), to one’s education and
surrounding culture. It is better assumed when combined with other values: a
disposition that is deeper than graciousness, very close to consideration, and
approaching appreciation. Truly, to respect someone, one must be able to appreciate
some of his/her human qualities, even if one does not appreciate his/her opinions or
past behaviour.

Several universal human values such as Truth, Righteous conduct, Peace, Love and
Non- violence are directly associated to physical, intellectual, emotional psyche and
spiritual facets of human personality. There is need and urgency to reinforce these
values for a better and humane society. These are described below:

It is the procedure to work jointly to attain some goal, but many scholars
visualize co-operation as a luxury and not an important human value. It is
unquestionably one of the most vital assets one can have when working
through a problem. Having the opinions and voice of another person will not
only draw out a discussion of the topic, but also lead person to good
solution. Co-operation has been under-appreciated for years in its
Co-
importance and should be held in high regard. Caring: This human value is
operation
viewed as exhibiting kindness and concern for others, the true importance of
this value comes from the work or practice of looking after those unable to
care for themselves. Caring for others both physically and spiritually is an
extremely important value to have; people will always rely on someone else
for help at one point or another, but we often fail to realize how much of a
difference caring for another person can make.
Honesty is also vital human values. Presently, adopting an honest approach
can often feel intimidating and impossible, but people fail to realize is that it
is not the act of simply telling the truth that makes someone honest rather the
Honesty
quality of person who is being honest. An honest person is often straight,
upright, sincere and fair and being an honest person brings more reward to
the soul than the damage a lie could do.
The presence of love in human life, the love they have for their families,
Love friends, our faith and for themselves is important source of energy to lead
smooth life.
Respect is a feeling of deep esteem for someone or something elicited by
Respect
their abilities, qualities, or achievements.
Faith Faith is complete trust or confidence in someone or something.
 Beauty is something that has really been spoiled by human society. The way
we think about something that is beautiful is judged on a purely physical
response, but the true meaning of beauty is being in balance and harmony
with nature. Many researchers would argue that beauty is not a human value
Beauty and, although beauty is a subjective experience, when they analyse what a
subject of beauty is, it becomes anything that resonates with personal
meaning, not just emotion. The prominence of this Human Value is clear
when people think about the things that bring meaning into their life such as
family and friends, these things become beautiful in a greater sense.
Trust can be understood in many ways, but finally it comes down to
Trust
reliability and truth. Without trust, the world simply would not function.
As a human value, integrity is imperative that people stand spiritually
Integrity undivided and hold true to our integrity, the importance of which is often
forgotten.
Wisdom is also significant human value in many ways; under-appreciated in
its importance, in its value in our lives and in its true meaning. Wisdom is
Wisdom also very often confused with words like knowledge or intelligence but the
word wisdom is defined as the quality of having experience and good
judgment and the resulting soundness of that action or decision.

A value system is a continuing organization of beliefs concerning preferable modes of

conduct along a continuum of importance. Therefore, the importance of different
values co-varies with the importance of others in the value system.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic value:

An intrinsic value is a value that one has of itself, independently of other things,
including its context. An extrinsic value is a property that depends on a thing’s
relationship with other things. Extrinsic value is the value, which depends on how
much it generates intrinsic value.

The reason that things have extrinsic value is because they themselves lead to
happiness or pleasure or they lead to a series of other things that eventually lead to
happiness. Pleasure (Intrinsic Value) is the ultimate end to which all things of
extrinsic value are the means.

Need of human values:

Value education is always essential to shape one’s life and to give one an opportunity
of performing on the global stage. The need for value education among the parents,
children, teachers etc, is constantly increasing as we continue to witness increasing
violent activities, behavioral disorders and lack of unity in the society etc. Value
education enables us to understand our needs and visualize our goals correctly and
also indicate the direction for their fulfilment. It also helps remove our confusions and
contradictions and enables us to rightly utilize the technological innovations.
 There are different views that call urgent need to inculcate human values in Indian
society. Numerous traditional values which have been inherited from past remain
valid and true to be adapted by future citizens but many fresh values to match
confronting problems in emerging Indian culture. Presently, negative human values
are in upper side. It may be because of neglect of value education which created
vagueness and indiscipline in the mind of people (Satya Pal Ruhela, 1996).

Assumption of Nature of human values (Satya Pal Ruhela, 1996):

1. The total number of values that person possesses is not very large.
2. Moore stated that all person everywhere possesses the same values though the
degree may differ.
3. Values are the standards and guidelines for one’s life influenced by experience,
desire and specific situations.
4. The anticipants of human life can be traced to culture, society and its institutions.
Values differ in extent because of the difference in culture.
5. Values are organized into value systems. A value system is an enduring
organization of beliefs concerning preferable mode of conduct or end state of
existence along a continuum of relative importance (Rokeach, 1973).
6. Values as standards direct one’s way of life and value system guides to make
general plans when the conflict arises.
7. Values serve in the form of expression given to human needs and as guide to make
decisions in various ways (Satya Pal Ruhela, 1996).
Role of family and society in teaching values:

Bulk of literature have shown that the family and society plays a significant role in
shaping moral values of child. There is a strong bonding between the parents and
children, which determines the personality of child. Family is the basis on which
values are built.

Moral values such as truthfulness, happiness, peace, justice are inculcated in

children’s thoughts, feelings and actions and they function as ideals and standards that
govern their actions in their life. The value system practiced in the family becomes
automatic to the young family members if they are taught moral values thoroughly.
The family has a great responsibility to pass on to the children many truths and
values, and competencies to accomplish their place in life, whatever the society,
whatever the culture or times. The eternal values of Truth, Right Conduct, Peace,
Love and Harmlessness (Non-Violence) are transmitted on first through the family.
Mothers are the first teachers. Mother is foundational, central, life-bringer and life-
shaper. From their mothers, children acquire self-knowledge, self-confidence, learn
self-satisfaction, self-worth, the capacity for self-sacrifice.

The family, forms the child’s viewpoint towards people and society, and helps in
mental development in the child and supports his desires and values. Delightful and
joyful atmosphere in the family will develop the love, affection, tolerance, and
generosity. A child learns his behaviour by demonstrating what he sees around him.
Family also contribute significantly in helping a child socialize and has great
influence and bearing on the progress of the child. In joint family system, the presence
of elders in the family plays an effective role in social and moral development of the
children. It will also aid young generation of the family to develop human values and
eliminate their negative mental tendencies when they are among elders.

Children recognize themselves with their parents, other family elders and espouse
them as their personal models for emulation and imitation. The behavioural problems
are set correct only by the involvement of family in the child’s life as they spend most
of their time in adolescence with the parents. Family is the first social organisation
that provides the immediate closeness from which the child can learn his behaviour.

Social standards and customs demarcated by a family provide the emotional and
physical basis for a child. Values developed by a family are the groundwork for how
children learn, grow and function in the world. These principles, transmits the way of
life a child lives and changes into an individual in a culture. These values and morals
guides the individual every time in his actions. Children turn out to be a good person
because of the value taught and given by his family members. Philosophies passed
down from generation to generation make up a family values. Customs and Traditions
followed and taught by the family leads a disciplined and organized life.

Families values helps the child to stand strong on his views regardless of others
efforts to break through with opposing views. A child has a strong sense of what is
right and wrong and are less likely to become sufferers of deviant influences.
Role of educational institutions in inculcating values:

Value education is important to help everyone in improving the value system that
he/she holds and puts it to use. Once, one has understood his/ her values in life he/she
can examine and control the various choices he/she makes in his/ her life. Many
reports signify that the aim of educational institutions should not only be to teach
education alone but should also be to inculcate values and improving skills of children
and teens.

Education as important driver to enhance value

In school, children are affiliates of a small society that exerts a great influence on their
moral development. Teachers serve as role model to students in school. They play a
major role in inculcating their ethical behaviour (Satya Pal Ruhela, 1996).

Peers at school diffuse confidence about cheating, lying, stealing, and consideration
for others. Though there are rules and regulations, the educational institutions pervade
the value education to the children in an informal way. They play a key role in
developing ethical behaviour in children.

General Steps are as under:

Accountability: The children should be exhilarated to be accountable for their own
actions and should learn to respect and treat others kindly.

Role model: The teachers are the first role model to the children outside their family.
When the children see the model showing concern for others, motivating them for
their good deeds and cooperating and helpful with their academic issues, the children
learn them by observing and imitate it with fellow peers. Helping: The children are
taught basic morals and values in school. They should be taught by emphasizing the
idea through many activities, stories and tales, which will encourage them to engage
in more helping behaviours.

Appreciation: The teacher should appreciate the children for developing pro-social
behaviour, especially for any specific action they have done to help others. It is
appraised that human values enhances person’s life but in present scenario, these
values are deteriorated in several countries. This trend of weakening in human values
does not only pose serious threat to the future course of development of the nation but
even for its survival, respect and authority itself. However, change in social/human
values in younger group is unavoidable with time but the decline in Indian youth
group is at disturbing rate as compared to other country around the globe. It devolves
on the parents, teachers and society to imbibe the desired human values in young age
group (Gandhi K. K., 1993).

To summarize, values are bridge between individual and social. Individual holds
value but others influence the formation of those values (Kenneth Fleischmann,
2013). In philosophical frameworks, values are those standards or code for conduct
conditioned by one's cultural doctrines and guided by conscience, according to which
human being is supposed to conduct himself and shape his life patterns by integrating
his beliefs, ideas and attitudes to realize cherished ideas and aims of life (Gupta,
1986). Families, groups and societies tend to share common values (Kenneth
Fleischmann, 2013). Family has been regarded as cornerstone of society. It forms a
basic unit of social organisation (Goel, 2008).

Nature of Values:

From the definitions of ‘VALUE’, certain most important things regarding

values are noted. These are:

1. Values are not feelings, but they are concepts.

2. Values are express feelings but they are more than feelings.

3. Values exist in the mind, and, are independent of public affirmation.

4. Values are absolute but they are dimensional. That is, values are a criteria for
judging the degree of goodness of badness, Tightness or wrongness.

5. Values are concepts heavily weighted with emotions and influence the child’s
selection from variable modes, means and ends of action.

6. Values are primarily, ethical, social and subjective. Therefore, they are strong
dispositions of human behaviour than concepts with less heavy emotional weightage.
7. Values are based on respect for human dignity. They assume that personal integrity
is the nucleus around which ethical community and global stewardship resolve.

8. Values are the very essence of human life.

9. Values are essential for a fair and equitable community which reflects our respect
as well as responsibility for the global environment.

10. Values are cross-cultural and are essential for the development of community and
global citizenship.

11. Values are that in which people are interested.

12. Values are the things of worship.

13. Value is the product of feeling, set and action.

14. Values are the product of human spirit and not of intellect.

15. Values never change. It is only the perceptions of these that undergo changes as a
result of ever-evolving human consciousness.

16. Values act as forceful tools for the cultivation of social good.

17. Values are caught through literature.

18. Value is a motivating force behind the individual’s thought, emotion and action.

19. Values are integrated into personality and many times they act as barriers to the
acceptance of new change or innovations.

20. Every value is reflected in a person’s reactions.

21. Values influence every aspect of educational process.

Once again there is a temptation to quote Kothari Commission and Sri Prakasha
Commission on Religions and Moral Instruction, which is stated as below —

“Every effort must be made therefore to teach students true moral values from
the earliest stage of their educational life”.

Types of Values:
I. Ultimate Values:

Value statements that identify the significance of certain ideas, experiences and
activities to us, are the ultimate values. These go beyond mere statements of
intellectual belief to the extent that they represent the beliefs that affect our decision
on how to live.

Human beings tend to rank their values in a rough order of priority, in accordance
with ultimate beliefs about the world and their place in it. Religious traditions
represent the most systematic attempts to explain our place in the world, and supply
different accounts. There are certain value statements about the Ultimate Values that
represent the level of agreement achieved between several theistic religious traditions.

The following aspects show or represent the ultimate values taken for granted
from four different angles:

1. Life Perspectives:

Here God is taken as the Creator and Self-revealer and about the religion is it said that
religion arises from the human responses to God.

2. Individual:

Each individual realizes God given wholeness and is to encourage self-respect and
learn from cultural traditions.

3. Society:

Each individual recognizes the human rights and is consistent with what we know to
be the law of God — developing relationship in accordance with God’s
commandments.

4. Natural World:

Nature is appreciated as a gift of God and our relationship to nature is that of

stewards, charged with managing it in trust for future generations.

Democratic Values:

Democracy consists of a Society in which all people have equal rights to participate in
the political process, while exercising the freedom to live as they choose, provided
they do not infringe the right of others to do the same. Democracy, therefore, is a
procedural notion, not an ultimate vision of living.

For this reason, people with differing ultimate values may be prepared to accept a
number of values whose practical justification is the maintenance of a viable
democratic state and sustainable environment, thought they might have different
ultimate reasons for being prepared to endorse those values.

The following aspects show or represent the Democratic Values taken for
granted from four different angles:

1. Life Perspectives:

Here, search for knowledge, especially that which enhances the achievement of the
other ends, is taken for value consideration. So too, right of all individuals to freedom
to worship or not to worship is taken into consideration.

2. Individual:

Here, the basic rights of all people regardless of differences to race, gender, ability
and religious belief, is thought of and each individual is encouraged to contribute to
the community services consistent with good citizenship.

3. Society:

Responsibility is provided as a safety net for those in the society who lack the
capacity through sickness, disability or unemployment, to sustain a viable lifestyle.

4. Natural World:

Nature is taken for conservation of the environment, and the need to continue to
develop natural resources to sustain human life is taken into consideration.

II. Educational Values:

In addition to the values associated with common life with regards to Ultimate
Values as well as Democratic Values, education draws on:

(i) Values intrinsic to the knowledge it seeks to impact, and

(ii) The ethics of providing instruction to human beings within the constraints of the
classroom.

The following aspects show or represent the Educational Values taken for
granted from four different angles:

1. Life Perspectives:

Encouragement is given to the students to explore the moral point of view and to
develop a personal value system.

2. Individual:

Every child has the right to access to available knowledge at an appropriate

developmental level.

3. Society:

Critical reflections are recognised on both the cultural heritage and the attitudes and
values underlying current social trends. A social obligation to support research that
promises to improve the quality of human life and to share the benefits as widely as
possible is also noted.

4. Natural World:

There is a human drive to understand the realities of the world as being a valid quest
for truth in its ultimate unity, and the aims of understanding of all the domains of
human experiences — especially physical, intellectual, aesthetic, social, moral and
spiritual is promoted.

Values, at the outset are not bifurcated as shown in the above manner alone, but
values are, at the outset are divided into still many other ways. They are Subjective
and Objective types of values.

a. Subjective (Or Internal) Values:

Some educators hold the view that educational values are internal and subjective.
They are biological and psychological in origin. They satisfy the wants and desires of
the student. They do not have any intrinsic or inherent worth of their own. Only the
students or teacher ‘value’ them from his or her point of view and needs, instincts and
emotions.

b. Objective (Or External) Values:

There are other educators who regard educational values as external and objective.
They do not believe that they are just internal or private concern of the teacher of the
student. The followers of this view believe that personal desire may be an important
element of educational value, but they hold that values are independent of such desire.

Values are again divided into:

(i) Instrumental and

(ii) Intrinsic Values.

1. Instrumental:

The Instrumental Values are values which are judged good for something. That is,
their values are dependent on the consequences or the outcomes.

2. Intrinsic Values:

On the other hand, Intrinsic Values are interest in the objects, not imposed or applied
by outside agencies. They are judged good not for something else, but are good in and
of themselves. There are still another two types of values from an altogether different
point of view to Value’.

Some values are used to value and others are utilised to evaluate. The same distinction
is evident in the values “to prize and to appraise”, “to esteem and to estimate”. Similar
difference also appears in “what is desired and what is desirable.”

It is very significant to note then, that values have been variously classified. There is
still one more type given by Shaver. Shaver has classified values as aesthetic,
instrumental and moral. There are still others who have classified values as
PERSONAL, COMMUNITY and NEIGHBOURLY VALUES. Let us have a look at
these now.

a. Personal Values:
The values that are prescribed by the individual alone, irrespective of his or her social
relationships, are termed as personal values — e.g. Dignity of Labour, Sensitivity,
Cleanliness, Politeness, Honesty, etc. are Personal Values.

b. Neighbourly Values:

Unlike personal values, the practice of unneighborly values necessitates the

interaction of two or more persons. For instance, one can exhibit his or her patience
with oneself, but this value is correctly actualized in the exercise of calmness and
tranquility with another person or persons.

c. Community Values:

The values that entail the complexities of wider interactions between groups of people
are termed as community values. For instance, treating all in a friendly and loving
manner can be practiced by one individually with one’s neighbours. So far, we have
seen various categories of values, yet, a three-tier hierarchy of values still remains to
be discussed. These are OKAY values, NOKAY values and new values.

OKAY values are those values that can be acquired and transmitted. These are
universal, eternal values such as Truth, Compassion, and these are also constitutional
values like Secularism, Socialism etc. These have to be reinstated and given a new
relevance and respect.

NOKAY values are those values that can be consciously and habitually discarded.
These are the beliefs and attitudes like ‘vulgar consumerism’, ‘mindless defiance of
authority’ which are to be considered wrong and curbed resolutely.

New Values are those values that can be created and adopted. These have emerged
from the process of modernization and urbanization such as ‘environment’,
‘preservation’, ‘value of time’, ‘punctuality’, ‘Public Hygiene’ which can be acquired
and fostered by teachers.

In fact, value experiences are not under the control of direct reason, but values are the
product of feeling, set and action. It is here that we come across again another kind or
type of values that are as follows, and these values have been classified into six
categories as per the things in which a person is interested which are described as
below:
1. Theoretical Values:

Dominant interest in the discovery of truth.

2. Economic Values:

A characteristic interest in all that is useful in terms of money, and that which is
useful for the satisfaction of bona fide needs.

3. Aesthetic Values:

Places high ranking on beauty as an art.

4. Social Values:

Highest love for the people. The social man prizes other persons as ends and is
therefore himself kind, sympathetic and unselfish.

5. Political Values:

Main interest is to gain prestige and power.

6. Religious Values:

The highest value for a religious man may be called unity and he seeks to comprehend
the cosmos as a whole, to relate himself to its embracing totality.

Origin of Business Ethics

When we trace the origin of business ethics we start with a period where profit
maximization was seen as the only purpose of existence for a business. There was no
consideration whatsoever for non-economic values, be it the people who worked with
organizations or the society that allowed the business to flourish. It was only in late
1980’s and 1990’s that both intelligentsia and the academics as well as the corporate
began to show interest in the same. Nowadays almost all organizations lay due
emphasis on their responsibilities towards the society and the nature and they call it
by different names like corporate social responsibility, corporate governance or social
responsibility charter. In India Maruti Suzuki, for example, owned the responsibility
of maintain a large number of parks and ensuring greenery. Hindustan unlevel,
similarly started the e-shakti initiative for women in rural villages. Globally also
many corporations have bred philanthropists who have contributed compassion, love
for poor and unprivileged. Bill gates of Microsoft and Warren Buffet of Berkshire
Hathaway are known for their philanthropic contributions across globe. Many
organizations, for example, IBM as part of their corporate social responsibility have
taken up the initiative of going green, towards contributing to environmental
protection. It is not that business did not function before the advent of business ethics;
but there is a regulation of kinds now that ensures business and organizations
contribute to the society and its well being. Nowadays business ethics determines the
fundamental purpose of existence of a company in many organizations. There is an
ensuing battle between various groups, for example between those who consider
profit or share holder wealth maximization as the main aim of the company and those
who consider value creation as main purpose of the organisation. The former argue
that if an organizations main objective is to increase the shareholders wealth, then
considering the rights or interests of any other group is unethical. The latter, similarly
argue that profit maximization cannot be at the expense of the environment and other
groups in the society that contribute to the well being of the business. Nevertheless
business ethics continues to a debatable topic. Many argue that lots of organizations
use it to seek competitive advantage and creating a fair image in the eyes of
consumers and other stakeholders. There are advantages also like transparency and
accountability.